Article

Increased quality and functionality of kimchi when fermented in Korean earthenware (Onggi)

Wiley
International Journal of Food Science & Technology
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Abstract

Kimchi was fermented in onggi and other containers at 4 °C for 4 weeks. Two types of onggi were used: glazed and nonglazed onggi. Other containers such as polyethylene plastic containers, polypropylene containers for use in a kimchi refrigerator, stainless steel and glass bottles were used. During the fermentation, kimchi fermented in onggi showed relatively stable acidity change compared with those in the other containers. Also it showed higher lactic acid bacteria multiplication (108–109 cfu g−1 at 4th week) but slower general aerobic bacteria multiplication than the others. The springiness of kimchi fermented in onggi was more than 50% at 4th week, it is higher than the others. Its carbonic acid taste and overall acceptability were excellent in sensory evaluations. The antioxidative and cancer-cell antiproliferative activities were also greater in kimchi fermented in onggi than the others. Between the two types of onggi, nonglazed onggi showed better results in both properties and functionalities of kimchi. Onggi showed higher gas permeability than polyethylene plastic containers and glass bottles because of its porous structure, and lactic acid bacteria could have benefited from this condition. It possibly contributes to optimal ripening of kimchi resulting in better properties, especially texture and taste, and health functionalities.

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... Onggi are depicted in numerous historical records, such as the tomb mural in figure 1a from Anak Tomb No. 3, dating back to AD 357 [2]. Many recent studies purport that fermentation in onggi can help preserve and increase the nutrition of fermented foods [3,4]. while modern mass fermentation is performed in controlled conditions such as metal vessels, there remain a number of artisans who continue to make onggi by hand. ...
... Research on onggi has primarily focused on accelerating the growth of lactic acid bacteria while suppressing the growth of other bacterial strains. Kimchi fermented in onggi over four weeks had 100 times higher lactic acid bacteria counts than kimchi fermented in plastic and steel containers [3]. Moreover, onggi fermentation slowed the growth of foul-tasting aerobic bacteria by a factor of 100. ...
... Onggi has numerous gaspermeable micropores ranging from 1 to 100 μm in size [10,11]. These pores increase the transmission of oxygen and carbon dioxide with respect to most modern food containers made from polyethylene and glass [3,12]. Many researchers assume that the gas permeability of onggi causes the high bacterial count in fermented food like kimchi, but a clear mechanism has yet to be given. ...
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Since ancient times, Korean chefs have fermented foods in an onggi, a traditional earthenware vessel. The porous structure of the onggi mimics the loose soil where lactic acid bacteria is naturally found. This permeability has been purported to facilitate the growth of lactic acid bacteria, but the details of the process remain poorly understood. In this combined experimental and theoretical study, we ferment salted napa cabbage in onggi and hermetic glassware and measure the time course of carbon dioxide concentration, which is a signature of fermentation. We present a mathematical model for carbon dioxide generation rate during fermentation using the onggi's gas permeability as a free parameter. Our model provides a good fit for the data, and we conclude that porous walls help the onggi to 'exhale' carbon dioxide, lowering internal levels to those favoured by lactic acid bacteria. The positive pressure inside the onggi and the constant outflow through its walls act as a safety valve for bacteria growth by blocking the entry of external contaminants without mechanical components. We hope this study draws attention to the work of traditional artisans and inspires energy-efficient methods for fermenting and storing food products.
... These results demonstrated that LA fermentation of SK occurs faster than KM and PC. The fermentation process of products were followed by parameters (pH, acidity and salt content) as stated in other studies (Jeong et al., 2011). ...
