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The Object of Extension: Agricultural Education and Authentic Farmers in Pennsylvania
Abstract
Cooperative extension, as an outreach mechanism of land grant universities in the USA, has long served the educational needs of rural and agricultural communities. The educational programming of extension, however, is generally divided into areas that reflect, reify and reinforce the gendered division of labour on farms in the USA. While it is well documented that extension inadequately serves women in providing knowledge about production practices in contemporary agriculture, the mechanisms by which women's access to knowledge is hindered are not well understood. Using Freire's ideas about authentic educational subjects we explore the social construction of authentic farming and educational programming in the cooperative extension system. Using interviews with extension educators at a large land grant university, this article describe how extension educators identify certain types of farmers and farming as authentic, while certain types of farms are seen as inauthentic. This belief feeds into the institutional discourse that the educational opportunities offered by extension are appropriate for all audiences of authentic farmers. We conclude by offering insights into how cooperative extension can reorient its programming toward the emerging cultural economies of agriculture in rural communities.
... Women's indoor work is predominantly seen as domestic or as socially reproductive work. It is seen as sustaining the household (Trauger et al. 2010, Whatmore 1991 This has significantly contributed to the invisibility of components of women's farm work such as management of accounts and decision making, because the indoor nature of this work means it is not seen as authentic farm work and thus reduces women's identity as farm workers (Alston 1995, Bock and Shortall 2006, Sachs 1983. ...
... Yet, the socially constructed identities of women as home makers and farmers' wives, means that they do not obtain a knowledge transfer appropriate to their farming roles. Women farmers are underserved in agricultural education and technical assistance (Alston 1998, Leipins and Schick 1998, Shortall 1996, Trauger et al. 2010. Women often consider training groups and programmes as being for men and feel unwelcome and conspicuous in this space (Bock andShortall 2017, Shortall et al, 2017). ...
... Women often consider training groups and programmes as being for men and feel unwelcome and conspicuous in this space (Bock andShortall 2017, Shortall et al, 2017). American research has found that agriculture extension workers do not always see women as 'authentic' farmers, because they do not occupy outdoor space and hence do not invite them to training initiatives or address programmes to their work (Barbercheck et al. 2009, Teather 1994, Trauger et al. 2010). Here we see women's self-verification of not being the farmer being institutionally reinforced by agricultural extension workers. ...
In the western world, farming is the most dangerous occupation with the highest rates of accidents and fatalities. Farming remains largely a family business and most accidents happen to family members. Why do safety campaigns have such limited success and why do farm families bring this terrible grief on themselves? This article argues that farm accidents are a persistent social pattern requiring analysis of how families are socialised to interact with the farming space. Based on qualitative data gathered for a Scottish study, it is argued that within farm families there is a socialisation and normalisation of danger. Accidents are to be expected. Two key arguments are advanced. First, danger is normalised and children are socialised to undertake risky behaviour. Second, it is suggested that when women do take up farming, they consciously undertake dangerous farming activities to prove that they are ‘authentic’ farmers. No previous research has considered women's approach to danger, and the existing literature suggests women are more safety conscious. This is not supported by our findings. We argue that farm accidents and fatalities are a persistent social problem because family members socialise each other to accept danger as the norm.
... The methodology of this study is limited in that the information is filtered through the backgrounds, experiences and attitudes of the professionals interviewed. While a benefit of interviewing professional advisors is they may be less biased than their clients, Trauger et al. (2010) argue agricultural advisors, both men and women, perceived "real farmers" to be men. Furthermore, the relationships the participants spoke about were largely white, heterosexual, cis-gendered and married couplings that do not capture the diversity in Australian farming. ...
... They started off as willing … to help, wanting to be part of the deal, wanting to use their skills, and they get painted into a corner where they become the dreaded daughter-in-law." Trauger et al. (2010) argues this positioning of women's bodies within binary discourses of the farmer and the farmer's wife limits women's options about identity formation, which may be of detriment to the farm business. Pritchard et a (2007) Pritchard et al (2007), Bassett et al., 2022 andauthor (2020) identify family farming as increasingly entrepreneurial, professional, market and technology oriented, capitalised and knowledge seeking as they seek to reproduce the family farm in a highly competitive sector. ...
... The methodology of this study is limited in that the information is filtered through the backgrounds, experiences and attitudes of the professionals interviewed. While a benefit of interviewing professional advisors is they may be less biased than their clients, Trauger et al. (2010) argue agricultural advisors, both men and women, perceived "real farmers" to be men. Furthermore, the relationships the participants spoke about were largely white, heterosexual, cis-gendered and married couplings that do not capture the diversity in Australian farming. ...
... They started off as willing … to help, wanting to be part of the deal, wanting to use their skills, and they get painted into a corner where they become the dreaded daughter-in-law." Trauger et al. (2010) argues this positioning of women's bodies within binary discourses of the farmer and the farmer's wife limits women's options about identity formation, which may be of detriment to the farm business. Pritchard et a (2007) Pritchard et al (2007), Bassett et al., 2022 andauthor (2020) identify family farming as increasingly entrepreneurial, professional, market and technology oriented, capitalised and knowledge seeking as they seek to reproduce the family farm in a highly competitive sector. ...
... The methodology of this study is limited in that the information is filtered through the backgrounds, experiences and attitudes of the professionals interviewed. While a benefit of interviewing professional advisors is they may be less biased than their clients, Trauger et al. (2010) argue agricultural advisors, both men and women, perceived "real farmers" to be men. Furthermore, the relationships the participants spoke about were largely white, heterosexual, cis-gendered and married couplings that do not capture the diversity in Australian farming. ...
... They started off as willing … to help, wanting to be part of the deal, wanting to use their skills, and they get painted into a corner where they become the dreaded daughter-in-law." Trauger et al. (2010) argues this positioning of women's bodies within binary discourses of the farmer and the farmer's wife limits women's options about identity formation, which may be of detriment to the farm business. Pritchard et a (2007) Pritchard et al (2007), Bassett et al., 2022 andauthor (2020) identify family farming as increasingly entrepreneurial, professional, market and technology oriented, capitalised and knowledge seeking as they seek to reproduce the family farm in a highly competitive sector. ...
... From a macro perspective, Kassem noted that the factors influencing their decision to utilize socialized agricultural services include availability, accessibility, diversity, relevance, and effectiveness [44]. Specifically, the confirmed factors include farmers' age [45], gender [46], educational background [47], and income [48], the added value of the agricultural products [49], agricultural information sources [50], and so on. Based on the IAD framework, this paper divides the factors ...
... From a macro perspective, Kassem noted that the factors influencing their decision to utilize socialized agricultural services include availability, accessibility, diversity, relevance, and effectiveness [44]. Specifically, the confirmed factors include farmers' age [45], gender [46], educational background [47], and income [48], the added value of the agricultural products [49], agricultural information sources [50], and so on. Based on the IAD framework, this paper divides the factors into four categories: household characteristics, biophysical conditions, attributes of community, and rules-in-use. ...
The diseconomies of scale found in smallholders’ agricultural production is a common problem faced by global agricultural development. Notable examples of regions in which this occurs include Central and Eastern Europe, India, Brazil, and China. Smallholders usually differ in their demands for socialized agricultural services due to scattered farmland, various soil conditions, different selections of crop varieties, and diverse farming arrangements. Such differences make it difficult for smallholders to cooperate on farmland scale management, resulting in a collective action dilemma. Based on the Institutional Analysis and Development framework, this paper provides insights into the influencing factors and effects of smallholders’ utilization of socialized agricultural services and constructs a cooperative mechanism for the purpose of solving the collective action dilemma in rural areas of China. We found that household characteristics, biophysical conditions, attributes of community, and rules-in-use jointly generate the action situation in the process of smallholders’ cooperative utilization of agricultural socialized services. Among them, the rules-in-use not only have a direct impact on the action situation but also regulate the role of the other three sets of factors. Various factors and mechanisms affecting the cooperative utilization of socialized agricultural services by smallholders interact in the action arena and finally form relevant outcomes that can deal with the diseconomies of farmland fragmentation. These outcomes will be fed back to each external variable again along the feedback path, so as to promote the system and create a virtuous circle. This study provides a theoretical contribution to understanding smallholders’ cooperation in the process of agricultural large-scale operation, especially in regions and countries with a large number of smallholders.
... In another article in this series exploring the educational experiences of women farmers in Pennsylvania, Trauger et al. (2010b) conducted interviews with extension educators to determine how the programming offered to women farmers is affected by the educators' perceptions of and assumptions about the farmers. Applying Freire's notion of authenticity (Freire 1973), the authors find that educators define some types of farmers and farming as "authentic" (conventional methods, ownership, etc.) and others as "inauthentic" (unconventional methods, home and farm management, etc.). ...
... Regarding education for women farmers, the majority of recent research focuses on the United States, where organizations like Annie's Project and PA-WAgN appear to be making advances in providing relevant education to women farmers (Heins et al. 2010;Schultz et al. 2017;Trauger et al. 2008). Yet, as in other countries such as Ireland, Germany, and Australia, women in the United States continue to be underserved by agricultural education providers due to gender stereotypes, notions about what constitutes an authentic farmer, assertions of gender neutrality in programming, and incorrect assumptions regarding what types of education are useful to women farmers (McGowan 2011;Schmitt 1998;Shortall 1996;Trauger et al. 2010b). ...
Very little research into women farmers in developed countries has been produced by economists, but much of what has been studied by scholars in other disciplines has economic implications. This article reviews such research produced by scholars in all disciplines to explore to what extent women farmers are becoming more equal to men farmers and to suggest further contributions to the literature. As examples, topics that has been widely researched in developing countries but have received almost no attention in developed countries include comparisons of men and women farmers’ productivity and their access to and use of resources. Discoveries in these and other areas will be important not only for their insights into the agricultural industry in developed countries, but also because they will inform, and be informed by, research on women farmers in developing countries.
... At the community level, recent work has explored how women take leadership and governance roles in agriculture and forestry (Farmar-Bowers, 2010;Meinzen-Dick and Zwarteveen, 2001;Pini, 2005) and the gendered implications of numerous innovations and practices in natural resources and agriculture (Arndt et al., 2011;Kiptot and Franzel, 2011;Moser and Barrett, 2006). The gendered challenges of rural realities (Pruitt, 2007), including access to educational resources (Trauger et al., 2010) and credit (Anderson et al., 2002), as well as barriers to securing power in resource management (Meinzen-Dick and Zwarteveen, 2001), have been well explored across disciplines and locations. Scholars have also celebrated the gendered contexts of cultural, economic, and spiritual connections to natural resources (Kassam and Soaring Eagle Friendship Center, 2001). ...
