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Impact of Group Settings and Gender on Meals Purchased by College Students
Abstract
This study examines the impact of social context and perception of weight on calories purchased by college students in a natural setting. Not only did women in mixed-gender groups purchase fewer calories than did women in same-gender groups, but significant interaction effects exist among the gender composition of groups, perception of being overweight, and gender of respondents. Men modified calories purchased across mixed-gender and same-gender groups, purchasing more when in mixed-gender groups. The study helps address theoretical and methodological gaps in prior research and frames the findings in terms of variation of gender salience across social relational contexts.
... In total, 78 participants (see Table 1 for characteristics of participants) were recruited to ten focus groups (five held at a location in NI, five held at a location in ROI). Given the subject matter and the fact that the presence of the opposite sex can influence eating behaviours [20,21], groups were single sex (five exclusively male groups and five exclusively female groups), consisting of between six and nine participants and either younger (18-35 years old) or older (36-64 years old) with an overall mean age of 36.6 (SD = 13.2) years. 1 Socioeconomic status based on occupation status of the highest income earner in the household. Higher (ABC1) = higher and intermediate managerial or professional occupations, lower (C2DE) = unskilled, semi-skilled, skilled occupations and those unemployed. ...
Nutrition and Health Claims (NHCs) have been found to influence perceptions of food and consumption behaviour. While previous quantitative research has identified factors that may explain these effects, the current study aimed to address the dearth of in-depth exploration as to the underlying reasons why and how claims may impact upon perceptions and behaviour and the relationships between key factors. Seventy-eight participants took part in 10 focus groups. Discussions were transcribed verbatim and Nvivo 11 was used for thematic analysis. Six themes were developed from the data: 1. Target populations for NHCs; 2. Influence of NHCs on purchasing behaviour; 3. Characteristics/perceptions of products displaying NHCs; 4. Believability of NHCs; 5. Superior yet superficial knowledge; 6. Consumption of products displaying NHCs. Knowledge was a key factor influencing how much individuals believe claims (Believability of NHCs) and their perceptions (Characteristics/perceptions of products displaying NHCs). These perceptions and the characteristics of products displaying claims also impacted believability, as well as purchasing behaviour and consumption. Future research should be cognisant of the role of knowledge and characteristics or perceptions of products in the relationship between NHCs and consumer behaviour, and modelling of these relationships would allow their relative strength to be identified.
... There were 2 articles (15, 16) that each reported 2 separate studies that met the eligibility criteria, and so 42 studies were included from 40 publications (Figure 1). Some studies did not meet the inclusion criteria in the systematic review/metaanalysis, but nonetheless provided insight into the moderators and mechanisms involved in social facilitation of eating (12,(17)(18)(19)(20)(21)(22). We therefore included these in our wider discussion of the literature. ...
Background:
Research suggests that people tend to eat more when eating with other people, compared with when they eat alone, and this is known as the social facilitation of eating. However, little is known about when and why this phenomenon occurs.
Objectives:
This review aimed to quantify the evidence for social facilitation of eating and identify moderating factors and underlying mechanisms.
Methods:
We systematically reviewed studies that used experimental and nonexperimental approaches to examine food intake/food choice as a function of the number of co-eaters. The following databases were searched during April 2019: PsychInfo, Embase, Medline, and Social Sciences Citation Index. Studies that used naturalistic techniques were narratively synthesized, and meta-analyses were conducted to synthesize results from experimental studies.
Results:
We reviewed 42 studies. We found strong evidence that people select and eat more when eating with friends, compared with when they eat alone [Z = 5.32; P < 0.001; standardized mean difference (SMD) = 0.76; 95% CI: 0.48, 1.03]. The meta-analysis revealed no evidence for social facilitation across studies that had examined food intake when participants ate alone or with strangers/acquaintances (Z = 1.32; P = 0.19; SMD = 0.21, 95% CI: -0.10, 0.51). There was some evidence that the social facilitation of eating is moderated by gender, weight status, and food type. However, this evidence was limited by a lack of experimental research examining the moderating effect of these factors on the social facilitation of eating among friends. In 2 studies, there was evidence that the effect of the social context on eating may be partly mediated by longer meal durations and the perceived appropriateness of eating.
