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The Effects of Parental Advisory Labels on Adolescent Music Preferences
... A related study by Cantor and Nathanson (1997) examined the effect of parental control of violent television programs on their children's desire to view the programs. This study was based specifically on Christenson's (1992) "forbidden-fruit" hypothesis, which explains that parental restriction of television programs make them more appealing to children, and was more broadly based on Brehm's (1972) theory of psychological reactance, which states that when people believe their freedom is denied or restricted, they are motivated to pursue the restricted item or action. Although no effect was found for the parental control and children's desire to watch the television programs, it was suggested that because only parents were asked about their children's television viewing and preferences, the children's actual preferences and behaviors may not have fully been taken into account (Cantor & Nathanson, 1997). ...
... The patterns found in this study seem to suggest support for the "forbidden fruit" hypothesis by Christenson (1992). This theory argues that when parents try to control or limit their child's behavior, the child actually pursues the behavior more, simply because it has been forbidden (based on the theory of psychological reaction by Brehm, 1972). ...
... Although at first this appears contradictory, these findings are in line with other findings on parenting and show that, like authoritarian parents, those who encourage their children to express themselves within limits have children who show less aggressive affect in their play. One explanation for this could be the "forbidden fruit" hypothesis again whereby one of the reasons children do express more aggressive affect is because they are not allowed (Christenson, 1992). Another possible explanation is that children who are allowed to express aggressive affect can do so effectively and without fear of parental disapproval. ...
... The strongest form of evidence, however, is based on experimental research designs. Several experimental studies have been designed to investigate the occurrence of a forbidden (or tainted) fruit effect (Austin, 1980;Bahk, 1998;Bushman, 2006;Bushman & Stack, 1996;Cantor & Harrison, 1997;Cantor, Harrison, & Nathanson, 1998;Christenson, 1992;Nije Bijvank, Konijn, Bushman, & Roelofsma, 2008;Simmons, 1992). Table 1 provides an overview of experimental studies that were incorporated in Bushman and Cantor's (2003) meta-analysis, supplemented with more recent studies on this topic. ...
... In the case of other media products, however, such materials do not correspond to real-life situations, in which people are confronted with rich illustrations on covers and product descriptions and considerably less prominent pictograms. Christenson (1992) did include actual music album covers and used normal-sized classification The results do not suggest that national contexts play an important role: The only divergence in results can be found among the American studies. The first experimental study by Austin (1980) did not find a forbidden fruit effect. ...
... The first experimental study by Austin (1980) did not find a forbidden fruit effect. The other study that did not find such an affect (Christenson, 1992) was the only one using realistic stimulus materials. The only experimental study about the forbidden fruit effect in The Netherlands reported that both age labels and violent content labels increased the attractiveness of videogames for children and adolescents (Nije Bijvank et al., 2008). ...
Media ratings serve to inform parents about and protect minors from violent or otherwise harmful media content. Most of these systems use age pictograms and content warning pictograms for entertainment products. An experiment was conducted to investigate whether these pictograms, contrary to their purpose, have an appealing effect on children and adolescents. Compared to prior studies into this “forbidden fruit effect” concerning DVDs and games, more realistic materials were used. In the experiment, 322 elementary school students (9–11 years) and 335 high school students (13–15 years) were exposed to 10 DVD or game covers and asked to judge the products' attractiveness. The results show that the pictograms did not increase the attractiveness of games and DVDs for children and adolescents.
... Research on warning labels showed inconsistent results. Some studies implied that warning labels decrease the attractiveness of a given product because it might be harmful (e.g., tainted fruit theory; Christenson, 1992). For example, comprehensive warning labels on cigarette packages induced reactions that were predictive of cessation activity (Borland et al., 2009) and were rated effective by smokers (Hammond et al., 2007). ...
... Thus, based on reactance theory, it can be expected that a warning label may lead its recipients to reject the message because they feel that the label restricts their freedom of choice ( J. W. Brehm, 1972; see also Bushman, 1998). The label may even increase the attractiveness of a product for some groups, resulting in an opposite effect that is referred to as the forbidden fruit effect (Christenson, 1992). For example, the results of a study by C. J. McKinley (2009) on the risk perception of obesity-related health problems suggested that health messages could have opposing results. ...
... Thus, the warning that media images may negatively influence self-image may have caused adolescent girls not to adhere to the message (most likely avoiding or rejecting it). However, this finding cannot be explained by forbidden fruit theorizing (Christenson, 1992;Nije Bijvank et al., 2009) because the warning label in our study did not increase the attractiveness of thin-ideal models (which would have resulted in more negative body perceptions than in the no-label condition). An alternative explanation can be found in affirmation theory (Harris, Mayle, Mabbott, & Napper, 2007;Steele, 1988). ...
The present study investigated whether information or warnings about depictions of the thin-body ideal in mass media are effective in counteracting media-induced negative body perceptions of adolescent girls. Based on counter-advertising and reactance theories, our hypotheses were tested in a 3 (weight labels: information vs. warning vs. no label) × 2 (media models' body shape: thin vs. normal weight) × 2 (self-esteem: lower vs. higher) design (N = 178). Body dissatisfaction, objectified body consciousness, and body comparison with media models served as dependent variables. Pretested media models were systematically combined with various textual weight labels and presented on the front page of a magazine targeted toward girls. The results indicated that a simple information label that provided the weight status of thin media models induced less negative body perceptions in adolescent girls when compared with the use of warning labels or images only. Especially, girls with lower self-esteem then exhibited lower levels of body dissatisfaction and objectified body consciousness. When compared with exposure to images only, the warning labels had little effect on body perceptions by adolescent girls. Thus, informing is more effective than warning in counteracting the undesired effects of the thin-body ideal promoted by the media.