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Consumption of fermented products rich in antioxidants, anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetes, anti-obesity and anti-carcinogenic compounds is growing into a key strategy to fortify antioxidant defense system. Cabbage products produced by lactic-acid fermentation are chosen via their special microbiota. Considering these special medical properties of fermented-cabbage products as pickled cabbage, sauerkraut and kimchi were produced and evaluated. The data demonstrated that pickled cabbage (109.89±4.74 mg ascorbic acid/100 g d.w.) and its brine (208.14±17.29 mg ascorbic acid/100 g d.w.) exhibited the highest vitamin C content, followed by kimchi (77.42±2.87 mg ascorbic acid/100 g d.w.). The highest total phenolic content was detected in kimchi and sauerkraut with 869.64±70.16 and 438.257±25.05 mg gallic acid equivalents/100 g fresh weight (f.w.), respectively. 50% of the scavenging effect (EC50) values of free radical scavenging activity (DPPH) in kimchi 14.6 mg/ml, followed by sauerkraut (15.52 mg/ml) and pickled cabbage (18.88 mg/ml). Results demonstrated that fermented cabbage products have a great potential with content of bioactive compounds, high antioxidant features promising high beneficial impacts.
... Kimchi is processed in a traditional ceramic jar called an onggi and it is stored in special refrigerators which can control the optimum temperature of the fermentation [4]. Jeong et al. [5] showed that kimchi fermented in an onggi had higher nutritional profiles than when it was fermented in polyethylene, polypropylene, stainless steel or glass containers [5]. The microorganisms which exist in the raw materials and are found in fermented kimchi, are mostly lactic acid producing bacteria and yeasts [3]. ...
... Kimchi is processed in a traditional ceramic jar called an onggi and it is stored in special refrigerators which can control the optimum temperature of the fermentation [4]. Jeong et al. [5] showed that kimchi fermented in an onggi had higher nutritional profiles than when it was fermented in polyethylene, polypropylene, stainless steel or glass containers [5]. The microorganisms which exist in the raw materials and are found in fermented kimchi, are mostly lactic acid producing bacteria and yeasts [3]. ...
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L.V.); Savage@lincoln.ac.nz (G.P.S.) These authors contributed equally to this work. Abstract: Total, soluble and insoluble oxalates were extracted and analyzed by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) following the preparation of kimchi using silver beet (Beta vulgaris var. cicla) stems and leaves. As silver beet contains high oxalate concentrations and consumption of high levels can cause the development of kidney stones in some people, the reduction of oxalate during preparation and fermentation of kimchi was investigated. The silver beet stems and leaves were soaked in a 10% brine solution for 11 h and then washed in cold tap water. The total, soluble and insoluble oxalate contents of the silver beet leaves were reduced by soaking in brine, from 4275.81 ± 165.48 mg/100 g to 3709.49 ± 216.51 mg/100 g fresh weight (FW). Fermenting the kimchi for 5 days at 19.3 ± 0.8 ° C in 5 L ceramic jars with a water airtight seal resulted in a mean 38.50% reduction in total oxalate content and a mean 22.86% reduction in soluble oxalates. The total calcium content was essentially the same before and after the fermentation of the kimchi (mean 296.1 mg/100 g FW). The study showed that fermentation of kimchi significantly (p < 0.05) reduced the total oxalate concentration in the initial mix from 609.32 ± 15.69 to 374.71 ± 7.94 mg/100 g FW in the final mix which led to a 72.3% reduction in the amount of calcium bound to insoluble oxalate.
... This was accompanied by a decrease in pH and an increase in lactic acid and other organic acids. The transformation of sugars to lactic acid and other organic acids by LAB is an important step during fermentation that influences the pH and acidity of fermented products, such as kimchi [45,46]. Studies have also been carried out on milk kefir with or without supplementing soy [47]. ...
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... This increase was consistent with the LAB counts. The fermentation process of samples was followed by parameters (pH, acidity) as stated in other studies (Alan & Yildiz, 2022;Jeong et al., 2011;Ö zer & Kalkan Yıldırım, 2019). In a study of commercial sauerkraut production, it was reported that the sauerkraut sample contained approximately 125 mM (1.2 g/100 ml) of lactic acid on the 14th day (Plengvidhya et al., 2007). ...