Conclusions:
Findings suggest that eating with others increases food intake relative to eating alone, and this is moderated by the familiarity of co-eaters. The review identifies potential mechanisms for the social facilitation of eating and highlights the need for further research to establish mediating factors. Finally, we propose a new theoretical framework in which we suggest that the social facilitation of eating has evolved as an efficient evolutionary adaptation.
... As has been shown in many other contexts (Andreoni and Bernheim, 2009;Dimant, 2015;Pedersen et al., 1986), the presence of others and their behaviors conditions the actions we take. In particular, men's behavior has been documented to al- ter in the presence of women (Allen-O'Donnell, Cottingham, Nowak, and Snyder, 2011;Pawlowski, Atwal, and Dunbar, 2008;Van Vugt and Iredale, 2013). For example, it has recently been shown (Cronqvist and Yu, 2017) that for those companies where the CEO has a daughter the corporate social responsibility rating is significantly higher that for other companies. ...
Gender equality and the spillover effects of women on boards
The paper presents evidence that increased gender equality on boards can result in effects that extend beyond the actual boards where women are added. When working on the same board as women, those male directors who also have experience of working alongside women on a board elsewhere within their directorship network: (i) exhibit greater personal responsibility (board attendance); (ii) deliver an improved CEO accountability; and (iii) are associated with a lower risk taking. Our findings suggest that female directors exert an influence on the actions of their fellow male directors that extends beyond the focal board to other boards through a spillover effect. Failure to allow for these effects threatens to underestimate the benefits of increased gender equality in the boardroom.
JEL classification: G10, G34
Keywords: Gender equality, Regulatory reform, Women on boards, Personal responsibility, Monitoring, Absenteeism, CEO turnover, Risk
... A third assumption underlying the cause of obesity is referred to as the social assumption. Research studies have found that the characteristics of persons we choose to dine with, such as physical size (McFerran et al., 2010) or gender (Allen-O'Donnell et al., 2011) impact how much food we eat. The mechanisms affecting these decisions to eat are social in nature because they suggest that our perception of how others judge our eating habits have an effect on our relationship with food. ...
... Consumers who are susceptible to the influence of others are more likely to consume foods they perceive will make others evaluate them positively, and avoid consuming foods they believe will make others evaluate them negatively ( Burnkrant & Cousineau, 1975). In addition, the mere presence of others in a dining experience, including their size ( McFerran et al., 2010) and gender ( Allen-O'Donnell, Cottingham, Nowak, & Snyder, 2011), influences the quantity of food consumed. Consideration of how others evaluate our food choices and the subsequent emotions of feeling accepted rather than rejected or judged demonstrate how external factors prompt emotional influences on food choices. ...
The authors review and extend the literature on emotional ability as it impacts nonverbal communication from the perspective of potential customers and depending on sales influence techniques. They discuss four dimensions of emotional ability and highlight emotional ability's impact on four aspects of face‐to‐face interactions—consumer characteristics, salesperson characteristics, the convergence of buyer/seller emotional abilities, and environmental characteristics. They suggest areas for future research to help consumers, marketers, and health care professionals better understand how emotional ability impacts nonverbal communication, and to enhance the quality of interactions.
... Consumers also strive to express their identity through eating by demonstrating self-control ( Roth, Herman, Polivy, & Pliner, 2001). For example, consumers eat different amounts when dining with members of the opposite sex as a way to project their masculinity or femininity ( Allen-O'Donnell, Cottingham, Nowak, & Snyder, 2011). Using food to achieve and display aspects of identity may influence movement along the FWB continuum. ...
Nutritional information via simplified labelling on products’ front of pack has become common in retail stores and is now concerning collective catering. While numerous studies have investigated the effects of such information policies on consumers' decisions in shops, few studies have focused on choices made in collective catering. In such settings consumers must compose a meal by combining dishes to be eaten during the same occasion. Each choice is then dependent of the selection of other foods, yielding a different decision problem as in a store where items are selected independently of one another. The aim of this study was to understand whether a nutritional labelling, (Nutri-Score®), modified the choices of consumers and more precisely modified the meal composition strategies - the associations between dishes made by consumers. A computerized menu composition task was designed, 371 participants were randomly redirected either to an interface displaying the Nutri-Score® of dishes, or to an interface showing the dishes without Nutri-Score®. Bayesian logistic regressions were used to explore dependency relationships between foods in presence or absence of Nutri-Score®. When considering dishes individually, no significant effects of the Nutri-Score® were observed, but significant effects of the Nutri-Score® on composition strategies could be observed. Two types of strategies seemed to emerge: homogeneous behaviors, where selected dishes had similar scores and compensatory behaviors where selected dishes had contrasted scores. In conclusion, the effect of a nutritional labelling can have complex consequences on food decisions that extend beyond the selection of food items taken individually.