... Research on warning labels showed inconsistent results. Some studies implied that warning labels decrease the attractiveness of a given product because it might be harmful (e.g., tainted fruit theory; Christenson, 1992). For example, comprehensive warning labels on cigarette packages induced reactions that were predictive of cessation activity (Borland et al., 2009) and were rated effective by smokers (Hammond et al., 2007). ...
... Thus, based on reactance theory, it can be expected that a warning label may lead its recipients to reject the message because they feel that the label restricts their freedom of choice ( J. W. Brehm, 1972; see also Bushman, 1998). The label may even increase the attractiveness of a product for some groups, resulting in an opposite effect that is referred to as the forbidden fruit effect (Christenson, 1992). For example, the results of a study by C. J. McKinley (2009) on the risk perception of obesity-related health problems suggested that health messages could have opposing results. ...
... Thus, the warning that media images may negatively influence self-image may have caused adolescent girls not to adhere to the message (most likely avoiding or rejecting it). However, this finding cannot be explained by forbidden fruit theorizing (Christenson, 1992;Nije Bijvank et al., 2009) because the warning label in our study did not increase the attractiveness of thin-ideal models (which would have resulted in more negative body perceptions than in the no-label condition). An alternative explanation can be found in affirmation theory (Harris, Mayle, Mabbott, & Napper, 2007;Steele, 1988). ...
The present study introduces a theoretical framework on negotiated media effects. Specifically, we argue that feedback of peers on thin-body ideal media images and individual dispositions guide effects on adolescent girls' psychosocial responses to media exposure. Therefore, we examined the thin-body ideal as portrayed in media and peers' feedback on such thin-ideal images in their combined effects on adolescent girls' body dissatisfaction, objectified body consciousness, and social comparison with media models. Hence, media models and peer comments were systematically combined as incorporated entities in YouTube-formats. Hypotheses were tested in a 3 (media models: extremely thin vs. thin vs. normal weight) x 3 (peer comments: 6kg-underweight vs. 3kg-underweight vs. normal-weight) x 2 (appearance schematicity: lower vs. higher) between-subjects design (N = 216). Results showed that peer comments indicating that a media model was 'only 3kg-underweight' exerted most negative responses, particularly in girls who strongly process appearance relevant information. Peer feedback interacts with media models in guiding perceptions of what is considered an 'ideal' body shape. Results highlight the important role of peers as well as individual predispositions in view of understanding how thin-ideal media images may impact adolescent girls' body image concerns.
... The strongest form of evidence, however, is based on experimental research designs. Several experimental studies have been designed to investigate the occurrence of a forbidden (or tainted) fruit effect (Austin, 1980;Bahk, 1998;Bushman, 2006;Bushman & Stack, 1996;Cantor & Harrison, 1997;Cantor, Harrison, & Nathanson, 1998;Christenson, 1992;Nije Bijvank, Konijn, Bushman, & Roelofsma, 2008;Simmons, 1992). Table 1 provides an overview of experimental studies that were incorporated in Bushman and Cantor's (2003) meta-analysis, supplemented with more recent studies on this topic. ...
... In the case of other media products, however, such materials do not correspond to real-life situations, in which people are confronted with rich illustrations on covers and product descriptions and considerably less prominent pictograms. Christenson (1992) did include actual music album covers and used normal-sized classification labels. Instead of forbidden fruit effect, the "Parental Advisory -Explicit Lyrics" labels on the album covers caused a tainted fruit effect. ...
... The first experimental study by Austin (1980) did not find a forbidden fruit effect. The other study that did not find such an affect (Christenson, 1992) was the only one using realistic stimulus materials. The only experimental study about the forbidden fruit effect in the Netherlands reported that both age labels and violent-content labels increased the attractiveness of videogames for children and adolescents (Nije Bijvank et al., 2008). ...
The potentially negative effects of drinking alcohol, smoking tobacco, using illicit drugs, gambling, and exposure to violent or otherwise detrimental movies or games are widely acknowledged. Risks may involve harm to people’s mental or physical health and/or their social well-being. These risks may be especially valid for specific groups in society. Societies generally aim to protect children and adolescents from risky products. Availability can be seen as an important predictor of adolescent consumption of risky products. In order to reduce underage sales, in many countries so-called age limits have been introduced. Age limits serve to prevent young people’s access and exposure to risky products and to delay the age at which young people may start consumption. In addition to this so-called threshold effect, there has been speculation regarding the possible occurrence of an opposite effect. The forbidden fruit theory suggests that age limits may make restricted commodities more attractive.
The studies presented in this dissertation focus on the issue of compliance with age limits and the effects of various interventions that were designed to increase compliance with age limits. Furthermore, the possibility of a forbidden fruit effect was examined.
Based on the empirical chapters of this dissertation, raising awareness and providing feedback are distinguished as the essential instruments in increasing knowledge, ability and motivation and subsequently improving compliance. Age limits are an important first step towards protecting adolescents against risky products. Without actual attention to the issue of compliance, however, their contribution will remain limited.
... Although the potentially negative effects of media on children have received attention in areas such as pediatrics and communication research (e.g., Bushman & Stack, 1996;Christenson, 1992;Walsh & Gentile, 2001), only a few studies have addressed the role and effects of age-based ratings on movie-going behavior from an international marketing perspective. Several descriptive and predictive studies have employed MPAA ratings as one possible determinant of the success of movies (e.g., Sawhney & Eliashberg 1996;Neelamaghan & Chintagunta, 1999;Ravid, 1999). ...