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Clove has been shown to extend the shelf life of various foods. This study investigated whether it can prolong the shelf life of kimchi paste. Clove powder at concentrations of 0%, 0.5%, 1%, 1.5%, and 2% was added to kimchi paste, which was then sealed and stored at 10°C for 20 days. Changes in microbial counts, gas composition, sugar and organic acid contents, pH, titratable acidity, and reducing sugar content were evaluated. Adding clove powder inhibited the growth of total aerobic and lactic acid bacteria and delayed changes in O2 and CO2 concentration and sugar and organic acid contents. It also slowed the decrease in pH, increase in titratable acidity, and changes in reducing sugar content. These results indicate that clove powder effectively prolongs the quality attributes and thus extends the shelf life of kimchi paste. Effects of clove powder on kimchi paste quality were investigated. Clove powder delayed changes in pH, titratable acidity, and reducing sugar content and inhibited total aerobic and lactic acid bacterial growth. Treatment with clove powder can potentially extend kimchi paste shelf life.
... Optimal pH and TA values of well-ripened kimchi are 4.2-4.6 and 0.6%-0.8%, respectively [26,27]. According to these values, the present kimchi samples were optimally ripe after 24 h. ...
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Physicochemical properties of commercial long-term fermented kimchies which are widely available in Korea were investigated. The commercial long-term fermented kimchies were fermented almost more than 6 months. Average values for saltiness, pH and acidity of the long-term fermented kimchies were 3.0±0.5%, 4.0±0.2, and 1.88±0.76%, respectively. The long-term fermented kimchi showed similar Leuconostoc sp. and Lactobacillus sp. counts as baechu kimchi ripened properly during fermentation. The amount of Leuconostoc sp. and Lactobacillus sp. of the long-term fermented kimchi were 107-8 CFU/mL and 104-7 CFU/mL, respectively. The long-term fermented kimchi showed 0.32±0.18 lightness, 1.73±0.98 redness, 0.52±0.31 yellowness. Long-term fermented kimchi showed higher lightness, redness, yellowness than well-fermented standardized baechu kimchi. Breaking strength of long-term fermented kimchi was higher than that of well-fermented standard baechu kimchi.
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METHODS for measuring antioxidants and appraising antioxidant activity appear to be of two general types. If the chemical nature of the antioxidant is known, one may strive for a test specific for the compound or group of interest; for example, the nitroprusside test for sulphydryl groups. Alternatively one may observe the inhibition of some natural oxidative process such as the β-oxidation of fats, as a function of the added antioxidant.
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Fermentation of red onions inoculated with Lactobacillus plantarum S1 (starter treatment) resulted in acid production to pH 4.5, after 48 h of incubation at 19 °C, which has proven to be adequate for proper preservation. In the presence of erythromycin (starter + antibiotic), acidification to pH 5.2 resulted, which was similar to that of the uninoculated control. The bacterial population was about 108 CFU mL−1 of brine after 3 days for the three treatments, suggesting that in the starter + antibiotic treatment, the antibiotic effectively suppressed the activity of the starter but not the native flora. Before lactic fermentation, the red onions contained 297.4 mg of total quercetin (Q) per kg wet weight, which consisted of 58.3%, 41.6% and 0.1% in quercetin diglucoside (Qdg), quercetin monoglucoside (Qmg) and free Q, respectively. For the starter treatment, Qdg decreased to 41.8% and 18.3% at 48 and 72 h, respectively, and a substantial amount of free Q had accumulated. The fermentation substantially increased the proportion of Qmg, which may have a positive effect as fractions containing higher ratios of Qmg to Qdg have been reported to have higher antioxidant activity.