... In sum, this fifth theme explores how the women interviewees described their advocacy and collaborative roles in leading communities and the ranching industry. These descriptions continue to complicate the discussion of women as invisible producers (Alston, 2000;Trauger et al., 2010;Williams, 1992). The overall prevalence and depth of this theme suggest that many of these women developed prominent roles as community, regional, and industry leaders and decision-makers. ...
The gendered contexts of rangeland decision-making in the southwestern United States are poorly understood. We conducted life-history interviews with 19 ranching women and analyzed the resulting transcripts using narrative analysis. Interviews revealed eight common themes in these women ranchers’ experiences: 1) learning from older generations, 2) finding a personal career path, 3) operating livestock businesses, 4) breaking gender barriers, 5) leading communities, 6) aging and going on alone, 7) living close to the land, and 8) passing the ranching tradition to the next generation. Women’s roles as ranch decision-makers, community-keepers, and business operators evolve throughout their lifetimes, as do their needs for decision-making support from outreach. We suggest that women’s life stages and gendered contexts be considered in further rangeland management research, policy, and extension.
... Agricultural knowledge developed in land grant universities would then be disseminated to rural communities through the cooperative extension system (Trauger et al. 2010). The idea behind the establishment of the extension system was to place a university educator in each agricultural community to engage members directly and serve as a line of communication between the research being done and the intended recipients of new technologies and information (Franz & Townson 2008). ...
... For many years the land grant extension model was an effective system in which to improve yields and it increased overall agricultural production efficiency during the 20 th century (Trauger et al. 2010). However, in recent decades the extension model has come under increasing criticism for a failure to keep up with farmers' needs, focusing too much on nonagricultural services such as urban and health extension programs, budget constraints and competition from private research companies (Foltz & Barham 2009). ...
Agriculture in the United States can be described in terms of two competing models, one conventional and one alternative. The dominant model operates within a productivist industrial discourse. Input intensive monocultural methods have resulted in ecological and socioeconomic negative externalities. These effect not only ecosystem services and rural populations but reverberate throughout the agrifood system. An alternative model of agricultural production, distribution and consumption systems has emerged over the past forty years as a response to the conventional model. Agroecology, the main alternative model investigated, is an emerging field of study and action. Placed within a holistic paradigm, it promotes interdisciplinary collaboration between researchers, growers, consumers and other stakeholders to work towards an agrarian sector that operates under ecological and socioeconomic principles. This research attempts to assess the potential pathways and barriers for the development of agroecology within the conventional system in order to determine the extent to which the two competing models can coexist. The areas of possible overlap will be determined in order to contribute to a greater understanding of the evolving relationship between the two models.
... National farmers' networks are also important educators of farmers. Research has long shown that women lose out on education by frequently feeling uncomfortable in all male social networks (Trauger et al. 2008(Trauger et al. , 2010Shortall 1996;Shortall et al. 2020). The attendance of on-farm demonstrations by women is especially low in Northern Europe, where female farmers are less common than in Eastern Europe . ...
In this article, we wish to consider relationships internal and external to the farm household, and how these enable and/or mitigate the adoption of better farm practices. We find that internally, members of the farm household (successors or spouses ‘marrying in’), can influence the future direction of agricultural practice in a positive way, that is more profitable and sustainable. It is not a straightforward process though. Interpersonal household relations play a role; status and standing within the family can impact on how decisions about change are made. This relates to both people marrying in and the position of the successor in an inter-generational household. We found that the power of the farming peer group to influence change is underestimated. Our data shows that farming is an occupation subject to strong cultural norms regarding acceptable farming practice. Sometimes farm family decisions to change agricultural practice falter under the weight of sanctions and derision encountered when trying to make adjustments. This paper draws from two data sets in Germany and England. We conclude that understanding internal farm household interactions, and their external relations with farming peer groups is critical to supporting the future of agriculture.
... First, in recent years we have seen an increase in women identifying as farmers, but that does not mean women feel completely accepted or welcomed in farming communities and institutions (Brasier et al., 2014;Trauger 2004;Wright and Annes 2016). Women continue to report that agricultural services remain highly gendered, with women feeling less supported by technical advisors (i.e., extension agents, industry representatives) Brasier et al., 2009;Trauger et al., 2010). In their survey of PA women farmer's, Barbercheck et al. (2009) study found the most frequent problem women face in making their farm operation successful was not being taken as serious as men. ...
There is growing recognition that antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a wicked problem in need of more systematic and interdisciplinary engagement. However, there remain significant knowledge gaps in how antimicrobial use in food-producing animals translates to AMR in animals, humans, and the environment. Drawing on an inter-disciplinary approach, we utilize fecal testing on farms, to evaluate the presence of AMR genes (AMRg). Based on the existing literature we hypothesized differences in AMRg would be present between (i) calves versus cows, (ii) farms that had non-family employees versus those that did not, (iii) farms that reported a language barrier between employees and farmers versus those that did not, and and (iv) women-versus men-operated farms. While sample size is too small to draw generalizable conclusions, we did find some differences, with the most pronounced difference between calves and cows. This is an exploratory case study that makes a twofold contribution. First, we contribute to the nascent literature explicitly focused on gender and AMR in agriculture. Second, to advance interdisciplinary research on AMR we offer an innovative methodological approach that measures the presence of AMRg on farms in the context of farm management practices and descriptive characteristics of the farm.
... When it comes to teacher-education institutions in the Philippines, community advocacies range from literacy, livelihood education, community leadership, and parenting, among others. Moreover, there are examples of improving the livelihood (Daquis, Flores, & Plandez, 2016), welfare, and wellbeing of barangay folks (Laguador, Mandigma & Agena, 2013); empowering the vulnerable members of society to be selfreliant citizens, responsible and conscientious individuals (Codamon-Dugyon, 2016); and women in agricultural communities (Trauger, Sachs, Barbercheck, Kiernan, Brasier, & Swartzberg, 2010). Others include helping women to have more income at their disposal which would improve health, nutrition, and education for children (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2013); how students benefit from their involvement in extension activities (Laguador & Chavez, 2013); and the academe in general (Llenares & Deocaris, 2018). ...
Women's involvement in community activities is common in university-designed extension programs. This paper explores the life stories of women who believed there were changes in their quality of life and relationships with their families and other women as a result of participating in these activities. Focusing on producing gourmet gourami (bottled fish), a focus-group discussion was conducted among nine women-volunteers in a rural community in Quezon, Philippines. The academic and community collaboration produced women who perceived themselves as equals to their partners and advocates for change. This translational process from theory to practice was seen as helpful by the participants and led to motivating others to participate. The research may be a platform for stakeholders, especially academicians and policy-makers, to consider concentrating on how university-learned ideals and knowledge can be beneficial for community members.
... For instance, Sachs et al. (2016, p. 95) argue that "many organizations have not fully accepted women as farmers and have not sought to advance gender equity in agriculture." In fact, the educational programming of extension is generally divided into areas that reflect, reify and reinforce the gendered division of labor on farms (Trauger et al., 2010). Despite its so-called feminization, agriculture remains particularly dominated by men and women are marginally, if at all, represented in most professional organizations. ...
Women professional organizations appear as a resource for women to foster change in power relations on their farm. In this manuscript, we explore to what extent participation in a non-mixed professional organization named Groupe Femmes 44 contributed to transformations of women farmers' work. Particularly, we question the role of women farmers in the transition of their farming system toward agroecological principles and the conditions of their empowerment within their farm which allows these transitions. Our results show that Groupe Femmes 44 represents a socio-professional environment allowing women farmers to discuss, to put words and find answers on technical, communicational, organization as well as social issues. It allowed some participants to discover the existence, the relevance, and the more ecological dimension of self-sufficient and autonomous systems. Therefore, it stood as a key resource to foster professional transition toward these systems. For the women who were already involved in such systems, Groupe Femmes 44 contributes to the transition toward more equitable systems by questioning work organization and gender inequality.
... Ideals of 'good farming' practice (Burton et al. 2021) then become embedded in farming cultures. Both farmers (Burton 2004;Sutherland 2013) and advisors (Ingram 2010;Trauger et al. 2010) may appear resistant to engaging in or supporting practices which are counter to these norms. Other research highlights the fact that path-dependency is not solely related to farmers' individual knowledge and values. ...
... Democratic engagement in cities that embraces "epistemological pluralism" would demonstrate Extension's capacity to adapt to and understand contemporary urban political ecologies. A pluralistic approach to knowledge and knowledge production would bolster efforts to reach more diverse audiences and to expand beyond some of the traditional Extension practices that at times reify stereotypes about the professional and socio-cultural roles of particular groups (e.g., women, BIPOC groups) (Reid 2007;Trauger et al. 2010;White 2018). Scholarship that deals with ontological questions of what Extension is (i.e., is Extension a purveyor of technical agricultural knowledge or a facilitator of democracy building through education and engagement? ...
Many land-grant universities are examining approaches to community engagement to better align with the US land-grant mission of knowledge democratization. With a growing majority of the United States’ population living in urbanized spaces, it is a societal imperative for university engagement initiatives to devise strategies for engaging people on the complexity of urban issues central to individual and community wellbeing. Effective urban engagement demands collaboration and strong relationships with urban organizations and residents to co-create approaches to urban concerns. Through narrative-based inquiry, we explore urban engagements within Penn State Extension (PSE) across the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania (USA). PSE, located administratively in the College of Agricultural Sciences, is charged with carrying out Penn State’s land-grant commitment to serve Pennsylvania’s citizens through community engagement and nonformal education in the agricultural and food, human, and social sciences. We examine extension educator and faculty practices, program development, community engagements, and experiences, and those of community stakeholders. This work draws upon democratic methods to uncover the undergirding philosophies of engagement within PSE and how communities experience those engagements. This project offers an entry-point to longer-term applied research to develop a broadly applicable theory and praxis of translational research, engagement, and change privileging urban community resilience.
... When it comes to teacher-education institutions in the Philippines, community advocacies range from literacy, livelihood education, community leadership, and parenting, among others. Moreover, there are examples of improving the livelihood (Daquis, Flores, & Plandez, 2016), welfare, and wellbeing of barangay folks (Laguador, Mandigma & Agena, 2013); empowering the vulnerable members of society to be selfreliant citizens, responsible and conscientious individuals (Codamon-Dugyon, 2016); and women in agricultural communities (Trauger, Sachs, Barbercheck, Kiernan, Brasier, & Swartzberg, 2010). Others include helping women to have more income at their disposal which would improve health, nutrition, and education for children (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2013); how students benefit from their involvement in extension activities (Laguador & Chavez, 2013); and the academe in general (Llenares & Deocaris, 2018). ...