... Third-party product evaluations and movie ratings are publicly communicated to the product's consumers, such as target audiences and parents. Christenson (1992) tested the effect of the U.S. recording industry's ratings on the attitudes of children. A group of middle school students gave lower evaluations to music albums whose covers had advisory labels indicating explicit lyrics, which implies that the album should only be bought by mature audiences. ...
... The children also reported less interest in buying these types of albums. This phenomenon has been called the 'tainted fruit' effect (Bushman & Stack, 1996;Christenson, 1992;Grier, 2001). In general, the tainted fruit theory posits that "warning labels should decrease the attractiveness of a given product because the product might harm the consumer" (Bushman, 1998). ...
This article analyzes one key characteristic shared by a growing number of industries. Specifically, their products and services are continuously monitored and evaluated by local third-party ratings systems. In this study, we focus on understanding the local drivers of restrictive age-based ratings in the motion picture industry and the effect of local ratings on a movie's performance at the box office. The results show that there is a significant negative relationship between restrictive ratings and opening weekend box-office performance. However, we find no significant effect with respect to cumulative box-office performance. In the second part of the study, we focus on the local regulatory system's role as a key driver of restrictive age-based ratings in the motion picture industry. Interestingly, the results suggest that the composition of the board that rates the movie plays a key role. Including pediatrics, psychology, or sociology experts in the evaluation board instead of only parents or laypeople has a strong effect and tends to lead to more lenient rating behavior. In addition, we find that larger ratings boards tend to be more restrictive than smaller ones and that industry representation is not necessarily associated with less restrictive ratings. Countries with cultures characterized as uncertainty avoidant, collective, and feminine also seem to be most lenient in their ratings. The implications of the results are discussed from both international marketing and public policy perspectives.
... Since the 1970s, these regulatory systems have predominantly followed the approach of industry self-regulation (Latzer, 2000). Central to the protection of minors is the application of age-rating labels or warning labels, pioneered by the introduction of the 'parental advisory label' in the music industry in 1985 (Christenson, 1992). These labels are supposed to signal inherent product characteristics to inform or warn potential consumers (Saurwein & Latzer, 2010). ...
... It speaks in favor of a so-called forbidden fruit effect, arguing that age-ratings denying access to a media product make this product more appealing to (particularly adolescent) users (Gosselt et al., THE INFLUENCE OF AGE-RATING LABEL SALIENCE, p. 6 2012;Bushman & Cantor, 2003). Forbidden fruit effects could be demonstrated for music warning labels (Christenson, 1992), television content (Bushman & Stack, 1996;Sneegas & Plank, 1998;Bushman, 2006), movie DVDs, and video games (Nije Bijvank et al., 2009). ...
A recent reform of the German protection-of-minors laws demanded the increase of salience factors for the packages of audiovisual media products. This study evaluated the effects of an increase in salience factors of age-rating labels for video games and movies. We used eye-tracking technology in a 2 (Parents, Sons) x 2 (Old, New label) experimental design with 52 parent–son dyads. We measured attention to the age-rating labels and attitude toward the media content. Increased attention to the age-rating labels could be demonstrated. Eye-tracking data showed more frequent and prolonged perception of the more salient age-rating labels. The new age-rating labels were more likely to be fixated and were gazed at longer than their old counterparts. At the same time, this did not automatically lead to a reduction in age-inappropriate media attractiveness. Unintended effects that approached marginal significance were found for adolescent boys: The enhanced attention to new age-rating labels was accompanied by an increased attractiveness of age-inappropriate media. Independent of the type of label shown to parents, they neither allowed their sons to use inappropriate media, nor were they willing to buy such video games or movies for them. Increasing salience factors for age-rating labels is a double-edged sword, resulting in increased awareness of age-rating, but not a reduction in attractiveness of age-inappropriate content.
... That is, more restrictively rated movies receive no or less attention from children and adolescents. This effect is also supported by a few scholars (e.g., Christenson, 1992), who have found that children's interest in content decreases with a more restrictive rating. Many studies (e.g., Cerridwen and Simonton, 2009;De Vany and Walls, 2002;Simonoff and Sparrow, 2000) have also found that G-and PG-rated movies perform better at the box office than more restrictively rated movies (Leenders and Eliashberg (2011) found the tainted fruit effect to be present only for the opening weekend rather than for cumulative box office revenues). ...
Although the determinants of films’ box office performance have been extensively examined in the past, there is a gap in the literature with regard to how the mediation effect of age ratings for movies on the relationship between content elements and box office performance differs across cultures. Through a moderated mediation analysis of films released in 111 countries in the past 100 years (between 1921 and 2020), this paper finds that when there are wider cultural distances between the home and host countries, content with higher levels of violence and morally loaded behaviors reap greater box office revenues in host countries. However, in total, movies with higher elements of violent content rather than content related to morally loaded behaviors contribute to high box office revenues in the international film market.
... Social-science studies were devoted to analyzing the impact of music and estimating the validity of the assertions made by the moral crusaders, especially on the relationship between certain forms of music and violence (e.g., Epstein & Pratto, 1990;Prinsky & Rosenbaum, 1987;Walker, 1985). The music labeling sticker quickly became the subject of effectiveness studies (Christenson, 1992;Davis & Dominick, 1991). The results of such research were later found to be inconclusive at best (Kubrin & Weitzer, 2010). ...