The World Health Organization recommends reducing sugar intake in order to improve one's health. In this spirit, the aim of this research is to test the impact that dining as a family has on the consumption of sweet food and to compare the results with the impact of dining alone or with friends, at home or away. Based on a mixed‐method design combining an experiment with a descriptive survey, the results show that family dining at home fosters healthier eating behavior by restricting sweet food consumption, while dining alone or with friends at home leads more consumption of sweet foods. However, this protective effect of family dining does not hold outside the home. This study helps explain the contradictions in the literature regarding how the presence of others influences food intake. It provides guidance to policy and business stakeholders on ways to reduce sugar consumption and to improve consumers' eating behaviors. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
People form impressions of others based on how much those others eat—we refer to these judgments as “consumptions stereotypes”. For example, people who eat large amounts of food are often viewed as more masculine and less feminine than are people who eat small amounts of food. Given the existence of these consumption stereotypes, people can use their food intake as a means of conveying a particular impression to others. For example, if you want to appear more feminine, then you could eat a smaller meal. In this chapter, we review the research on consumption stereotypes related to how much food a person eats, as well as evidence that amount of food that people eat is influenced by their motivation to convey particular impressions to others.
Examining changes in two different retail formats, we show that consumers alter their purchases depending on the retail environment. In both settings, the change in behavior coincides with a reduction in the interpersonal interaction required to complete a transaction. As such, we contend that the format changes reduced a “social friction” that would otherwise inhibit consumers due to an implicit cost associated with ordering certain items in social settings.
This paper was accepted by Pradeep Chintagunta, marketing.
The general public’s nutritional behaviour is a priority of public-health authorities. Associated diseases are the prime cause of mortality worldwide. For reasons of public health, a better understanding of the consumer Perception of Nutritional Risk (PNR) is essential, since this, according to the protection motivation theory, influences behavioural intention (Maddux and Rogers, 1983; Rogers, 1975). Following a review of the literature and qualitative research, the present article endeavours to clarify the concept of
PNR, explore potential explanatory or moderating factors, and identify leads for future research. We show that PNR depends not solely on the product characteristics (role of perceived naturalness), but also the consumption situation (role of commensality) and purchasing conditions (role of hyperchoice).
Le comportement nutritionnel des populations est une priorité pour les pouvoirs publics. En effet, les
maladies associées sont la première cause de mortalité dans le monde. Dans un souci de santé publique, il
est essentiel de mieux comprendre la Perception du Risque Nutritionnel par le consommateur (PRN), car
elle influence l’intention comportementale d’après le modèle de la motivation à se protéger ( Maddux et
Rogers, 1983 ; Rogers, 1975). A travers une synthèse de la littérature et une étude qualitative, cet article
clarifie le concept de PRN, explore de potentiels facteurs explicatifs ou modérateurs, et identifie des pistes
de recherche. Il montre que la PRN ne tient pas seulement aux caractéristiques du produit (rôle de la
naturalité perçue), mais aussi au contexte de consommation (rôle de la commensalité) et d’achat (rôle de
l’hyperchoix).
This study examined whether there is subcultural variation in the stigma of obesity. Black and White women rated photographs of thin, average, and large Black and White women on a number of evaluative dimensions. The photographs depicted professional models dressed in fashionable clothing. Results showed that White women rated large women, especially large White women, lower on attractiveness, intelligence, job success, relationship success, happiness, and popularity than they did average or thin women. By contrast, Black women did not show the same denigration of large women, and this was especially true when they were rating large Black women. A number of possible explanations are offered for these results, such as the difference in Black and White women's social role models, weight salience, subcultural beliefs concerning obesity, and disidentification from mainstream values.