Women’s involvement in community activities is common in university-designed extension programs. This paper explores the life stories of women who believed there were changes in their quality of life and relationships with their families and other women as a result of participating in these activities. Focusing on producing gourmet gourami (bottled fish), a focus-group discussion was conducted among nine women-volunteers in a rural community in Quezon, Philippines. The academic and community collaboration produced women who perceived themselves as equals to their partners and advocates for change. This translational process from theory to practice was seen as helpful by the participants and led to motivating others to participate. The research may be a platform for stakeholders, especially academicians and policy-makers, to consider concentrating on how university-learned ideals and knowledge can be beneficial for community members.
... Farmers' willingness to pay for advice has been associated with improvements in their farm's profitability or in lowering production costs (Budak and Budak, 2010;Farinde and Atteh, 2009;Klerkx and Leeuwis, 2008;Bonke et al., 2018). Several demographic characteristics have been associated with greater willingness to pay such as: age, gender and education (younger, female farmers and those with higher education attainment) (Budak and Budak, 2010;Foti et al., 2007;Trauger et al., 2010;Charatsari et al., 2011); farms with higher income and purchasing power (Bonke et al., 2018;Hite et al., 2002) and farmers with less access to other extension services (Gidarakou et al., 2008). The production context has also been associated with willingness to pay, with producers of higher-value commodities more willing to pay for advice (e.g. ...
Theory of planned behavior A B S T R A C T The privatization of agricultural advisory and extension services in many countries and the associated pluralism of service providers has renewed interest in farmers' use of fee-for-service advisors. Understanding farmers' use of advisory services is important, given the role such services are expected to play in helping farmers address critical environmental and sustainability challenges. This paper aims to identify factors associated with farmers' use of fee-for service advisors and bring fresh conceptualization to this topic. Drawing on concepts from service ecosystems in agricultural innovation and using the theory of planned behavior to define a plausible directed acyclic graph, we conducted a cross-sectional study of 1003 Australian farmers and their use of fee-for service advisors, analyzing data using generalized ordinal logistic regression models. We defined three categories: farmers who used fee-for-service advisors as their main source of advice ('main source'), farmers who used them but did not consider them their main source of advice ('non-main source'), and farmers who did not use them ('non-user'). The factors most strongly associated with use of fee-for-service advisors (both as 'main source' and 'non-main source') were: the farm being in a growth/expanding business stage; behavioral beliefs that paying for advice provides control and helps identify new opportunities in farming; endorsement of paying for advice from others in the farm business and farmer peers; attitudes relating to the benefit and value for money from advice; and perceived behavioral control related to confidence in accessing advice. These findings can inform strategies to enable use of fee-for-service advisors. For example, they highlight the need to increase the social acceptance of paying for advice and to assist advisors to better articulate the value of their services in terms that farmers view as important. Currently, mechanisms for professionalizing and certifying advisory services are a focus for policy makers in enabling farmers' use of advisors. Our findings indicate that these mechanisms on their own would not necessarily lead to greater use of fee-for-service advice, because use is also based on several social and attitudinal factors in addition to perception of quality. Greater emphasis on the social and attitudinal factors found in this study is required when developing strategies to enable the use of fee-for-service advisors.
... This finding supports previous research concerning gender differences in WTP opportunities whereby women were less likely to pay for extension services than their male counterparts (Oladele, 2008). One implication for this could be the fact that women have oftentimes been ostracized in acquiring new knowledge through traditional exchanges thus preferring more non-traditional opportunities (Gidarakou et al., 2008;Trauger et al., 2010). To strengthen this case, mean scores indicated that women were willing to pay more (₣205.40 ...
... Women themselves often view training groups and programmes as being for men and feel unwelcome and conspicuous in this space. In addition, agriculture extension workers do not always see women as 'authentic' farmers, because they do not occupy outdoor space and hence do not invite them to training initiatives or address programmes to their work (Barbercheck et al., 2009;Trauger et al., 2010;Teather, 1994). ...
... Farmers and ranchers have been traditionally distinguished on cultural and productive terms in the Western United States. Gender in the livestock industry (Pilgeram 2007), and within extension or agriculture education programs (Trauger et al. 2010;Enns and Martin 2015), has received some attention. However, there is mounting evidence that women drive change in rangeland systems (Coppock et al. 2013) and that global climate change impacts are gendered (Nelson et al. 2002;Alston 2010). ...
Rangeland researchers are increasingly interested in understanding working rangelands as integrated social–ecological systems and in investigating the contexts of human decision-making processes that support system resilience. U.S. public lands ranchers are key partners in rangeland conservation, but the role of women in building system resilience has not yet been explored. We conducted life-history interviews with 19 ranching women in the Southwestern United States. We analyzed the resulting transcripts by identifying contradictions between women’s material practices and traditional discourses in the ranching livelihood that illustrated women’s efforts to maintain both a way of life and a living during social and ecological change. These gendered practices of cultural resilience included self-sacrifice during difficult financial times, engagement with non-rancher networks, and efforts to transfer cultural and technical knowledge. We argue that the key part ranchers play in rangeland conservation cannot be fully understood without a consideration of gendered practices of cultural resilience.
... On the other hand, in the developed world, women farmers were considered (Pearson, 1980) and continue to be faced as invisible farmers (riley, 2009), to lack strong social capital (Hodgkin, 2009) and to be undervalued (lioutas, Charatsari, Tzimitra-Kalogianni, & Papadaki-Klavdianou, 2011a), not only by their counterparts but also by agents aiming at promoting rural development (Černič Istenič, 2015;Charatsari, Černič Istenič, & lioutas, 2013;Trauger et al., 2010). Moreover, despite the different socio-cultural contexts, studies converge to show that women lack a strong voice in rural policy planning (Bock & derkzen, 2007), since their access to leadership positions is restricted (Pini, 2002;sheridan, McKenzie, & still, 2011). ...
This research is prompted by a desire to portray how Thessalian women farmers’ lives have been and are still affected by agrarian, economic, political and social transformations that took place in Greece from 1950 onwards. Using a cueing technique, we collected 2034 autobiographical memories from 74 women farmers. In general, the story our data tell indicates that the progress regarding woman’s position within family and society was slow and erratic, whereas it is still underway, since gender role appropriateness remains a robust construction. The analysis proved that the first signs of change appeared in the 1970s, when the migration from Thessaly to Europe brought about some unprecedented ideas on woman’s social and domestic roles. Other factors, such as the modernization of agriculture in 1980s and the consequent economic flourishing, along with the aura conveyed by the new (female) members of farming communities, and the opening of rural societies in 1990s and 2000s, facilitated this change.
... Nevertheless, following Freire's call for empowerment, Trauger et alli. (2010) indicates that the extension programs of forefront of social change should increase the visibility of women on farms who perform diverse roles and who manage diverse farms. In this way, a new and revitalising approach to rural extension could embrace women and other alternative farmers as authentic farmers and develop pedagogies that al ...
This article attempts to critique the current process of extension through an investigation that seeks to demonstrate and analyze the perceptions held by farmers and rural agents about some aspects of tobacco cultivation in the municipality of Arvorezinha (Little Tree) in southern Brazil. The research has been taking place during the last four years, using qualitative and ethnographic methods, involving participant observations and semi-structured interviews with families of farmers, extension agents, teachers, nurses and businessmen. As part of our research on the perceptions held by tobacco farmers and rural agents, it is necessary to check if the old problems highlighted by and criticized in Freire's work "Extension or Communication?" still persist. Lastly, when presenting the narratives of adherence to planting tobacco and resistance to change to environmentally sustainable practices, the study of the perceptions is relevant as an aid to policy makers.
... Other studies, while not referencing the tactile space concept explicitly, have emphasized the importance of individual embodied practices and deep commitment formation to the success of the local food movement (DeLind 2006) and community gardens (Turner 2011). Research on sustainable agriculture field days, in particular, as tactile spaces can be considered part of the broader literature on participatory methods of engaging diverse groups of stakeholders of the U.S. land grant research, education, and extension systems (see, e.g., Middendorf and Busch 1997;Ostrom, Cha, and Flores 2010;Trauger et al. 2010;Warner 2007Warner , 2008. In other words, tactile spaces can serve as participatory, experiential, and compelling counterpoints to traditional "top-down" approaches to diffusing information about innovative agricultural and environmental practices. ...
Drawing on the concept of “tactile space,” we evaluate the experiential learning environment of a university extension field day event focused on a sustainable agriculture innovation: biodegradable plastic mulch. Introduced by sociologist Michael Carolan, “tactile spaces” are sensuously rich learning environments where participants interact with each other and the environment in an “embodied” and “embedded” manner leading to long-lasting attitudinal and behavioral change. In our study, farmers, extension professionals, crop consultants, and mulch manufacturers participated in a field day event designed to provide both embodied and embedded experiences in an effort to stimulate interest in biodegradable plastic mulch, an economically and environmentally sustainable alternative to polyethylene mulch. Field day participants engaged in hands-on demonstrations preceded and followed by focus group sessions. Enhancing the learning environment in these ways improved the success of the field day event by encouraging practice-based forms of learning, which supplemented and reinforced the claims made about biodegradable plastic mulch. However, the tactile space could have been enriched by providing more opportunities for participants to become embedded within the environment, and by adding elements to overcome the temporal limitations of the field day event. This research contributes to the broader literature on participatory research and extension.
... This is a common trend worldwide. Trauger et al. (2010) studied agricultural extension programmes in Pennsylvania and concluded (p.98) that: Curricula are developed to meet the male farmers' needs, and when they do not meet the needs of women, neither the content of the programming nor their ideas about women is seen in need of revision. Rather, the woman farmer herself is framed as an inadequate fi t to the programme … Working with women, and especially women involved in farming has always featured prominently in MaB's work. ...
... _Food_and_Agriculture_Network_Home.html) in Iowa. These newer organizations typically utilize networks with a major goal of developing horizontal, peer-to-peer relationships for sharing experience-based information, social support and legitimacy as farmers 19,[22][23][24] . These organizations offer educational opportunities that emphasize hands-on, interactive workshops, in which knowledge related to agricultural production, business management, and environmental and social sustainability is exchanged 17,23 . ...