Informed by a moral panic perspective, I analyze the music labeling debate in the United States from the mid 1980s until the early 1990s. Instigated by the Parents Music Resource Center (PMRC), a voluntary group set up in 1985 by several politically well-connected women, this peculiar chapter in the control of music led to a hearing in the U.S. Senate and produced an intense debate, involving members of the community and musicians, litigation in the courts and legal discussions, police actions, as well as research by academic experts. The moral panic faded rather quickly after a warning label for music recordings was adopted, which remains in place today. This paper presents an effort in cultural criminology to make sense of this episode in the social control of music and argues that a historical approach to moral panics, conceived as cultural struggles, has important analytical advantages because of its relative detachment from the immediacy of an intensely debated social concern. (Click on DOI link for full paper.)
... Other than parents, peer groups, as well as popular culture, contribute extensively to children's knowledge about products and services (Moschis, 1985). Children tend to make risk-prone choices if they are made aware of prior parental approval signals such as advisory labels on music (Christenson, 1992). In general, people with relatively more resources in a social unit have a greater influence over unit-related decision processes; hence, buying decisions are typically more influenced by parents than their children (Foxman et al., 1989). ...
Although social scientists have identified diverse behavioral patterns among children from dissimilarly structured families, scholars have progressed little in relating modern family processes to consumption-related decisions. Based on gaps and limitations identified in a review of the existing consumer decision-making literature, this study examines how children influence family consumption decisionmaking in single-mother families, and posits a conceptual framework that integrates normative resource exchange theory with existing consumer decision-making model theory. The implications for a better understanding of processes rather than prevalent outcome-oriented focus for future research purposes are also discussed.
... This is contrary to the finding that adolescents often do not pay attention to music lyrics and cited lyrical content as the least important reason for liking a song (Prinsky & Rosenbaum, 1987;Gantz, Gartenberg, Pearson, & Schiller, 1978). However, Christenson (1992) and LeBlanc (1982) interactive theory of musical preference supported this finding that the combination of rhythmic, lyrics, vocal, music and melody affects music preference (White, 1985). ...
... The organoleptic test of the products was done by the 9-point hedonic scale scorecard, especially prepared for the purpose [17][18]. ...
... However, a movie with a stricter MPAA rating may also have more latitude to be fun, creative, and appealing, which would lead to higher ratings by audiences. This is consistent with the forbidden fruit theory, which predicts that warning labels make violent programs more attractive to viewers (Bushman and Stack, 1996;Lewis, 1992). Due to the idiosyncrasy of Chinese collectivistic culture, movies with more restrictive MPAA ratings should receive lower rating scores from Chinese viewers than from US viewers (H2). ...
Many movies have influenced many societies in various ways, but the factors that affect films? ratings remain understudied. This article goes beyond examining a variety of factors that determine such ratings by focusing on the interaction effect of the country difference with other predictors of film ratings between the world?s top two movie markets, the US and China, using big data gathered from the Internet. The country difference significantly moderates the effect of predictors such as the film?s year of release, its Motion Picture Association of America ratings, country of origin, and its awards. Predictors such as whether it was adapted from a novel, whether it was based on a true story, its production budget, and its ?star power? exert the consistent main effects on film ratings across the countries. However, box office success and sequels were found to be insignificant predictors of film ratings. The article then discusses the implications of these findings and suggests directions for future res
... The samples were presented in identical containers, coded with 3-digit random numbers served simultaneously to ease the possibility of the panelists to re-evaluate a sample. The categories were converted to numerical scores ranging from 1 to 9, with 1 as the highest and 9 at the lowest level of preference (Bushman and Stack, 1996;Christenso, 1992;Iwe, 2002). Necessary precautions were taken to prevent carry-over flavour during the tasting by ensuring that panelists passed a piece of lemon fruit in their mouths or rinsed with water after each stage of sensory evaluation. ...
The performance of 10, 20 and 30% cassava composite bread was carried out by evaluating the colour, aroma, texture, acceptability and buying preference. The samples were served to semi-trained panelists. The result showed that bread baked with 10 and 20% composite flour were not significantly different in all sensory attributes, acceptability and readiness to buy from the control. However, bread baked from 30% composite flour showed low mean scores to all the attributes. There was a tendency for bread baked with 10 and 20% composite flour to be rated higher than the control especially in flavour, acceptability and desire to buy. Uniformity in the scores between all labeled and unlabelled samples was also observed. Values obtained for proximate composition of cassava composite bread samples were comparable to those obtained for whole wheat bread. Adoption of wheat/cassava flour for bread making is advocated in this work as an alternative to 100% wheat.
... As a result, they may be inclined to respond in a manner inconsistent with the warning (e.g., Brehm, 1966). As Resnick (2006) describes, adolescents are frequently attracted to the warnings associated with certain music labels, movies, and TV shows (e.g., Christenson, 1992). ...
... The contrasting theory of Tainted Fruit theorizes that warnings, especially informative labels from authoritative sources, will decrease consumption (MacKinnon and Lapin, 1998). Previous research has supported the thesis that information rich warnings against the consumption of a product can decrease consumption (Bushman, 1998;Lewis, 1992;MacKinnon and Lapin, 1998). According to this theory, if potential tourists are confronted with negative information from a credible authority about Cuba as a travel destination, then they would be more reluctant to travel to Cuba. ...