Recent meta-analytic reviews have documented that the sexes typically differ in a variety of social behaviors, including aggression, helping, nonverbal behavior, and various aspects of inter-action in task-oriented groups. In general, these findings are consistent with a social-role theory of sex differences, which emphasizes the causal impact of gender roles-that is, of people's beliefs about the behavior that is appropriate for each sex. To move beyond the demonstration of consistency between role expectations and social behavior, meta-analyses have examined the moderators and mediators specified by this theoretical model The outcomes of these moderator and mediator analyses are illustrated from several meta-analyses of gender and social behavior. These meta-analyses thus show that quantitative reviewing is not limited to the mere summarizing of research findings; the technique also allows reviewers to examine the plausibility of theories that are relevant to these findings.
This paper describes the construction of the Masculine Body Ideal Distress Scale (MBIDS) and an initial study examining its psychometric properties. For the study, 154 mostly Caucasian and heterosexual college males completed the MBIDS along with a measure of body dissatisfaction and a measure of conformity to masculinity norms. Results indicated that the Masculine Body Ideal Distress Scale consisted of one factor, had very high internal consistency, and related to both higher levels of body dissatisfaction and conformity to masculine norms. The discussion focuses on future research using the MBIDS and limitations to the study.
According to the perspective developed in this article, widely shared, hegemonic cultural beliefs about gender and their impact in what the authors call “social relational” contexts are among the core components that maintain and change the gender system. When gender is salient in these ubiquitous contexts, cultural beliefs about gender function as part of the rules of the game, biasing the behaviors, performances, and evaluations of otherwise similar men and women in systematic ways that the authors specify. While the biasing impact of gender beliefs may be small in any one instance, the consequences cumulate over individuals’ lives and result in substantially different outcomes for men and women. After describing this perspective, the authors show how it sheds newlight on some defining features of the gender system and illustrate its implications for research into specific questions about gender inequality.
Prior qualitative research has suggested that people assume muscular men are more masculine. This assumption was tested quantitatively in 2 studies. In Study 1, men and women completed measures of gender-role traits and behaviors, whereas in Study 2, men completed measures of gender-role conflict and traditional attitudes about men. Study 1 revealed a correlation between self-rated male-typed traits and behaviors, with a need to be more muscular for both men and women. In Study 2, men with more traditional attitudes about men also wanted to be more muscular; men who wanted to be more muscular were experiencing conflict with regard to society's expectations that they be successful, powerful, and competitive, and they reported that finding a balance between work and leisure is difficult. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The present study examined the amount of food chosen by moderately obese and nonobese customers in a university cafeteria as a function of whether they were about to eat alone or were explicitly accompanied by others during lunch. It was hypothesized that many overweight individuals are self-conscious about eating due to perceived social pressures, and that obese people would therefore choose less food (i.e., suppress intake) when eating with others than when alone. Food selections of a matched sample of overweight and nonobese individuals were recorded, and subjects were observed as they took a seat to determine if they ate alone or with others. Caloric values of foods chosen for each meal were computed. Results for the number of calories indicated that, as predicted, overweight subjects purchased less food when accompanied than when alone. Nonobese individuals, by contrast, chose more food when with others than when alone. In addition, males chose more food than females and obese subjects chose more than normals. Results were discussed in terms of the impact of social variables on eating behavior, and the theoretical importance of weight consciousness and pereceived social pressures in understanding correlates of obesity. Several alternative explanations were addressed.
A social psychological account of the acquisition of binge eating, analogous to the classic social psychological work, "Social Pressures in Informal Groups" (Festinger, Schachter, & Back, 1950), is suggested and tested in two college sororities. In these sororities, clear evidence of group norms about appropriate binge-eating behavior was found; in one sorority, the more one binged, the more popular one was. In the other, popularity was associated with binging the right amount: Those who binged too much or too little were less popular than those who binged at the mean. Evidence of social pressures to binge eat were found as well. By the end of the academic year, a sorority member's binge eating could be predicted from the binge-eating level of her friends (average r = .31). As friendship groups grew more cohesive, a sorority member's binge eating grew more and more like that of her friends (average r = .35). The parsimony of a social psychological account of the acquisition of binge eating behavior is shown. I argue that there is no great mystery to how bulimia has become such a serious problem for today's women. Binge eating seems to be an acquired pattern of behavior, perhaps through modeling, and appears to be learned much like any other set of behaviors. Like other behaviors, it is under substantial social control.