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The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of porosity-controlled earthenware as fermentation vessels for Korean soy sauce. Porosity of fermentation vessels was controlled by glazing the surfaces of Korean earthenware. Three kinds of onggis– the outside glazed, inside and outside glazed, and unglazed onggi – were made and used to investigate the effect of glazing on the fermentation of soy sauce. During fermentation of soy sauce in porosity-controlled earthenwares at 30 °C for 4 months, physical, chemical, microbiological and sensory quality attributes were monitored. Compared to other vessels, soy sauce fermented in onggi with both inside and outside surfaces glazed showed less water loss (10.7%), salt content (17.6%) and pH (pH4.4) after the fourth month. It also produced higher total acidity (1.43%), protease activity (810 μg mL−1 min−1) and microbiological changes that included total aerobic bacteria [4.3 log(cfu mL−1)], lactic acid bacteria [3.8 log(cfu mL−1)] and yeast [4.2 log(cfu mL−1)]. The contents of total nucleotide (200–255 mg per 100 g sample) and free amino acids (4634–4848 mg per 100 g sample) in soy sauce were not consistent with glazing, which may be more affected by other factors, such as water loss, than the porosity of vessels. However, the percentage of glutamic acid among total free amino acids was 23.6% in onggi with both surfaces glazed, which was a little higher than the 21.9% in the outside glazed and 21.5% in the unglazed. These positive physicochemical and microbiological changes during fermentation in onggi with both sides glazed also resulted in higher sensory quality.
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The use of mesoporous molecular sieves in enzyme immobilisation has been studied. Three different types of mesoporous sieves (MCM-41, MCM-48 and SBA-15) were selected because of the differences in their pore dimensions and structures. Commercially available porous silica gel was chosen for comparison. The model enzyme chosen in this study was trypsin. The samples of immobilised trypsin were active for the hydrolysis of N-α-benzoyl-dl-arginine-4-nitroanilide (BAPNA). The amount of enzyme adsorbed on the supports was found to be related to the pore size of the molecular sieves. Moreover, the pore size and the structure of the support also affected the activity of the supported enzymes.
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The immobilization behavior of lysozyme (LYZ) in mesoporous silicas (MPSs) with controlled morphologies has been investigated. The effects of entrance amount (EA) on the quantity and rate of immobilization of enzymes have been investigated due to the successful morphological control of MPSs. EA increases with the decrease of particle size of MPSs, leading to a significant improvement of immobilization ability. Rod-like SBA-15 (∼1–2 μm in length) shows a faster adsorption rate and larger immobilization amount than that for conventional SBA-15 (∼20 μm in length). It is observed that the adsorption rate of enzyme within MPSs is independent of the initial enzyme concentration. Increasing temperature favors a fast immobilization process of LYZ into MPSs. A maximum equilibrium adsorption amount of LYZ into rod-like SBA-15 is ∼500 mg/g at all temperatures under study (4–55 °C). However, for conventional SBA-15, this maximum equilibrium adsorption amount cannot be observed within 48 h even at high temperature. A strong interaction between LYZ and MPSs is observed, resulting in very small amount of LYZ released by MPSs. Such conclusions may be important to understand the mechanism of protein immobilization within MPSs and potentially useful for applications of MPSs in biocatalysts or biosensors.
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The aim of the present work was to optimize fermentation conditions of white cabbage ( Brassica oleracea L. var. capitata cv. Bronco) grown in winter in eastern Spain. The influence of two salt concentrations (0.5 and 1.5% NaCl) in combination with spontaneous or induced cabbage fermentation on the content of ascorbigen (ABG) and vitamin C as well as on the sensory quality of sauerkraut was investigated. The effect of storage at 4 degrees C for 1-3 months was also studied. ABG content increased from 14 micromol/100 g of dm in raw cabbage to 63-137 micromol/100 g of dm during fermentation, whereas vitamin C decreased from 354 to 236-277 mg/100 g of dm, and the variations depended on the fermentation conditions. Sauerkrauts obtained by Leuconostoc mesenteroides at 0.5% NaCl showed the highest ABG content and a large amount of vitamin C. Refrigeration for 1-3 months led to a reduction of ABG and vitamin C levels, but L. mesenteroides sauerkrauts presented considerable amounts of both compounds at the end of the storage period (74-82 micromol/100 g of dm and 33-44 mg/100 g of dm, respectively), higher than those found with Lactobacillus plantarum and the mixed starter culture before storage. Experimental sauerkrauts presented better organoleptic properties than the commercial products, and no differences in overall acceptability were found among natural fermentations and those performed with starter cultures. These results suggest than low-salted sauerkraut produced with L. mesenteroides provided highly beneficial antioxidant and anticarcinogenic compounds and low sodium content, which is in accordance with the general trend in industrialized countries of reducing the salt level of foods to prevent cardiovascular diseases.