Women are the fastest growing segment of farm operators in the United States, comprising approximately 14% of principal operators and 30% of all operators of the nation's 2.2 million farms. Although several studies have examined the adoption of conservation practices by farmers, no study of which we are aware has focused on the use of conservation practices among women farmers in the US. Therefore, in 2008, we conducted a survey of women farmers in the Northeast US to better understand their use of conservation practices, and how their use is affected by demographic and farm characteristics, and membership in agricultural organizations and networks. We examined the practices related to the type of agricultural organizations, including commodity producer organizations, general farm organizations, women's groups associated with general farm or commodity organizations, farm women's organizations, and sustainable/organic agriculture organizations. Over 85% of the 815 respondents belonged to at least one organization. The most common organizations reported were sustainable/organic agriculture organizations (53.5%) and general farm organizations (50.8%). About one-third of respondents belonged to commodity-based organizations. The states with organized women farmers' networks—Pennsylvania, Maine and Vermont—represented more than half of them. Members of women's and sustainable or organic agriculture organizations tended to be younger, have less farming experience, and to have received more formal agricultural education than did members of commodity-based, general farm and women's agricultural groups within general farm organizations. Our results indicate that organizational membership and participation provide critical networks that support and reinforce the use of conservation practices. Some practices were positively associated with one type of organization while negatively associated with others. For example, compost production/ application, crop rotation, manure incorporation, and organic crop and livestock production are more likely among members of sustainable/organic agriculture organizations, but less likely among members of general farm organizations. The converse is true for integrated pest management (IPM) on crop farms. Specific conservation practices had unique sets of variables linked to their use, with farm products being the most frequent predictors. This research serves as a baseline to understand the array of conservation practices used by women farmers in the Northeast US, and some factors associated with their use. The results suggest the need for consideration of the applicability of existing adoption models for women farmers. As women tend to have diversified operations with multiple markets, educational and regulatory programs that attempt to reach women farmers may need to consider the specific types of farms they operate to best match practices to their situations and goals.
... The ideology of freedom is equated with control -over nature, over the operation, and over success -typically affiliated with masculinity and its converse, the subordination or "housewifeisation" of women (Bell, 2004;Brandth, 2002;Mies and Bennholdt-Thomsen, 1999:98-100). The assertion of autonomy underlies assumptions of what comprises masculine and, therefore, authentic contemporary agriculture (Trauger et al., 2010). The idea of performing a masculinity involving control is particularly appropriate in New Zealand (Barlett and Conger, 2004;Campbell et al., 2006;Jay, 2005;Liepins, 2000). ...
Drawing on interviews in Switzerland and New Zealand, we explore the concept of autonomy as part of a farming self. The farming self encompasses the dialectical relationship of autonomy as both value and tool that help us understand farmers within a wider set of economic, environmental and interpersonal relations. Farmers describe autonomy as a value in three related but slightly different ways. First, autonomy invokes a particular lifestyle connected to farming. Second, autonomy is understood as the equivalent of being one's own boss. Third, farmers describe autonomy negatively by enumerating the constraints that limit the first two iterations of autonomy in their farming operations. Beyond the value of autonomy for farmer identity, the farming self captures autonomy as a tool: a tool of identification, a tool to mitigate, navigate and translate the experiences of being a farmer in a wider network of agricultural relations.
... Rural moralities play a part in the social construction of rural masculinities (Coldwell 2010). Indeed, Trauger et al. (2010) To recap, there is a lack of research into rural criminality and in particular in respect of the notion of the farmer, or rural dweller, as criminal. Extant research over emphasises urban marauder thesis and little consideration has been given to the complicity of some members of the farming community in committing crimes such as livestock rustling. ...
The accepted social construction of the rural criminal is that of the (alien) urban marauder. In this social script the farmer is presented as the victim of crime. Traditionally, farmers enjoy high levels of social esteem and rarely are they vilified. This case story examines alternative income generating strategies from the margins of agriculture which include theft of animals and property; engaging in the illegal meat trade; trading in illegal medicines and wildlife and dog breeding. This case using ethnographic observation examines the activities of such individuals and documents the phenomenon of an indigenous rural criminal fraternity in Scotland.
... We then examine how these measures are related to a number of factors, particularly demographic characteristics, on-farm work, decision-making authority, and farm characteristics. These factors-what work is done on the farm and by whom-are critical components of farmer identity and have significant implications for public perceptions of who is a farmer (Brandth 2002;Trauger et al. 2010). ...
The identities of women on farms are shifting as more women enter farming and identify as farmers, as reflected by the 30 percent growth in women farmers in the U.S. census of agriculture (USDA 2009). This article draws from identity theory to develop a quantitative measure of the identities of farm women. The measure incorporates multiple roles farming women may perform and weights these roles by their salience to two farm identities, farm operator and farm partner. We use a sample of women on farms (n = 810) in the northeastern United States to assess the measures of role identity in relation to reported decision-making authority, farm tasks, and farm and individual characteristics. The findings provide a multidimensional view of farming women in the northeastern United States, a far more complex view than traditional survey research has previously captured. This research provides a measure that other researchers can use to assess the multiple and shifting identities of farming women in other sections of the United States.
... This gap, built on the trivial perception 'all peasants are the same', has driven AEES to deliver their services in a way that disregards specific population sub-groups. The relevant literature clearly demonstrates that women farmers (Trauger et al. 2010), undereducated peasants (Lioutas et al. 2011a), multicultural groups (Milburn et al. 2011) or poor landowners (Norton 2004: 385) remain underserved groups from AEES. However, it was not until 2010 that a first attempt of market segmentation of AEES appeared in the extension literature. ...
Agricultural extension education services (AEES) have three major characteristics that complicate their marketing: first, these are ‘rural services’ that are heavily influenced by the ‘rurality’ of their field of action; second, their aim is to promote intangible behavioural changes which inevitably are considered by the potential customers as risky; third, their orientation is usually non-profit. However, there is a surprising lack of studies regarding the marketing of AEES. The aim of this research is to segment rural population based on the usage rate of public AEES and to depict the relative influence of the importance assigned on both services relationship attributes and motivational drivers to this classification. After a random sampling procedure, 202 peasants from the region of Thessaly, Greece participated in the study. Our findings revealed three segments: the ‘Conveniencers’, who are the heavy users of public AEES; the ‘Analysts’, who, although are regular users of AEES, are light users of public services and assign higher importance to the service delivery attributes; and the grey segment of ‘Objective Hunters’, who are occasional seekers of AEES and are primarily motivated by their expectation to gain benefits related to their farm enterprise. Our findings also demonstrate that public rural services have failed to build sustainable relationships with the rural population.
... In addition, the multiple roles undertaken by women farmers necessitate a more appropriate time scheduling of AEPs Okwu and Umoru, 2009). Nevertheless, the modus operandi of agricultural education services is often built upon the gendered division of farm labour (Trauger et al, 2010), thus reinforcing gender stereotypes in agricultural education. ...
The aim of this research was to identify the factors affecting women farmers’ participation in agricultural education programmes (AEPs) and to investigate the motives and expectations that influence women’s willingness to participate in AEPs. Data were drawn from a random sample of women farmers from northern Greece, while a witness sample of male farmers was used to test the moderating effect of gender on the motivation to participate in AEPs. The results of multivariate analysis indicate that the most crucial parameters in the prediction of women’s participation in AEPs are those reflecting their level of involvement in agriculture. Compared with men, women farmers report significantly higher levels of motivation to participate in AEPs deriving from self-actualization needs. Interestingly, the findings reveal that the expectation of gaining economic benefits is a far less important predictor of willingness to attend AEPs. The implications for agricultural education administrators, limitations and future research directions are noted.
... At the same time, traditional prejudices about the role of women in agriculture lead to a lack of responsiveness of the AEEPs' content to the real needs of women. The secondary and subordinated role of women in farming which is attributed to women farmers leads to the reluctance on the part of agricultural education providers to adapt their programmes to women's needs (Trauger et al. 2010). Women farmers have different educational needs; however, according to Brasier et al. (2009), this specificity is often not taken into consideration from AEEPs' providers. ...
This mixed research is inspired by our desire to explain why rural women are cautious in their
attitudes towards agricultural extension/education. Fifty-two women livestock farmers from
Thessaly-Greece were randomly selected to participate in the study. Our results indicate that
at one end of the spectrum women express a high willingness to participate in agricultural
extension/education programmes, while at the other end this willingness is not translated into
participation mainly because of women’s perception that agricultural extension/education constitutes
a male dominated area. Another key determinant restricting women’s participation arises
from their low familiarity with education and the unpleasant experiences they recall from school.
... Additionally, women seem more willing than men to expend small or big amounts of money for their participation in AEPs. This might be due to the fact that women seek opportunities to gain knowledge and to get involved in the learning process as they are frequently marginalized (Trauger et al., 2010), or their role in decision-making is restricted (Gidarakou et al., 2008). Although, Alexopoulos, Koutsouris and Tzouramani (2010) suggest that higher income relates to paying for extension services, the present study reveals that farming income*which corresponds, for the vast majority of the cases, to the total household income*does not affect any of the types of willingness. ...
This study assessed farmers' willingness to pay for and spend time attending an Agricultural Educational Program (AEP). Primary data on the demographic and socio-economic variables of farmers were collected from 355 farmers selected randomly from Northern Greece. Descriptive statistics and multivariate analysis methods were used in order to meet the objectives of the study. Results showed that about half of the farmers are not willing to spend money and time for more than two days for participation in AEPs, while the Lower Bound Mean for money and time is €74.54 and 5.8 days, respectively. Willingness to pay and to spend time is influenced mainly by the expected benefits from attending an AEP and less by the elements regarding the educational process itself. Moreover, the farmers of the sample were separated into three clusters; ‘Eclectics’ who are middle-spenders and tend to correlate willingness to pay with AEP's internal characteristics; ‘Enthusiasts’, the cluster of heavy-spenders; ‘Reviewers’ that are characterized by negative attitude towards agricultural education. From a practical point of view, the study's findings could be used by policy makers, extension workers and institutions providing agricultural education to time planning and to promoting alternative ways of an AEP. This study investigates farmers' willingness to spend time, which is a barrier for farmers to the desire of attending an AEP. Moreover, the relationship between the willingness to spend time and money and the agricultural education's qualitative characteristics is investigated.
In this paper we assess the relationship between how women access the land they farm, and their farming identities, roles, and future succession plans. Utilizing a Bourdieusian approach, we conceptualize inheritance of farmland as a long‐term process of symbolic and economic investment. We conducted a cohort analysis of women living or working on farms in Scotland, UK who (a) were or were not raised on farms; and (b) bought into or inherited agricultural land (directly or through their spouses). Data comprised on‐line survey responses, qualitative interviews and focus groups. Analysis demonstrated that women who were raised on farms and either inherited farms or established new farms, were more likely to identify themselves as farmers, engage in machinery work and identify female successors. Women who accessed farmland through marriage tended to engage in more home‐making tasks, to identify themselves as farmers' wives, and to occupy larger farms. These largest, potentially most viable farms thus continue to be inherited by men. However, when women inherit farms, a step change occurs, where daughters are much more likely to be identified as future successors. Enabling women raised on farms to inherit and/or establish new farms is thus critical to altering patriarchal succession cycles.