In Experiment 1, male and female subjects were given an opportunity to snack as they participated in a "get-acquainted study" with a same-sex or opposite-sex partner (confederate) whose social desirability was manipulated. Consistent with the hypothesis that women may eat less when motivated to present themselves in a feminine light, female subjects ate significantly less with a desirable male partner than in the remaining three conditions. In contrast, male subjects did not eat more (or less) with a desirable woman, although they did show an overall tendency to eat less with female (vs. male) partners. In Experiment 2, female subjects snacked as they got acquainted with a desirable male partner (confederate). Before this interaction, subjects received feedback indicating that they had either very masculine or very feminine interests. In addition, subjects believed either that their male partner was aware of their gender feedback or that he was unaware. Consistent with predictions derived from Schlenker's (1982) analytic-identity theory of social conduct, subjects in the partner-aware conditions ate less when they had received masculine (vs. feminine) feedback, whereas subjects in the partner-unaware conditions ate less when they had received feminine (vs. masculine) feedback. Implications for understanding eating disorders such as anorexia and bulimia are discussed.
A review of the sociological research regarding the gendered features of food consumption is presented. The focus is upon differences between women and men in regard to their preferences for particular foods and types of meals, seen in relation to the cultural function of foods as symbolic markers of femininity or masculinity, assessments of the quantities of food consumed by women and men respectively, and differences between women and men in regard to concerns with food safety, health, weight reduction and fitness. Some methodological limitations of this research are discussed with particular reference to the need for interdisciplinary cooperation between sociologists and nutritionists in the design and analysis of dietary surveys. Suggestions are made in regard to future directions for sociological research in this field, with particular reference to the issue that dietary recommendations appear to focus upon increasing the consumption of foods that are markers of femininity and decreasing the consumption of foods that are markers of masculinity in Western food culture.
Large portions of food may contribute to excess energy intake and greater obesity. However, data on the effects of portion size on food intake in adults are limited.
We examined the effect of portion size on intake during a single meal. We also investigated whether the response to portion size depended on which person, the subject or the experimenter, determined the amount of food on the plate.
Fifty-one men and women were served lunch 1 d/wk for 4 wk. Lunch included an entrée of macaroni and cheese consumed ad libitum. At each meal, subjects were presented with 1 of 4 portions of the entrée: 500, 625, 750, or 1000 g. One group of subjects received the portion on a plate, and a second group received it in a serving dish and took the amount they desired on their plates.
Portion size significantly influenced energy intake at lunch (P < 0.0001). Subjects consumed 30% more energy (676 kJ) when offered the largest portion than when offered the smallest portion. The response to the variations in portion size was not influenced by who determined the amount of food on the plate or by subject characteristics such as sex, body mass index, or scores for dietary restraint or disinhibition.
Larger portions led to greater energy intake regardless of serving method and subject characteristics. Portion size is a modifiable determinant of energy intake that should be addressed in connection with the prevention and treatment of obesity.
Gender differences in health behaviors have been reported in many studies but casual mechanisms have been neglected.
This study examines 4 food choice behaviors in a large sample of young adults from 23 countries and tests 2 possible explanatory mechanisms for the gender differences-women's greater likelihood of dieting and women's greater beliefs in the importance of healthy diets.
Women were more likely than men to report avoiding high-fat foods, eating fruit and fiber, and limiting salt (to a lesser extent) in almost all of the 23 countries. They were also more likely to be dieting and attached greater importance to healthy eating. Dieting status explained around 22% of fiber choices, and 7% of fruit, but none of the gender difference in salt. Health beliefs explained around 40% of the differences in each of the dietary behaviors and together they explained almost 50%. Gender differences in food choices therefore appear to be partly attributable to women's greater weight control involvement and partly to their stronger beliefs in healthy eating.
Further research is needed to understand the additional factors that could promote men's participation in simple healthy eating practices.