Article
Kimchi is a traditional, fermented Korean food that is prepared through a series of processes, including pretreatment of oriental cabbage (or radish), brining, blending with various spices and other ingredients, and fermentation. The characteristics of kimchi differ depending on the kimchi varieties, raw materials used, process, fermentation, and preservation methods. However, kimchi has typical biochemical, nutritional, and organoleptic properties and health-related functions. Kimchi fermentation is initiated by various microorganisms originally present in the raw materials, but the fermentation is gradually dominated by lactic acid bacteria. Numerous physicochemical and biological factors influence the fermentation, growth, and sequential appearance of principal microorganisms involved in the fermentation. Complex biochemical changes occur depending on the environmental conditions before, during, and after fermentation. The most important characteristics are the compositional changes of sugars and vitamins (especially ascorbic acid), formation and accumulation of organic acids, and texture degradation and softening. Nutritionally, kimchi is an important source of vitamins, minerals, dietary fiber, and other nutrients. This review covers in some detail the biochemical, microbiological, and nutritional characteristics of kimchi.
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The Korean fermented vegetable food, kimchi, has been demonstrated to have anticancer functional properties. This study examined the effect of kimchi samples, methanol extracts of commercially grown baechu cabbage kimchi (CK) and organically grown baechu cabbage kimchi (OK), as well as the dichloromethane fraction (DCM fr.) from CK, and the active compound (AC), which has been identified as largely beta-sitosterol, from DCM fr., on the Ras-dependent signaling pathway. CK, OK, and DCM fr. exhibited a greater inhibition against the proliferation of Rat2 fibroblasts transformed with Ras(v12) (HO6) than parental Rat2 fibroblasts. In addition, OK and DCM fr. showed a higher inhibitory effect than CK. Furthermore, we employed the single-cell microinjection technique, combined with 3-bromo-5'-deoxyuridine incorporation, to examine the effects of kimchi samples on DNA synthesis induced by microinjected oncogenic Ras(v12). When the DCM fr. and AC were used to treat Rat1 fibroblasts overexpressing human insulin receptors (HIRc-B) and microinjected with oncogenic H-Ras(v12), the DNA synthesis of injected cells was decreased, suggesting that kimchi might block the signaling pathway of oncogenic Ras(v12), thus preventing the proliferation of transformed cells. This study provides additional evidence that kimchi and its active components, including beta-sitosterol, have potential in both the prevention and treatment of cancer, and presents convincing evidence that the anticancer effects may be a result of an inhibition of Ras oncogene signaling.
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Costunolide is an active sesquiterpene lactone of medicinal herbs with anti-inflammatory and potential anti-cancer activity. Nevertheless, the pharmacological pathways of costunolide have not yet been fully elucidated. In this study we showed that costunolide exerts a dose-dependent antiproliferative activity in the human breast cancer MCF-7 cells. In addition, light microscopy observations indicated that costunolide affected nuclear organization and reorganized microtubule architecture. The antiproliferative and antimicrotubular effects of costunolide were not influenced by paclitaxel, well-known microtubule-stabilizing anticancer agent. The microtubule-interacting activity of costunolide was confirmed by in vitro studies on purified microtubular protein. In fact, costunolide demonstrated polymerizing ability, by inducing the formation of well organized microtubule polymers. Our data suggest an interaction of costunolide with microtubules, which may represent a new intracellular target for this drug.
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Effect of fermentation vessel on quality of anchovy soy sauce
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Effects of vessel on the quality changes during fermentation of Kochujang
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