Despite long-standing safety recommendations that non-working children be supervised off the worksite by an adult, little is known about farm families' ability to comply. We conducted a review of 92 documents and 36 key informant interviews in three U.S. states (Ohio, Vermont, and Wisconsin) to assess how farm service providers and farm organizations address the intersection of children and childcare with farm work and farm safety in programming. Through their programming, these two groups deeply influence farm families' social systems, affecting farm safety and farm business decisions. Study design and result interpretations were grounded in the women in agriculture literature, which examines the needs and realities of farm women (often the primary caregivers). Most documents reviewed did not address children, and even fewer addressed childcare. Interviews confirm findings of the document review. Despite awareness that farm families juggle work and children, few interviewees explicitly integrated children and childcare topics due to a messy and complex set of individual- and structural-level factors. We identified four possible, overlapping explanations for this tension: valuation of care vs. farm work; farm programming's traditional emphasis on the farm business; alignment of the programming with the agrarian ideal of the family farm; and the mismatch between farm programming scope, resources available, and childcare challenges. We conclude with two main implications for farm safety programs and farm children safety. First, farm programming's reinforcement of the social and cultural expectations regarding children's involvement in the farm operation from a young age could be counterproductive from a farm safety standpoint and miss an opportunity to provide alternative models of childrearing. Second, the invisibility of the lived realities of raising children may lead farm parents to distrust farm programming and deter them from participating.
This article focuses on inequalities in agriculture in the European Union (EU). We examine the mismatch between European legislation on employment, and any rigorous interrogation of women's employment position in agriculture. Our central argument is that this occurs because agriculture is seen as a sector rather than an occupation. DG AGRI is responsible for European agricultural and rural development policies. DG EMPLOYMENT does not have oversight for the agricultural workforce in the same way as other occupations as the existence of DG AGRI means farming is less obviously understood as an occupation. There are no similar measures to address the under‐representation of women in agriculture in the same way as for STEM occupations. We demonstrate that when agricultural policies are seen as relating to an occupation rather than a sector it becomes clearer how agricultural policy discriminates against women. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
Research on women in U.S. agriculture highlights how, despite real challenges, women have made and continue to make spaces for themselves in this male-dominated profession. We argue that, partly due to data accessibility limitations, this work has tended to use white women’s experiences in agriculture as universal. Analyzing micro-data from the 2017 Census of Agriculture, this paper offers descriptive statistics about women and race in U.S. agriculture. We examine numerous characteristics of U.S. farms, including their spatial distribution, the average number of acres farmed, predominant crop types, and other characteristics to describe how white, Black, Indigenous, and Pacific Islander/Asian women farmers are faring. Our findings suggest significant differences in women’s farms by race. We argue that these are related to the history of forced and voluntary migration within the U.S. Our results indicate that understanding women’s experiences in farming requires understanding the impact of race and these broader historical patterns. Finally, because of these differences across races, we suggest that supporting “women in agriculture” may require tailored responses from agricultural policy and programming that addresses unique needs in specific communities.
p>Although the Common Agricultural Policy of the European Union has broadened its objectives to integrate social issues, several hard-to-reach groups of farmers and workers continue to be ignored by advisory services and associated policies. Connecting with these groups has a strong potential to increase the economic and social cohesion of European agricultures. We interviewed over 1,000 farmers across Europe and identified features of these groups that are often overlooked by advisory services. We critically reflected on the social cohorts omitted from advisory services and how they could be better reached; they include farm labourers, new entrants or ‘career changers’, and later adopters. We clarify the different types of advisors in the advisory landscape, distinguishing between those who are linked to or independent from sales of inputs or technologies. We make concrete recommendations about how to engage advisors with hard-to-reach groups, with approaches suited to different national contexts of Agricultural Knowledge and Innovation Systems (AKIS); thus contributing to the ‘AKIS dimension of National Strategic Plans of the next Common Agricultural Policy, 2023–2027. We argue for the more effective use of advances in the social sciences through a better understanding of advice as social interaction which can bolster the inclusiveness of public policies.</p
The agricultural sector in developed countries has been experiencing a growth in the percentage of women, yet very little economic research documents the role and contribution of farm women across these countries. Through an interdisciplinary systematic literature review of 184 international peer-reviewed, English-language studies between 1970 and 2020 we investigate the economic contribution and visibility of women working in the agricultural sector in the United Kingdom (UK). Differences within farm women as a group are explored and used to develop a framework characterising the different economic classifications of farm women across a spectrum of economic contribution and visibility. A comparison of the economic contributions of farm men and women also reveals key differences between farming practices and outcomes. As such, the study reveals key barriers to women's economic participation and visibility in agriculture to be associated with access to land, education and organisations. These factors are evaluated in the context of wider policy. The outcomes of this study increase understanding of factors shaping women's economic contribution and visibility in UK agriculture and will inform further research investigating female participation in agricultural business management and decision making. As the UK formulates its own domestic agricultural acts, UK-wide research will be needed to inform policy and overcome barriers facing women in farming.
Community geography is a growing subfield that provides a framework for relevant and engaged scholarship. In this paper, we define community geography as a form of research praxis, one that involves academic and public scholars with the goal of co-produced and mutually-beneficial knowledge. Community geography draws from a pragmatist model of inquiry, one that views communities as emergent through a recursive process of problem definition and social action. We situate the growth of community geography programs as rooted in two overlapping but distinct traditions: disciplinary development of participatory methodologies and institutional traditions of community engagement in American higher education. We then trace the historical development of these programs, identifying common themes and outlining several challenges that community geographers should prioritize as this subfield continues to grow.
Agricultural computer games engage millions of players world-wide in farming practices. This paper investigates how farm-based computer and video games act as sites of cultural production. I utilise a case study of Stardew Valley to assess how notions of idyllic rurality are staged, encountered and reworked both by and for the ‘desk-chair countryside’: people who engage in rural activities on their computers. Computer gameplay is a distinctive form of rural engagement, requiring active decision-making and performance of farming activities, immersing players in novel rural worlds through complex configurations of computer equipment and virtual world avatars. Drawing on non-representational thinking, and concepts from the ‘experience economy’, the paper focuses on how tropes of idyllic rurality are mobilised and challenged through the affective responses elicited in gameplay. I argue that imaginaries of peaceful farm life and happy (pet) livestock are reinforced through affective encounters that appeal to ‘referential authenticity’ (nostalgia) and ‘influential authenticity’ (the higher calling of caring for animals). In contrast, community interactions appeal to ‘natural authenticity’, progressively revealing human in-game characters as they ‘really are’ (flawed individuals dealing with life issues ranging from paternity to post-traumatic stress), utilising ‘influential authenticity’ to call players to support their neighbours. This integration of affective encounter with natural and influential authenticity enables the critical reworking of rural imaginaries to form what I term ‘authentic idylls’. I conclude with a discussion of the theoretical and methodological opportunities of computer-mediated virtual ruralities in rural studies research.
The aim of the Strategy for the Reduction of Herbicide Pollution in Australia is to raise public awareness on the problems related to herbicide use in Australia and recommend methods to reduce or eliminate these problems. The strategy also seeks to increase public awareness and encourage the adoption of environmentally benign weed management techniques, using a combination of ChemFree methods for managing unwanted vegetation. These methods include design and cultural innovations to achieve landscape goals. It is our hope that the findings in the present study will prove useful to all land managers.
The Routledge Companion to Rural Planning provides a critical account and state of the art review of rural planning in the early years of the twenty-first century. Looking across different international experiences-from Europe, North America and Australasia to the transition and emerging economies, including BRIC and former communist states-it aims to develop new conceptual propositions and theoretical insights, supported by detailed case studies and reviews of available data. The Companion gives coverage to emerging topics in the field and seeks to position rural planning in the broader context of global challenges: climate change, the loss of biodiversity, food and energy security, and low carbon futures. It also looks at old, established questions in new ways: at social and spatial justice, place shaping, economic development, and environmental and landscape management. Planning in the twenty-first century must grapple not only with the challenges presented by cities and urban concentration, but also grasp the opportunities-and understand the risks-arising from rural change and restructuring. Rural areas are diverse and dynamic. This Companion attempts to capture and analyse at least some of this diversity, fostering a dialogue on likely and possible rural futures between a global community of rural planning researchers. Primarily intended for scholars and graduate students across a range of disciplines, such as planning, rural geography, rural sociology, agricultural studies, development studies, environmental studies and countryside management, this book will prove to be an invaluable and up-to-date resource.
In Chile, agriculture remains a key economic factor for rural development. Accordingly, the Chilean government, through the Agricultural Development Institute (INDAP), provides financial support for fostering entrepreneurship among small farmers to enable them to become more competitive in global markets. Despite this support, a declining number of farmers and an aging population are observed in rural areas. Most rural development programs focus on increasing competitiveness, whereas the stay-exit decision in agriculture is also affected by the characteristics and preferences of farmers and their families, and rural development policy. The overall objective of this dissertation was to provide technical and socioeconomic information for improving the effectiveness of rural development programs, which are seen as the tool for stopping rural migration. To accomplish this objective, first an analysis of the role of socioeconomic variables in the stay-exit decision in farming was made based on efficiency theory, exit barrier theory, and life-cycle theory. The association of potential factors with the stay-exit decision was identified using a probit model. This dissertation suggests that, besides the technical characteristics of the farming, which have been traditionally addressed in developing countries, rural development policies should focus on (i) farmer characteristics, i.e. age, gender, and expectations; (ii) farming system, i.e. multivariate production; and (iii) social aspect of rural society, i.e. membership of farmer associations. In addition, technical, economic, and social data was used to explore the scope for improving the technical efficiency of the sample farms and to identify the variables influencing technical efficiency. Two-stage models were performed to estimate (i) the technical efficiency and (ii) the input-specific technical inefficiency with which these farmers operate, and to identify the association of potential factors with either farm-level technical efficiency or input-specific technical inefficiency. Results for farm-level technical efficiency showed that farmers could reduce their input use by 30%. When measuring input-specific technical inefficiency results showed that the input use can be reduced by 26% (land use) to 37% (livestock use). This thesis also analyzed the effectiveness of existing rural development programs in Chile by comparing the opinions of experts regarding the effectiveness of these programs in achieving the main INDAP goals and the budget allocation among rural development programs. Results showed (i) a discrepancy between the allocation of the INDAP budget and the effectiveness of the rural development programs in achieving the overall INDAP goal; and (ii) that some INDAP programs are less effective in achieving INDAP goals. This suggested possibilities for reducing the current number of professional and technical advice programs and reallocating budget from less effective programs to programs that are more effective in the achievement of INDAP goals. Hence, designing new programs that focus on improving the quality of social and organizational capital could increase the achievement of INDAP goals.