This study examines ethnic and gender differences in eating attitudes and behaviors among college students. Participants were 225 Black and 199 White students sampled from a historically Black university. White participants were more dissatisfied with their bodies, engaged in more self-loathing, and dieted more than Blacks. Similarly, women were more dissatisfied with their bodies, engaged in more self-loathing, dieted more, and showed a greater drive for thinness than men. White women and Blacks of either gender exhibited similar predictors of drive for thinness with each group showing some combination of dieting and self-loathing. Intrapersonal anger predicted drive for thinness in White men, adding to a growing body of research suggesting a link between anger and eating disorders. Results support a substantial body of literature showing that Black and White college students differ on their views of body image and eating. Future research should explore the role of anger as a risk factor for eating disorders among White men.
This study tests the hypotheses that women internalize the societal value of thinness by showing body dissatisfaction and food restriction while men externalize by showing a dislike of fat people. In comparing 53 male and 142 female college students, we found that women were more likely to restrict food and showed more body dissatisfaction. Despite the fact that men were larger than women on average, they were relatively satisfied with their bodies. However, men were more likely to show dislike of fat people than women. Body dissatisfaction and dislike of fat people were negatively correlated suggesting that these constitute distinct responses. Results suggest that men and women adopt different cognitive strategies to cope with the American emphasis on thinness.
The physical changes of pubertal growth typically initiate a redefinition of self among boys and girls, with an emphasis on body image. This change in self-image entails notable adjustment risks when it involves a perception of being "overweight," including depressed moods, somatic complaints, and lower self-esteem. Substantial support for this proposition was found in data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health). As hypothesized, pubertal development and its associated weight gains (identified by BMI) are linked significantly to perceptions of being overweight, particularly among girls. These perceptions increase the risk of depressed moods, somatic complaints, and lower self-esteem among both genders. In a test of this model by racial-ethnic and gender groups, adolescents who claim to be overweight are more likely to be influenced by pubertal growth if they are Anglo- or Hispanic-American girls than boys or African-Americans. Also, a sense of being overweight has more negative effects on Anglo adolescents' emotional health than on that of African- and Hispanic American youths.
This paper combines externality theory with social interaction theory to explain differences in the eating behaviors of obese individuals and those of normal weight in a large smorgasbord restaurant. I found that (1) an obese or overweight person, who ate at the smorgasbord regularly, was likely to eat alone or with other obese or overweight people, but seldom with those of normal weight. (2) Comparisons of normal weight accompanied those obese or overweight people who frequented the smorgasbord only on special occasions. (3) Among obese and overweight individuals who were regular customers, compansionship did not affect the amount of food consumed or the speed at which it was eaten. (4) But among obese and overweight customers occasionally frequenting the smorgasbord, companionship seemed to affect behavior.
I Take it that the function of ceremony reaches in two directions, the affirmation of basic social arrangements and the presentation of ultimate doctrines about man and the world. Typically these celebrations are performed either by persons acting to one another or acting in concert before a congregation. So “social situations” are involved—defining these simply as physical arenas anywhere within which persons present are in perceptual range of one another, subject to mutual monitoring—the persons themselves being definable solely on this ground as a “gathering.”
The purpose of this article is to advance a new understanding of gender as a routine accomplishment embedded in everyday interaction. To do so entails a critical assessment of existing perspectives on sex and gender and the introduction of important distinctions among sex, sex category, and gender. We argue that recognition of the analytical independence of these concepts is essential for understanding the interactional work involved in being a gendered person in society. The thrust of our remarks is toward theoretical reconceptualization, but we consider fruitful directions for empirical research that are indicated by our formulation.
This study examines male body image perceptions, motivations, and related behaviors through a qualitative approach. Eleven males between the ages of 18 and 25 participated in two semi-structured interviews. During the first interview, participants were presented with three pictures that represented different body types as well as two image scales that ranged in muscularity and adiposity. The images served to stimulate conversation about a number of questions posed. The follow-up interviews permitted the participants to voice additional information pertaining to the first interview as well as assess their comfort level with the interview process. Discussion surrounds the males' level of body satisfaction, perception of the ideal male physique, perceived influences, perceived psychosocial consequences, perceived motivations, and behaviors employed to attain or maintain their desired body type. Finally, the utilization of cross-gender interviewing when investigating male body image is addressed.