Americans are the majority of tourists in the Caribbean, but the US embargo against Cuba prevents almost all American tourists from visiting Cuba. This study uses mixed methods to examine a group of American tourists' destination image of Cuba before and after a tour in Cuba. The American tourists in this study described Cuba as a forbidden fruit, a desirable destination that Americans are not allowed to or at least should not visit. On the positive side, travelling to Cuba was seen as a scarce opportunity that has the allure of the prohibited and the attraction of viewing communism from a previous era. Conversely, the image of Cuba was also tainted by the history of political antagonism with America and associated concerns about tourist safety, cost, and a limited market place. However, actual and potential changes in Cuba are likely to heavily impact the destination image in the near future.
... A critical review of the literature related to negative advertising leads us to explore two rival theories: the tainted fruit theory (Bushman and Stack, 1996;Christenson, 1992) versus the two-sided persuasion paradigm. While these two theories have been proved to be effective, their assumptions are diametrically opposed and have to be tested. ...
Our study investigates the effects of pro versus anti-gambling messages funded by the gambling industry. Paradoxically, our results show that anti-gambling ads funded by the gambling industry enhance gambling intent as do pro-gambling ads. We propose some suggestions related to the ways this finding should guide public policies.
... 4. Pediatricians should encourage parents to take an active role in monitoring the type of music to which their children and adolescents are exposed and to be aware of the music they purchase. [104][105][106] Parents can find lyrics by typing "music lyrics" into an Internet search engine and accessing 1 or more of the Web sites that appear. Pediatricians also should counsel parents and caregivers to monitor and regulate television-viewing according to the age and maturity of their children and adolescents. ...
Music plays an important role in the socialization of children and adolescents. Popular music is present almost everywhere, and it is easily available through the radio, various recordings, the Internet, and new technologies, allowing adolescents to hear it in diverse settings and situations, alone or shared with friends. Parents often are unaware of the lyrics to which their children are listening because of the increasing use of downloaded music and headphones. Research on popular music has explored its effects on schoolwork, social interactions, mood and affect, and particularly behavior. The effect that popular music has on children's and adolescents' behavior and emotions is of paramount concern. Lyrics have become more explicit in their references to drugs, sex, and violence over the years, particularly in certain genres. A teenager's preference for certain types of music could be correlated or associated with certain behaviors. As with popular music, the perception and the effect of music-video messages are important, because research has reported that exposure to violence, sexual messages, sexual stereotypes, and use of substances of abuse in music videos might produce significant changes in behaviors and attitudes of young viewers. Pediatricians and parents should be aware of this information. Furthermore, with the evidence portrayed in these studies, it is essential for pediatricians and parents to take a stand regarding music lyrics. Pediatrics 2009; 124: 1488-1494
... A critical review of the literature related to negative advertising leads us to explore two rival theories: the tainted fruit theory (Bushman and Stack, 1996;Christenson, 1992) versus the two-sided persuasion paradigm. While these two theories have been proved to be effective, their assumptions are diametrically opposed and have to be tested. ...
Notre étude examine les effets des messages pro- versus- anti-jeu en provenance de l’industrie du jeu. De façon paradoxale, les messages anti-jeu accroissent l’intention de jouer des joueurs, de même que les messages pro-jeu. Les implications de ces résultats en termes de politique publique ouvrent la discussion.
... Previous work on the effects of warning labels on attraction to television violence offers two conflicting theories of warnings that attempt to prevent the end-user from accessing unfavorable, illegal, or otherwise forbidden content. The tainted fruit theory predicts that warning labels will make the forbidden content less attractive to viewers or those who seek it (Christenson, 1992). The forbidden fruit theory, on the other hand, predicts that warnings specific to a certain content will make that content more attractive to end-users, therefore making the content more desirable (Bushman & Stack, 1996). ...
... Reactance in the realm of child consumer research refers to the tendency of a child to opt for the opposite direction from that of parents" influence of their consumption behavior. Christenson (1992) found that children were disposed towards purchasing risqué music only when parental advice was stronger than usual. These studies open up a new area of examining reactance theory in the single-parent context. ...
EXTENDED ABSTRACT Most marketing scholars concur that children exercise considerable influence in family consumption activities. Parents perceive influence of children in all stages of the decision making process. Research indicates that single mothers often have to multi-task and consequently allot less time to their children. As an added perspective, a single mother may rely on a greater division of household duties with her child. This arrangement could result in the child having an adult equivalent role not perceived in dual-parent households. This study hopes to uncover theoretical insights that might be used to study implications of the child"s influence in decision making processes in female headed single-parent households. Preliminary interviews with single mothers yield remarkable research questions that are further investigated using data driven, constant comparative methodology.
... Council on Communications and Media, 2009, p.1491--Pediatricians should become familiar with the role of music in the lives of children and adolescents and identify music preferences of their patients as clues to emotional conflict or problems [(Brown and Hendee, 1989)]‖.188 Council on Communications and Media, 2009 p.1491--Pediatricians should encourage parents to take an active role in monitoring the type of music to which their children and adolescents are exposed and to be aware of the music they purchase [(Christenson, 1992; Federal Trade Commission, 2000; Federal Trade Commission, 2001)]‖.189 Quote 1: Turner, personal communication, October 22, 2010--It's true that there are no[longer] going to be all ages shows at the loft‖.Quote 2: Hewlett, 2011, A3--Promoters who held an all-night rave where two intoxicated teens were taken to Royal Inland Hospital will have to find another venue for their party‖.190 ...
... Further research may investigate the role of such variables that are able to downsize reactance effects compared to those variables that trigger reactance, which have been extensively researched in previous studies. Such variables may explain when the advertised behavior becomes either a "forbidden fruit" or a "tainted fruit" (Christenson 1992): that is, when recipients see the behavior in social advertising messages as desirable or undesirable. For instance, Bushman (1998) has shown that warning labels on products with familiar and credible risks lead to more reactance (i.e., the behavior that is advertised against becomes desirable), whereas information labels avoid reactance effects (i.e., the behavior that is advertised against is undesirable). ...