In spite of an increasing number of projects and campaigns in public policies to higher, the schooling ratio among girls have been applied in Turkey since 1997, societal gender disequalities are still very important problems of education. Especially in rural areas there are thousands of girls who cannot complete education even elementary school system. Morever, informal education opportunities are also insufficient for women. The primary purposes of this research were to determine the level of women's participation in formal and informal education programs in rural areas of Mersin province, and to determine the efficiency level and income generation capacity of training programs designated for women in the area. Multiple Correspondence Analysis (MCA) was used to investigate the relationships between several socio-demographic and educational variables. Research findings showed that the young women wanted to educate their daughters for reaching better living conditions when they become adults. The major constraints for educating girls are poor living conditions for rural families and difficulties in meeting school expenditures. In addition, women's participation to various training programs was quite low, and most of the women found the training not useful because it provided information which was practically unusably for their daily life.
On the Ground The field of rangeland science and management is working to incorporate women's voices and a better understanding of women's decision-making roles into our research priorities and Extension practices. The Wyoming Women in Range program offers a success story of Extension programming designed to encourage women's participation and engagement in rangeland management. Further research is needed to understand ranching women's needs and responsibilities as business operators, natural resource managers, wives, mothers, and off-farm wage earners.
Female agricultural land ownership and operatorship are on the rise in Iowa and across the nation, but little research exists that explores agricultural conservation outreach to women and gendered differences in conservation knowledge and attitudes. The authors surveyed all agricultural landowners and operators in the Clear Creek Watershed in eastern Iowa about conservation knowledge and attitudes, as well as preferred sources of information about conservation. Clear Creek is a high-visibility watershed for conservation outreach for several reasons, including its long-standing watershed stakeholder council and its connection to the impaired Iowa River. Analysis of the survey results demonstrated that female respondents had significantly lower levels of knowledge about best management practices and significantly more positive attitudes towards conservation and collaboration than men. Meanwhile, women looked to the same sources for conservation information as male respondents, including neighbors, friends, and conservation agencies like the Natural Resources Conservation Service, Cooperative Extension, and the Farm Service Agency. These gendered results have significant consequences for the future of agricultural conservation practice and policy and for the subsequent health of the nation's soils and waterways. While lacking in knowledge about specific conservation practices, female respondents valued conservation practices, looked to government agencies for information about conservation, and expressed interest in collaborating with government entities for conservation on their land. Agricultural conservation practitioners can use these findings to tailor outreach efforts that will more effectively reach the nation's female landowners and operators.
A risk management educational program to help small-scale farmers of native medicinal herbs of the U.S. Southwest (SWH) was conducted. Topics included: balancing culture and commerce, species identification, value-added production methods, quality control and marketing, and financial planning. Participants were re-contacted 6 months later to assess follow-through. Only five participants applied risk management principles to their growing operation. Respondents indicated that the workshop series improved their understanding of managing risks associated with growing SWH, but the study highlighted differences between (1) existing specialty crop growers who are able to transition to producing SWH and (2) individuals only curious about SWH but not likely to grow these crops commercially. KEYWORDS Business planning, small-scale herb producers, educational programming, balancing culture and commerce Received January 18, 2013. This project was funded by the Western Center for Risk Management Education Project number RME-JSL03272. We thank Dr. Sam Allen for review of this manuscript. We also acknowledge the NMSU Agricultural Experiment Station for salary support.
This study examines how African American adult female students respond to a culturally relevant curriculum. Research confirms that adults enter college classrooms with a variety of experiences that they value and experiences to which they wish to connect. Black female students in particular possess knowledge unique to their positionality in American society, and they want to apply this knowledge to what they are learning. A curriculum that speaks to their personal experiences and ways of knowing can be a bridge to connect what they want and need to learn. Three themes emerged from this study involving Black women and culturally relevant curriculum: language validation, the fostering of positive self and group identity, and self-affirmation or affirmation of goals. The study's findings reveal that the approach of integrating students' experiences as an explicit part of the learning agenda encourages them to participate to the fullest extent in their own education.
This article highlights that in our rush to call for the democratization of science and expertise we must not forget to speak to what type of democratization we are calling for. In short, not all participatory forms are the same. In developing this argument, I examine one such form that has yet to receive much attention from science and technology studies scholars: the agricultural field day. In examining the field day, we find that its orientation-that is, toward either the conventional or sustainable model of agriculture-shapes significantly its democratic approach to knowledge coproduction. To help inform how we understand conventional and sustainable field days, I turned to two conceptual frameworks of participation: namely, that of Wynne and Funtowicz and Ravetz. In doing this, we find that conventional field days mirror closely that form of public participation detailed by Funtowicz and Ravetz, while sustainable field days reflect that conceptualized by Wynne.
Based on ethnographic research in rural El Salvador and drawing on New Literacy Studies (NLS) and gender and development (GAD) literature, this article examines how participation in a Freirean-inspired literacy programme fostered and/or limited women's and men's personal, interpersonal and collective empowerment. The findings reveal that participation planted seeds of agency and generated numerous psychosocial benefits such as enhanced self-esteem and expansion of social networks, yet it did not lead to collective empowerment or increased gender equity. This suggests that literacy education is a necessary yet insufficient basis for ameliorating entrenched social and gender hierarchies. Nevertheless, the psycho-social benefits identified by learners enhanced their human capabilities, corresponded to needs rooted in the social context (e.g. postwar social fragmentation) and helped lay a foundation for future collective action. Additionally, the article attributes the programme's limited influence on women's and men's collective empowerment to both programmatic and contextual factors.
Abstract In this paper we explore the social construction of agricultural masculinity and its role in the transition to sustainable agriculture. We draw our evidence from a participatory qualitative study comparing members of the sustainable agriculture group Practical Farmers of Iowa (PFI) with their non-PFI neighbors. On the non-PFI farms, men more often represented what we call monologic masculinity, a conventional masculinity with rigid and polarized gender expectations and strictly negotiated performances that make a clear distinction between men's and women's activities. The male farmers belonging to PFI, on the other hand, more often represented what we call dialogic masculinity, characterized by different measures for work and success than in monologic masculinity, less need for control over nature, and greater social openness. Although both are present to some extent in all male participants, we argue that acceptance of a more dialogic masculinity helps promote the transition to sustainable agriculture.
According to the 2002 Census of Agriculture, women comprised 11% of principal farm operators and 27% of all farm operators. Here we report findings from a needs assessment conducted to understand the educational needs of women farmers in Pennsylvania. We describe the characteristics of the women who responded to the needs assessment, the problems they face in making their farm operation successful, and the program topics and formats they prefer. Finally, we provide recommendations to increase Extension engagement with this growing clientele.
Civic agriculture is characterized in the literature as complementary and embedded social and economic strategies that provide
economic benefits to farmers at the same time that they ostensibly provide socio-environmental benefits to the community.
This paper presents some ways in which women farmers practice civic agriculture. The data come from in-depth interviews with
women practicing agriculture in Pennsylvania. Some of the strategies women farmers use to make a living from the farm have
little to do with food or agricultural products, but all are a product of the process of providing a living for farmers while
meeting a social need in the community. Most of the women in our study also connect their business practices to their gender
identity in rural and agricultural communities, and redefine successful farming in opposition to traditional views of economic
rationality.
This paper is concerned with gendered embodiment of agricultural work, particularly the connection between women's gender identity and the body at work. Focussing on how the body enters into relations with the tools of work, four processes are identified by which women's bodies, work and machinery are incorporated into each other and give each other meaning. In the first category women's embodied competences are merged with the qualities of machinery much the same way as men. The second shows how women work to uphold a definition of their bodies as feminine despite the fact that they operate machinery. The third process shows that when machine work is incorporated into farm women's traditional work on the farm, neither the definition of women's bodies nor the tractor change. Finally, when women do not operate machinery as part of their work, the traditional conception of gendered, embodied farm work is maintained. The analysis establishes that there is no one to one relationship between work and the meaning of the embodied self, and highlights the complex and ironic relationship between machinery and femininities.
Aruna Rao looks at how change is happening through the daily grind of gender equality activists. She argues that in order to achieve basic development objectives we need both better delivery and better accountability for a range services to women – not just education and health, but also agricultural extension, land registration and property protection, regulation of labour markets, and safety. She also argues that institutional insiders and outsiders need to support each others’ different but complementary roles as change agents. Development (2006) 49, 63–67. doi:10.1057/palgrave.development.1100207
In this paper, the three concepts of agricultural education, women empowerment and sustainable rural development are examined, and the strategies of agricultural education for women empowerment and sustainable rural development are discussed.
While it can be argued that women are best placed to empower women, others have presented a view that men have a role in their
empowerment. Since women in Nigeria make up more than half of the nation's population, their empowerment educationally, socially,
politically, and economically would seem to command the efforts of all for a sustainable rural development. Recommendations
for a massive agricultural education campaign are suggested.
Changing the Way America Farms traces the manner in which alternative farmers have developed and exchanged their own personal, local knowledge as a basis for moving toward an agricultural system that is ecologically sound, economically viable, and socially just. Neva Hassanein studies the patterns of local and regional networks in Wisconsin that sprang up to disseminate new and viable agricultural methods. She argues that these networks have in many ways become the foundation of the sustainable agriculture movement.
Hassanein focuses on two organizations: the Ocooch Grazers Network, a group of dairy farmers who practice intensive rotational grazing, and the Wisconsin Women’s Sustainable Farming Network. The different lived experiences of particular members in each group shaped the ways local knowledge was generated and exchanged.