The relationship between masculine gender role stress and body change was examined in 129 men, aged between 18 and 40 years (M = 24.38; SD = 6.04), who completed the Masculine Gender Role Stress scale (MGRS), the Drive for Muscularity Scale, the Eating Disorder Inventory, and the Eating Disorder Examination-Questionnaire. Significant relationships were observed between MGRS and drive for muscularity and, to a lesser extent, drive for thinness and disordered eating symptomatology. These relationships were mediated by body dissatisfaction, and several of the relationships were positively moderated by self-reported affective problems and personal ineffectiveness. Although interpretation of the results is limited by the cross-sectional design employed, the results are consistent with the proposition that a fear of deviating from the masculine gender role, particularly in men who feel ineffective and who have difficulty controlling and accessing their emotions, is related to concern with, and pursuit of, muscularity and leanness.
A total of 416 males and 233 females were observed during lunch in a university cafeteria. Subjects were categorized on the basis of a five-point scale ranging from overweight to underweight, and calories contained in lunches purchased were recorded. (Author/RH)
Until recently, understanding about women's health has been traditionally mediated by the medical model, which tends to regard each health problem in a vacuum. Such an approach ignored important considerations, such as body image. In an effort to explore this health factor, a review of the literature regarding women's health and its relation to body image is presented here. The paper examines the concept of women's body image, including the obsession with thinness, the beauty myth, media impact, the commodification and objectification of women, pornography, the rape myth, women's self-worth, and multicultural differences in body image. The desire to be thin is rampant in U.S. society and the next section examines eating disorders and body image. Some of the issues covered include: the epidemiology and etiology of eating disorders and their pervasiveness on college campuses. Sexual violence is also a growing problem and some of the factors associated with this statistic, such as the rape trauma syndrome and coping with sexual violence, are discussed. Another contextual problem connected to body image is substance abuse, particularly the abuse of alcohol, as well as depression, anxiety, and sexuality. Some practice implications for counselors in how to address these various issues are outlined. (RJM)
In this exploratory study, boys and men (aged 8 to 25 yrs) gave accounts of body shape ideals, body esteem, exercise, and diet in a series of focus groups. Men and boys in all groups presented discourses where being lean and muscular was linked to being healthy and fit. Being fat was related to weakness of will and lack of control by all age groups, and discourses of blame were used to describe those who were overweight. Sixteen-year-olds described peer pressure to be slender and muscular and two young men had experienced teasing about their body size. Adult men and teenagers explicitly linked having a well-toned, muscular body with feelings of confidence and power in social situations. Data are discussed in relation to recent suggestions that Western cultural attitudes to the male body are in a state of change and that men are becoming more concerned with body image. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The current study investigated the effects of social setting, type of restaurant environment, relative weight, and sex on the number of calories consumed by adults. Subjects were observed in 14 different restaurants by trained observers. Results indicated that both males and females consumed more calories in fast-food restaurants and that they ate more when in groups as compared to when they ate alone. Females ate less in larger as compared to smaller groups of people. Relative weight was not associated with the number of calories consumed. Implications of the results are discussed and possible treatment recommendations are outlined.
Obesity is a health condition, but its consequences extend far beyond the realm of health. To illuminate an important route by which the experience of obesity can filter into the status attainment process, this study drew on nationally representative data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health to test a social psychological model of the gendered link between obesity and education. Obese girls were less likely to enter college after high school than were their nonobese peers, especially when they attended schools in which obesity was relatively uncommon. Additional analyses revealed that increasing rates of internalizing symptoms, self-medication, and academic disengagement explained about one-third of the obese girls' lower odds of college enrollment. Obese boys, on the other hand, did not differ from their peers - no matter what their school context - in college enrollment.
Romantic relationships constitute an important, but understudied, developmental context for accommodation to pubertal change. Using a nationally representative sample of 5,487 black, white, and Hispanic adolescent females, this study examined associations among body mass index, current romantic involvement, and dieting. For each one point increase in body mass-index (BMI), the probability of having a romantic relationship decreased by 6%. Further, involvement in a nonsexual romantic relationship—but not involvement in a sexual romantic relationship—was associated with a significant increase in the likelihood of dieting. Associations between relationship type and dieting did not vary by age, socioeconomic status, or race, but were stronger at higher BMIs. These findings confirm that weight has implications for romantic involvement, which is highly valued by adolescent girls, and that romantic relationships, in turn, are important contexts in which to consider psychological and behavioral accommodation to the physical changes of puberty.