This study investigates the effectiveness of fear-arousing versus humorous social marketing advertising for recipients who differ in their prior attitude towards the advertised behavior (here: safe driving). The results show that advertisements with humorous elements are more likely to lead to increase behavioral intentions when recipients have a less favorable prior attitude towards the advertised behavior. Fear-arousing spots tend to increase behavioral intentions when recipients have more favorable attitudes towards the advertised behavior. The findings provide some interesting implications for social advertising campaigns.
... Researchers have given considerable attention to viewer characteristics. These include: (a) predispositional aggressiveness (Atkin, Greenberg, Korzenny, & McDermott, 1979;Malamuth & Check, 1985); (b) viewer provocation (Berkowitz & Alioto, 1973;Hearold, 1986); (c) personality traits (Johnston, 1995;Krcmar & Greene, 1999); (d) gender (Cantor & Nathanson, 1997); (e) age (Huesmann, Eron, Lefkowitz, & Walder, 1984); (f) social class (Dominick & Greenberg, 1972;Frost & Stauffer, 1987); (g) parental influence (Nathanson, 1999); and (h) attraction to television violence (Christenson, 1992). ...
We examined whether motivation for watching television violence explains viewer aggression and considered the contribution of individual viewer differences, including locus of control, experience with crime, exposure to television violence, perceived realism, and viewer involvement. Several viewing motives and individual differences predicted aggression. Where exposure to television violence was a significant predictor of aggression, experience with crime, locus of control, or motivation were stronger predictors. Path analysis revealed direct and indirect links between audience predictors and aggression outcomes. Results were consistent with uses and gratifications assumptions that individual characteristics and expectations mediate the impact of exposure. Individual characteristics predicted aggressive attitudes, often independent of motivation, contextual factors or attitudes, and exposure. There was no conclusive direct link between exposure and aggression. Because motivation for watching television violence differentially affected aggression, research that neglects to consider viewer motivation and other audience characteristics when drawing conclusions about the effects of violence on aggression is called into question.
... At the state level, legislation is pending in several states to legally restrict access to labeled albums. Although some expressed concern that labels would draw attention to and make such albums more attractive, this effect has not been documented (Christenson, 1992). ...
Commercial ratings assist parents in monitoring their children's media experiences. Exposure to media violence may affect attitudes and behavior, and rating systems should accurately reflect the presence of violent content. Validity indicators for commercial rating systems are examined, including consistency with consumer perceptions. Violent electronic games are a contemporary media phenomenon. A comparison of commercial ratings for popular electronic games with consumer perceptions of game content indicates that, for games with obviously nonviolent or very violent content, there is agreement between consumers and the commercial system. However, there is considerable disagreement about notable violent content in games with cartoon-type violence. Recommendations include incorporating consumer perceptions into a comprehensive, content-based, informational rating system for all entertainment media.
... Predicting the effects of television advisories on particular viewers is difficult as advisories may affect different populations in different ways. Advisory warnings may attract or detract viewers from programs or have little effect on viewing behavior at all (e.g., Austin, 1980;Bushman & Stack, 1996;Christenson, 1992). In any case, before potential advisory effects can be examined in any detail, it is necessary to investigate the extent to which people notice the warnings. ...
Advisory warnings were adopted by network television stations in the fall of 1993 to inform viewers of violent or sexual programming. To assess the impact of the advisories, independent samples of high school students were surveyed in the fall of 1993 (n = 1,854) and in the fall of 1994 (n = 1,489). Most students reported having seen a warning before programs with violent or sexual content. Furthermore, students were more aware of the advisories and had more accurate recall of the violence advisory over time. Although students’ knowledge of the advisories improved over time, their advisory‐related beliefs and the amount of violence they watched on television remained unchanged.
... Ward et al. (1990), in a study of research carried out to date on socialization in youth, indicate not only the necessity to carry out future studies related to the use of children on television and interaction with the family but also the need to define the phenomenon of socialization of offspring by the parents taking into account marketing variables such as advertising, differentiating it from the rest of television broadcasts, looking at the interaction of the family in terms of what is received more than general patterns of interaction. More recent studies look at the fundamental role of the family in the interpretation and acceptance of media content (Christenson, 1992;Clifford et al., 1995;Davies, 1997;Fernández, 1992) and the learning of and imitation of antisocial as well as prosocial behaviour shown in media content (Berry and Asamen, 1993;Brown and Bryant, 1990;Ferrés i Prats, 1998). ...
This article considers the subject of childhood and violence contained in the advertising format, focusing especially on television advertising. The article analyses the violent and aggressive content of audiovisual texts looking at childhood from a broader perspective than has been used in research to date, in order to show the wide spectrum of involvement of children in advertising material. This new focus implies looking at the subject of childhood and media violence in televised advertising taking into account the strategic communicative process, in which regard the figure of the child can be studied from three different yet complementary lines of analysis. The first evolves around the child as advertising target, according to the campaign's objective and the intention of the advertiser or issuer of the advertising message. The second line of analysis refers to the use of children as advertising resources, which can provoke effects at a cognitive, affective or even behavioural level. Third and finally, one can refer to children as receptors of advertising, an aspect associated with the behaviour and habits of television and advertising intake by these young viewers. The importance and current relevance of the subject are highlighted in the legislative interventions of national governments as well as transnational institutions (for example the EU) that are related to violence in advertising and childhood.