Hassanein considers the broader implications of this kind of local-level, collective activity centered around the creation and exchange of agricultural knowledge. In rejecting the all-knowing expertise characteristic of scientific reports and extension services, network members instead created heterogeneous systems based on the exchange of information among a community of farming practitioners. These informal networks do not completely reject agricultural science, but they do suggest ways of democratizing knowledge production for sustainable agriculture. Learn more: http://www.nebraskapress.unl.edu/product/Changing-the-Way-America-Farms,672339.aspx
This review examines the development of research on gender within the broad arena of rural studies. It does so through four main themes: community, work, environment and sexuality. Drawing on work from a range of Western countries, the review shows how an early reluctance to engage with feminist research and work on gender more broadly has given way to a highly active, diverse and rich research direction in rural studies. The review selectively charts key phases in the development of rural gender studies and shows how research has moved from conceptualising rurality as 'container' for the creation, performance and contestation of gender roles to seeing the rural as integral to the actual construction of gender identities and to the ways they are performed and negotiated. As well as highlighting past research areas, the review suggests some directions for the future development of rural gender studies.
Women throughout the West are up to three times more likely to be the operator of a farm in sustainable agricultural models than in productivist models. When women assume the role of farmer they transgress traditional gender identities on farms, which dictate that women are ‘farmwives’ and men are ‘farmers’; these gender identities intersect with spaces in the agricultural community to imply appropriate behavior for women as farmwives. This research demonstrates that the sustainable agriculture community provides spaces that promote and are compatible with women's identities as farmers. Feminist analyses of space and agriculture suggest that productivist agricultural models marginalize women from spaces of knowledge, while sustainable agriculture provides spaces of empowerment for women farmers. The fieldwork for this project involved a purposive survey, in‐depth interviews and participant observation with twenty women farmers over an 18‐month period in the sustainable agriculture community of Central Pennsylvania.
Economic pressures and information policy changes in the public and private sectors are influencing the kinds, amounts, and availability of information to agricultural producers. This analysis identifies some of the major changes, examines their effects, identifies some issues of equity, and poses questions for further study. The changes are found to have special negative effects on producers with smaller operations, fewer financial resources, lower levels of formal education, remote locations, specialized enterprises, and low input enterprises.
Despite the recent increase in women farmers’ participation in agricultural extension projects in many parts of the world, it is still questionable whether active participation of women has been achieved. It is known that socio-cultural restrictions based on gender ideology often impede women farmers’ active participation. However, the interplay of gender relations and learning processes in extension activities has received little attention. Conceptualizing knowledge generation and dissemination as a social process, which reflects power relations between those involved in the process, allows us to view agricultural extension programs as sites of knowledge generation, where trainers and women and men farmers act and interact to shape the outcomes, exercising their agency to achieve the goals under specific socio-cultural conditions. Thus, the interaction in extension activities reflects, and at the same time reproduces or modifies, existing social relations and social structures. Drawing from two agricultural extension programs conducted in Cambodia in 2003, this article discusses how gender relations in a community affect extension activities. It concludes that, in order for women farmers to benefit from extension services on par with men farmers, an understanding of the workings of gender relations needs to be incorporated into its methodological deliberation.
This research on women farmers emerged as the result of uncovering a gendered spatial differentiation of farmers in Minnesota. Women farmers are more likely to cultivate marginal agricultural land and operate farms that are remarkably different from their male counterparts. The post-productivist transition in agriculture helps explain the spatial differentiation between male and female farmers, but fails to provide answers to the question of why women farmers are engaged in alternative production. Using a survey and in-depth interviews, I attempt to contextualize a small group of women farmers as agents of change in agriculture through their marginalization from productive roles in industrialized agriculture, and through their adoption of a feminist environmentalist ethic towards agricultural production. The correlation between independent women farmers and alternative agriculture, together with the increasing numbers of women farmers in Minnesota suggest the possibility of a transition to a post-productivist agriculture, in part led by women.
The Antigonish Movement, Farm Radio Forum, and Centre for Community Studies were three Canadian community development programs that supported adult education's social change mission. Current extension practice focuses on cost recovery and marketing courses to those who can pay; these historical examples show a way to renew the mission and vision of adult education. (SK)
At the heart of all research activities in agriculture lies the huge power of human resources, which helps to galvanize scientists into action. This disorganized force of workers, called the labour force, comprises both men and women to be employed on an equitable basis. As in other areas of work, women working on the farm have certain stereotyped roles in an otherwise supposedly non-gender-specific domain. This paper looks into the presumptions, problems and prospects of these neglected, but essential women workers on agricultural research farms. It highlights the experiences and issues that have emerged from a novel experiment involving the empowerment of farm women. In the case presented, empowerment was achieved through a threefold strategic approach. This involved education to promote positive self-image and self-confidence, skills development, and creating an awareness of social change. Various initiatives were promoted on a sustained basis to bring about the change process. These included adult literacy programmes, payment of wages to individuals through their bank accounts, onsite skills development and training, participation of workers in decision-making meetings to develop action plans and set targets for their respective areas of work, acquisition of gender-friendly equipment, health campaigns, etc. All these brought about gradual but perceptible changes in their attitudes and behaviour. The result of this empowerment process was reflected in enhanced qualitative and quantitative outcomes. A crucial factor in the success and sustainability of this empowerment process was the support and visionary outlook of top management. The lessons from this case study can serve as motivating factors for other agricultural institutions to experiment.
This research explores the ways in which the gender relations of family farming influence the transfer of agricultural information and knowledge resources to farm girls, a rarely studied population. The study is based on a sample of 32 female farmers from southern Ontario, who were interviewed extensively about their experiences growing up on family farms, and about their lives as adult farmers. Their accounts underscore the fact that the gendered division of labour evident on North American farms constrains the information passed on to farm girls (and women) in particular ways. Farm girls do not share fully in the occupational inheritance of agriculture - they are frequently excluded or marginalised from important agricultural resources, including information. This exclusion comes about through the ongoing social processes of agrarian patriarchal culture, operating both inside and outside of the agri-family unit. In particular, the study illustrates how the social construction of agriculture is heavily reinforced by certain types of myth-making, which work to disadvantage farm girls and women.
Previous research has illustrated how inheritance, entry to farming, gender role perceptions and conceptualizations of women's work role have shaped the situation of farm women. This paper argues that agricultural education and training provisions also shape the situation of farm women. The sociology of education generally, and feminist debates on education, provide a useful framework of analysis for agricultural education and training provisions for women. This is illustrated by a study of five farm women's groups in Northern Ireland. It is clear that the organization of education and training has the potential to accomplish significant change.
This article pinpoints the ways in which gender identities have been constructed in the literature on gender relations and farming published over the past twenty years. It identifies three significant discourses in the research literature, namely the discourse of the family farm, the discourse of masculinisation and the discourse of detraditionalisation and diversity. The discourse of the family farm is hegemonic in agricultural gender research. It positions men as head of the family farm enterprise; women in the subordinate position of ‘farm wives’ defined by their dependency, their marriage and family related responsibilities. The second discourse accounts for the masculinisation of agriculture. Gender positions are transformed and men and masculinity are loosing power and dominance, while women are pictured as taking action and adjusting themselves to late modern life. The “discourse of detraditionalisation and diversity” focuses on the various positions that contemporary women and men have in relation to the farm.
Apprenticeship and the process of entry into a professional farming career are very impressing times. They shape the professional self-confidence of farmers, and also influence their futures. Even if women farm apprentices succeed in technical and economic subjects at the vocational school, they still have to face many social problems. This paper argues that, according to the experiences of the women farm apprentices, the institutions limit rather than support their empowerment and integration. Vocational schools’ representatives are not prepared seriously to discuss current social developments in agriculture. Biographical interviews and a group discussion with women farmers from all over Western Germany who completed an apprenticeship illustrate this argument. It is clear that if vocational schools want to attract young people in the future, gender relationships in the farming world must become a central topic for discussion.
There are two predominant interpretations of the history of Canadian university extension. The "liberal or institutional" perspective argues that extension has been a means for universities to disseminate resources, foster progress in society, and meet the learning needs of individuals. The "critical or nostalgic" perspective claims that university extension once resisted dominant forms of power relations but now supports such relations. This article challenges these two interpretations through exploring the sociological concepts of subjection and modes of production and through presenting a historical case study of extension at one Canadian university. The article narrates the evolution of official claims made regarding extension at the University of Saskatchewan from 1908 to 2007 and argues that this evolution was influenced by changes to the mode of production in the province. This argument encourages adult educators with interests beyond university extension to reflect on their agency as scholars and practitioners. In 1909, the founding president of the University of Saskatchewan, Dr. Walter Murray, made the following claim about the relationship between the university and society: Whether the work of the University be conducted within the boundaries of the college campus, or throughout the length and breadth of the province, there should be ever present the consciousness that this is the University of the people, estab-lished by the people, and devoted by the people to the advancement of learning and the promotion of happiness and virtue. (University of Saskatchewan, 1909, p. 12) SCOTT McLEAN is the director of continuing education and a professor of sociology at the University of Calgary, Canada (e-mail: smclean@ucalgary.ca).
Abstract Gender analyses of farming have become well established in rural sociological literature. In recent years, however, increasing attention has been given to the discursive processes influencing gender relations and identities. In the current paper I continue this trend by exploring how a range of key agriculture-related masculinities are constructed and articulated in Australia and New Zealand. First, a conceptual discussion identifies the need to consider discourse and creation of knowledge and truths about masculinity. An outline of the research is provided. Then I report on two broad fields in which masculinity is constructed, namely the farm arena and industry politics. Finally, I make closing comments in relation to the possibility of alternative genderings of agriculture.
Studies of education are an example of developments in feminist rural studies which move debates about gender and power beyond the now substantial discussions of farming. The work of Shortall (Sociologia ruralis 1996) has been crucial in reviewing current literatures on agriculture and education, and identifying some of the ways training perpetuates dominant processes of socialization which differentially shape men’s and women’s experiences. This paper contributes to these developments by proposing the need for a theoretically informed framework to guide feminist educational analyses. We argue that notions of gender and theoretically reflective action-oriented methodologies need to be considered in establishing such analyses. We then discuss how concepts of seriality, discourse and agency provide broad tools which support an inquiry into the contexts, operation, participants and outcomes of agricultural training systems. These dimensions are integrated as a framework of study. We close by sketching out areas of possible further debate on the approach presented.
This paper explores cultural constructions of masculinities and femininities among farming families in a French community. In particular, it shows how, with the development of agricultural technology, the tractor has become a symbol of male power and spatial domination over women. Drawing on life–history interviews and ethnographic observations, it is argued that farmers have appropriated agricultural technology and used it to construct and reaffirm their masculine identities. As a result of this appropriation,women’s work in agricultural production has become limited to carrying out menial tasks which are seen as secondary to farming.Focusing on narratives revolving around men, women and tractors, the paper shows that the tractor,as a symbol of male domination,is directly opposed to images of femininity. However, it is argued that the tractor can also become the expression of struggle and contention over masculine power and patriarchal gender relations on the farm.