Works of art and information judged as obscene can be censored or banned. This brief review evaluates the costs and benefits of censorship and the banning of artwork and information. In the history of psychology, Frederick Wiseman's film Titicut Follies epitomizes the disadvantages of concealing art content. Despite protecting the privacy of patients, the ban of Titicut Follies delayed the reform of psychiatric treatment practices and hospitals. The decision to censor or ban artistic and scientific information can result in the loss of knowledge and potential improvements to social, political, and economic institution practices.
Brown explores the contradiction that a youth subculture at the centre of a mass-mediated moral panic was also the inspiration for a string of Hollywood movies, which placed the male-teen-buddy ‘metalhead’ experience at the centre of the narrative. The fact that such films are comedies might suggest the role of satire is to ‘make safe’ a troubling youth culture by simplifying and distorting it using established comedic conventions. But, as Brown shows, while the films do comically simplify the references to heavy metal culture, including argot, electric-guitar virtuosity, bands and fandom, they also articulate a form of ‘protest masculinity’ that subverts both plot and narrative, allowing the ‘loser’ male-teen-metalhead characters to triumph against hegemonic forms of male authority that are depicted as pompous and corrupt.
Bitch Planet, a feminist satire of exploitation comics and films by Kelly Sue DeConnick and Valentine De Landro, explicitly subverts this traditional comic book paradigm throughout its run, but nowhere more assertively than in issue #6, which begins with a trigger warning exhorting the reader to assess her comfort level with the upcoming flashback story that will address sexual violence. This page de-centres the aggressor, instead positioning the survivor of sexual violence at the centre of the comic reading experience. Using trauma theory and the existing body of work on ‘fridged’ women in comics, as well as reflecting on the history of the trigger warning as it has been used in comics to this point, we argue that issue #6 represents a significant shift in the way comics approach marginalized readers, even given the difficulties of presenting ‘warnings’ within the context of mainstream comics art.
The purpose of this study was to investigate current censorship practices and beliefs of music therapists working in adult mental health settings. The research questions included: (a) What music, or elements of music, do music therapists censor during music therapy sessions? (b) If music therapists censor, what are their reasons for censoring? The participants for this study were board-certified music therapists (N = 42) who completed an online survey investigating their current censorship practices. Censorship in music therapy practice was broadly defined as music therapists refraining from using or redirecting clients away from using certain lyrics, themes, songs, or genres of music before (i.e., therapist planning), during (i.e., therapist facilitating), and/or after (i.e., censoring clients’ music or verbalizations after they have been stated) expression. The majority of respondents (78.57%) censor at least one musical element, including themes (69.05%), lyrics (66.67%), and genres (16.67%). Reasons for censorship revolved around issues with treatment, including other group members’ responses, client comfortableness, emotional distress, self-esteem, and negative impact on the therapeutic relationship. However, approximately 25% reported that personal beliefs affected censorship, such as their comfort with the content, religious beliefs, and believing the client cannot benefit in any way from hearing the music. Further research needs to be conducted on the impact of lyrics, themes, and genres on client outcomes and the effect of censorship on the therapeutic relationship in music therapy practice.
The aim of the study was to explore the effects of parental media mediation types on adolescents` perception of the usefulness of the broadcasting rating system. A total of 520 middle school students participated in the survey. Results showed a higher utility of `autonomy-supportive restriction` strategy by the parents led to more positive perception of the usefulness of the rating system. This study argues that parents need to pursue a mediation strategy in which a rationale for prohibiting media contents use should be provided and in which the perspective of the adolescent is taken seriously.
This article sununarizes research on the effects of the United States alcohol warning label on adolescents. Most research evaluating alcohol warning effects on adolescents is from a study consisting of repeated cross-sectional samples of tenth and twelfth graders starting before the warning was required in 1989 and collected each year until 1995. There were substantial changes over time in awareness of and memory for the content of the warning label, but these effects leveled off after a few years. There was not convincing evidence of changes in alcohol-related beliefs, alcohol use, or risky alcohol-related behaviors as a result of tbe warning. Laboratory studies of the alcohol warning label explored issues regarding the optimal warning label content. These results were generally consistent with other research with adult participants.
Adolescents were recruited to participate in an experiment to assess whether psychological reactance can provide a theoretical explanation for the forbidden fruit effect in the context of movie rating restrictions. In addition to examining if movie ratings served as antecedents to freedom threat perceptions, we investigated the role authoritarian parents had on freedom threat perception and reactance arousal. Results indicated that a movie with an NC-17 rating was perceived as a stronger freedom threat than R and PG-13 rated movies. Interestingly, adolescents who perceived their parents to be authoritarian were less likely to view movie ratings as a freedom threat. As expected, freedom threat perceptions were positively associated with psychological reactance. Reactance, in turn, was positively associated with both first and third person attitudes. The results are discussed with an emphasis on the theoretical and practical implications of the findings.
Previous research has shown that manipulations of source prestige can mediate subjects' responses to music, and that attractive people are perceived more positively than their unattractive counterparts. In light of this, the present study investigated the effects of the physical attractiveness of twenty pop music performers on adolescent subjects' responses to them, and excerpts of new age/ambient dance music allegedly by these artists. A series of adjectival scales gave rise to multivariate main effects of physical attractiveness on ratings of both the performers and their alleged music, with univariate main effects on the scales indicating that performer physical attractiveness was perceived positively by the subjects. There was also evidence that responses to the music were associated positively with responses to the performers. These results indicate that the performer of music can influence aesthetic responses, and that his/her physical attractiveness may mediate the nature of this relationship.