In recent decades, constituenciesserved by land-grant agricultural research haveexperienced significant demographic and politicalchanges, yet most research institutions have not fullyresponded to address the concerns of a changingclientele base. Thus, we have seen continuingcontroversies over technologies produced by land-grantagricultural research. While a number of scholars havecalled for a more participatory agricultural scienceestablishment, we understand little about the processof enhancing and institutionalizing participation inthe US agricultural research enterprise. We firstexamine some of the important issues surroundingcitizen participation in science and technologypolicy. We then review and assess variousinstitutional mechanisms for participation that havebeen implemented in diverse settings by institutionsof science and technology. Based on evidence from theexperiences of these institutions, we argue that acloser approximation of the public good can beachieved by encouraging the participation of thefullest range possible of constituents as an integralpart of the process of setting research priorities.
The article investigates stability and change in images of masculinity in a technologically well-developed agriculture. By analysing tractor advertisements, it is shown how agricultural machinery is a male arena, and how tractors represent many qualities important to rural men and their masculine identity. The article also shows how technology and masculinity are mutually and simultaneously constructed. The users, the men farmers, give the tractor gender, and the tractor makes the farmers into real men. As the tractor is becoming computerized and more comfortable, new images of masculinity are in the process of evolving. The ideal of the farmer as a strong, dirty, manual mechanic is giving way to a more business-like masculinity. A question is whether the traditional, hegemonic type is being replaced, reconstructed or whether the two types will coexist peacefully, as variation in the meaning of gender is a general feature of late-modern culture.
This paper uses data from a doctoral study examining women's involvement in the Australian sugar industry to argue that focus groups are a valuable method for feminist rural social research. Sixteen initial and follow up focus groups conducted with 80 women were not just valuable for the production of raw data, they were also valuable in addressing feminist research goals. Using extracts from the focus groups, four examples of their effectiveness as a feminist research method are examined. That is, focus group participation made what is invisible to many women visible; it enabled connections to be made between individual and collective experiences; it facilitated challenges to dominant beliefs; and it provided space for discussion and reflexivity about gender issues. The paper concludes by arguing that the potential of focus groups as an empowering strategy for participants is not just of importance to feminist scholars, but to all rural social researchers who are interested in engaging less hierarchical research relationships, in producing knowledge which is contextualised, and in contributing to political and social change.
Women farmers are underserved in agricultural education and technical assistance. Long held social constructions of farming women as ‘farmwives’ and in some cases ‘the bookkeepers’ rather than farmers or decision-makers influence the direction of most educational programming delivered through extension programs in land-grant universities in the United States. Consequently, many women farmers generally view these spaces as hostile, rather than helpful environments. This paper uses the agricultural training framework developed by Liepins and Schick (1998) to analyze our research on developing educational programming for women farmers. We conducted five focus groups with members of the Pennsylvania Women's Agricultural Network (PA-WAgN) to better understand women farmers’ needs for education. Women farmers reported the kinds of knowledge and information they want, in what kinds of contexts, and through what means of communication. We adapt and extend the original theoretical framework developed by Liepins and Schick to incorporate the seriality of women's identities, their discourses of embodiment and the agency granted to them through social networks. Through a presentation of the results of these focus groups, we discuss both the relevance of gender to agricultural education and the importance of the network model in providing education to women farmers.
Macro-scale changes to Western agricultural regimes have led to recent debates on the theoretical conceptualisation of agricultural change, particularly regarding the appropriateness of the productivist/post-productivist/multifunctionality (P/PP/MF) model. Within these debates concern has recently arisen as to whether the contemporary perspective, which derives largely from macro-level structural analyses (such as political economy), is compatible with the grassroots ‘agency’ perspective—i.e. whether our conceptualisations of agricultural change follow the Giddensian notion of structure/agency consistency. In this paper we contribute to this debate by investigating the extent to which farmers’ self-concepts and attitudes towards post-productivist approaches are compatible with the current structural changes in agriculture. By introducing the notion from social psychology of a complex self-structure comprised of multiple and hierarchically organised identities, and by investigating the structure of these identities in farmers’ idealised P/PP/MF selves, the study questions the idea that any transformation from productivism to post-productivism/multifunctionality will be in the form of a simple linear transition. Results from a survey of farmers in Bedfordshire (UK) and evidence from other studies throughout Europe and Western agricultural regimes demonstrate that—despite much talk of an increasing ‘conservationist’ component to farming—farmers’ self-concepts are still dominated by production-oriented identities. The study concludes that there is a temporal discordance between the macro- and micro-structural elements of transition implied in the P/PP/MF model, and that we are witnessing at most a partial macro-structural driven transition towards a post-productivist agricultural regime.
High sense of control is related to benefits in many aspects of life, and education is known to be strongly related to sense of control. In this article we explore why women tend to feel a lower sense of control than men, and why the sense of control tends to be lower among the elderly than among younger people. In particular we explore the role played by education in explaining age- and gender differences in sense of control. The analysis is based on data from the first wave of the Norwegian NorLAG study, with a representative sample of adults aged 40-79 in 30 municipalities. We find that education accounts for some of the age and gender differences in sense of control, but the mediating effects of education are rather modest. We find an increasing gender gap in sense of control with age, and this increasing gap is completely explained by differences in education. Gender differences in sense of control is explained completely by four factors, which are related to resources and power; physical health, education, living with a partner, and leadership experience. Age differences in sense of control are only partially explained. Education, physical health and employment status cuts the age effect on sense of control to half. The effect of education on sense of control is partly mediated through what we suggest are tangible benefits of education, namely health, employment, and leadership experience. Education also influences individuals through socialization mechanisms. We view agentive orientation as a psychological benefit of education, and measure this characteristic with Bem's (1981) sex-role scale on masculinity. Agentive orientation completely explains the remaining effect of education on sense of control.
Typescript (photocopy). Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Iowa, 1991. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 392-406).
Men and women often have different farming activities, resources, and benefits (and therefore incentives). These differences reflect both women's reproductive function and socio-cultural factors such as religion, caste or class, cultural norms and the formal legal system. A reorientation of the extension messages is necessary to improve the congruence of technical messages and communication strategies with the reality of small-scale agriculture - that is, that many smallscale farmers are female. This paper provides an overview of women farmers and their production systems, presents a framework for analysis of gender issues, suggests interventions and project components, and sets out guidelines for designing and modifying agricultural service projects. -from Authors
The ecological knowledge system Wagemakers eds, Facilitating sustainable agriculture Gendered fields: rural women, agriculture, and environment Developing agricultural extension for women farmers
- N G Roling
- J Jiggins
Roling, N.G. and J. Jiggins (1998) The ecological knowledge system. Pp. 283–311 in N.A. Roling and M.E.A. Wagemakers eds, Facilitating sustainable agriculture (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press) Sachs, C. (1996) Gendered fields: rural women, agriculture, and environment (Boulder, CO: Westview Press) Saito, K.A. and D. Spurling (1992) Developing agricultural extension for women farmers. World Bank Discussion Papers 156, (Washington, DC: World Bank)
Meeting the extension needs of women farmers Rural masculinity in transition: gender images in tractor advertisements Gender identity in European family farming: a literature review Agricultural body-building: incorporations of gender, body and work
- M Barbercheck
- K Brasier
- N E Kiernan
- C Sachs
- A Trauger
- J Findeis
- A Stone
- L S Moist
Barbercheck, M., K. Brasier, N.E. Kiernan, C. Sachs, A. Trauger, J. Findeis, A. Stone and L.S. Moist (2009) Meeting the extension needs of women farmers. Journal of Extension 47 (3) Available online at http://www.joe.org/joe/2009june/a8.php Accessed 15 January 2010 Brandth, B. (1995) Rural masculinity in transition: gender images in tractor advertisements. Journal of Rural Studies 11 (2) pp. 123–133 Brandth, B. (2002) Gender identity in European family farming: a literature review. Sociologia Ruralis 42 (3) pp. 181–200 Brandth, B. (2006) Agricultural body-building: incorporations of gender, body and work. Journal of Rural Studies 22 (1) pp. 17–27
Empowering women through agricultural extension: a global perspective
- S L Corning
, W.M. and S.L. Corning (1990) Empowering women through agricultural extension: a global perspective. Journal of Extension [On-line]
Preserving the family farm: women, community, and the foundations of agribusiness in the midwest Are agricultural extension programs gender sensitive? Cases from Cambodia
- M Neth
- Y Ogawa
Neth, M. (1995) Preserving the family farm: women, community, and the foundations of agribusiness in the midwest, 1900–1940 (Baltimore, MA: Johns Hopkins University Press) Ogawa, Y. (2004) Are agricultural extension programs gender sensitive? Cases from Cambodia.
Land-grant universities and extension into the 21st century: renegotiating or abandoning a social contract University extension and social change: Positioning a university of the people in Saskatchewan
- G Mcdowell
- S Mclean
McDowell, G. (2001) Land-grant universities and extension into the 21st century: renegotiating or abandoning a social contract (Ames, IA: University of Iowa Press) McLean, S. (2007) University extension and social change: Positioning a university of the people in Saskatchewan. Adult Education Quarterly 58 (3) pp. 3–21
Education through cooperative extension Training to be farmers or wives? Agricultural training for women in North-ern Ireland
- D Graham
- J Gamon
- N Conklin
, B., D. Graham, J. Gamon and N. Conklin (1997) Education through cooperative extension (New York: Delmar Publishers) Shortall, S. (1996) Training to be farmers or wives? Agricultural training for women in North-ern Ireland. Sociologia Ruralis 36 (3) pp. 269–285
Gender segregation at vocational schools – women farm apprentices' dilemma Wrapping the curriculum around their lives: using a culturally relevant curriculum with African American adult women
- M Schmitt
Schmitt, M. (1998) Gender segregation at vocational schools – women farm apprentices' dilemma. Sociologia Ruralis 38 (3) pp. 304–317 Sealey-Ruiz, Y. (2007) Wrapping the curriculum around their lives: using a culturally relevant curriculum with African American adult women. Adult Education Quarterly 58 (1) pp. 44–60
The Authors Journal Compilation © 2010 European Society for Rural Sociology
- Al Trauger
Trauger ET AL. © 2010 The Authors. Journal Compilation © 2010 European Society for Rural Sociology. Sociologia Ruralis, Vol 50, Number 2, April 2010
Farming women: gender, work, and family enterprise
- S Whatmore
Whatmore, S. (1991) Farming women: gender, work, and family enterprise (Basingstoke: Macmillan)
The public agricultural research system at the crossroads
- Buttel
Empowering women through agricultural extension: a global perspective
- Rivera