This study examined the effect of violence advisories and MPAA ratings on both parent‐child television viewing choices and on their verbal interactions while making those choices. Seventy parent‐child dyads were videotaped while reading, discussing and filling out a TV Guide booklet. There were several pages in the booklet. One set of choices contained program descriptions of 3 violent shows with no advisory or rating; one set of descriptions contained 3 violent programs, one of which had an advisory; and a third set of program descriptions contained 3 violent programs, one of which had a “PG‐13” rating, while the other two had a “PG” rating. Parent‐child dyads disproportionately avoided programs with either advisories or more restrictive MPAA ratings. Parents mainly made negative comments about the advisories and restrictive ratings whereas children, especially older children, were more likely to make positive comments about the advisories and ratings. In addition, the presence of an advisory or MPAA rating appeared to place stress on the decision‐making process. Parents used more negative affect and less positive affect when discussing sets of violent programs where one program had an advisory or rating than when discussing violent programs where no advisory or rating was present. Children, on the other hand used more negative affect when discussing violent programs where one had an advisory or more restrictive MPAA rating but also used more positive affect when discussing programs with a restrictive MPAA rating.
This meta-analysis (k = 35, N = 11,629) examines the effect that listening to music, particularly popular music, has on consumers. Results demonstrate that listening to music generates an effect on listeners consistent with the content of the music (average r = .210, k = 35, N = 11,629). This effect was similar when considering survey research (r = .227) or experimental research (r = .265). The tenets of excitation transfer theory received some support, particularly when considering the effects of music as a priming material (r = .399), demonstrating the impact of music as a means of establishing mood, and ultimately the subsequent reactions of individuals. One conclusion is that efforts toward media literacy or education may prove far more productive than media content restrictions when attempting to curb potential undesirable media effects. Additional implications for policy and theory are discussed.
This investigation examines the use of the MPAA television advisory ratings in the decision‐making of parents of intellectually gifted children and explores the manner by which ratings information is incorporated into rules and regulations about television in the home. It comes on the heels of published reports suggesting the general inadequacy and counter productivity of the age‐based ratings. In comparison to parents of non‐gifted children, parents of gifted children were more likely to utilize TV ratings information in the mediation of their children's televiewing. They tended to employ a highly inductive (communication‐oriented) style of child rearing and a highly evaluative (discussion‐based) method of TV mediation, tended to believe that television can have significant positive and/or negative effects on children, and were more concerned with cognitive‐ and affective‐level effects. The possible ramifications of these findings with regard to the new content‐driven ratings campaign and forthcoming V‐chip technology are discussed.
In the form of a review of question, this paper deals with the influence of audio-visual violence on the behaviour of both adolescents and adults. Theories and main empirical results of the latter field of research are here presented together with the filmic variables liable to modulate such a relationship. The consequences of such an influence and their prevention are mainly dealt with according to a psycho-social perspective. The paper presents the debate rising from such a theme and suggests a few new perspectives of researches to be carried out.
Music Video Television (MTV), launched in August 1981, became increasingly prominent in the 1980s. Although music videos had been pioneered before MTV, the cable channel afforded a dedicated platform to promote sales of recorded music, a function previously assumed by radio. Earlier "concept videos" using narration and abstraction had been employed by such artists as Bob Dylan, The Beatles, and The Rolling Stones. MTV grew and reached 27 million homes by 1986, and 52 million by 1990. Expressions of gender and race/ethnicity are critical factors in interpreting music videos, many of which prominently portrayed risk behaviors - such as the use of tobacco, alcohol, drugs, and violence - as well as relationships between racial/ethnic groups, genders, and romantic partners. Youth now have ample access to music videos on the Internet, and can easily create and disseminate their own music video content.
This article describes some of the effects violence and sex may have on media consumers, as well as the media's role in influencing antisocial behavior with regard to news, entertainment and advertising. It also examines the South African censorship policy with regard to religious tolerance, as well as the changing mores with regard to sex and violence in the media. In general, the analysis suggests that the South African Publications Act of 1974 needs drastic revision and that greater tolerance should be shown towards adult tastes.
This study examined whether the motivation for watching television violence and several audience and contextual factors, including locus of control, experience with crime, exposure to television violence, perceived realism, and involvement, explain differences in viewer aggression in women and men. Motivation was a much more important predictor of viewer aggression for males than for females. Among men, when exposure to televised violence was a significant predictor of aggression, experience with crime, locus of control, and motivation were stronger predictors. Among women, background factors (experience with crime and locus of control) predicted aggression. These results support the “uses and gratifications” theoretical suppositions that individual characteristics mediate the impact of media exposure. Because background factors and motivation for watching television violence impacted viewer aggression differently in men and women, the data raise questions about research concluding that sheer exposure to television violence leads to aggression. Results suggest the need to scrutinize further the role of viewer motivation and other audience and contextual factors, as well as the importance of gender differences in the individual-use-exposure relationship.
This article points out two contradictions in current adolescent theory. The first is between the "classical" point of view, espousing the notion of "storm and stress," and the "empirical" view, supporting a concept of adolescence as relatively peaceful and harmonious. The latter approach, however, creates a second contradiction because it does not explain how young people cope with the major adaptations demanded as a result of changes in their physical, social, and emotional spheres of life. The article examines the status of concepts such as the "generation gap" and "identity crisis" and concludes with the formulation of a "focal" theory of adolescence which attempts to resolve the contradictions discussed earlier.
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