A questionnaire was administered to 124 women aged between 18 and 40 years (M = 24.49; SD = 4.9) to explore the relationship between feminine gender role stress and disordered eating symptomatology. Fear of being unattractive (a subscale of the Feminine Gender Role Stress scale) correlated with the dietary restraint, eating concern, bingeing and purging subscales of the Eating Disorder Examination-Questionnaire, while fear of being assertive correlated with the eating concern subscale. These relationships were mediated primarily by body dissatisfaction and by a tendency towards overcontrol. Although interpretation is limited by the cross-sectional design employed, these results add to evidence that the stress of conforming to the feminine role is associated with a range of unhealthy body change attitudes and behaviours. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
How does what a woman eats affect others' impressions of her? One hundred and thirteen male and female college students, mainly White and middle class, watched a videotape of a female student eating one of four meals that varied in size and gender connotations. Results showed that meal size significantly affected ratings of the woman's social appeal. Thus, eating lightly appears to be socially advantageous for a woman, a phenomenon that may contribute to women's high rates of eating disorders.
A longitudinal data set is employed to explore the sources of stability and change in young adults' health beliefs and behavior concerning drinking, diet, exercise, and wearing seat belts. There is substantial change in the performance of health behaviors during the first three years of college, and peers have a strong impact on the magnitude of that change. In total, however, parents are much more important than peers as sources of influence over these beliefs and behaviors. Of the various social influence processes considered, the direct modeling of behavior appears to be the most important avenue of influence for both parents and peers. These data, along with previous papers in our research program, suggest a pattern of gradually increasing parental influence on their children's health beliefs and behavior while the children are living at home, and the persistence of that influence at least through the college years.
Both male and female undergraduates ate more ice cream when eating occurred in groups of three or four than when they ate alone. These subjects also ate more ice cream when offered three different flavors than when offered only one flavor of their own choosing. For women, both variety and eating in a group combined to enhance eating more than either variable did alone. For men, variety or eating in a group caused about the same enhancement of consumption but the combination of the two variables did not lead to further increases in intake. This latter result probably reflects a ceiling effect, but it could represent a true gender difference.
Four hundred and sixteen male and 233 female subjects were observed in a university cafeteria at lunch time. They were categorized according to five perceived weight groups with category one being underweight and category five being overweight. The number of calories in the food bought for lunch by each subject was calculated and recorded. Males bought food containing more calories than females but for males the amount of calories did not differ by perceived weight category. Females purchased food with fewer calories than males but the heavier females bought food with higher caloric content.
Schachter's externality hypothesis suggests that overweight individuals are more likely to be induced to eat by salient external cues than normal weight individuals. While a range of studies have demonstrated the plausibility of this hypothesis in the case of sensory stimuli (e.g., taste cues), there is little evidence that the hypothesis applies to social stimuli. The current study examines this latter proposition by exposing male and female, overweight and normal weight subjects to a same-sex or opposite-sex peer model. Under the guise of engaging in a taste experiment, the subjects were either exposed to a model who tasted no crackers (no eat), one cracker (low eat), or twenty crackers (high eat). In addition, control model-absent conditions were also run for purposes of establishing baseline eating rates. If the externality hypotheses were to prevail in social domains, one would expect overweight subjects to be more prone to model the cracker-eating behavior of the peer than normal weight individuals. However, the findings indicate that all subject groups regardless of weight evidence a rather clear modeling effect and all subjects evidence social inhibition effects on their eating behavior as well. Several intriguing interactions among subject sex, model sex, subject weight, and social condition were also found. The discussion explores the relevance of an externality model of overweight eating in social domains, and focuses upon the interesting and somewhat distinct pattern of socially mediated eating exhibited by overweight females.
Research suggests that meals eaten with other people are larger than meals eaten alone. The effect of group size and acquaintance on consumption was investigated by serving dinner to female subjects alone, in pairs or in groups of four. Subjects dined alone, with friends or with strangers. Subjects in both pairs and groups of four ate more than did subjects alone, suggesting that the mere presence of others is more important in enhancing intake than the specific number of people present. Subjects with friends ate more dessert than subjects with strangers, indicating that the relationship of dining companions is an important factor contributing to social facilitation.
To understand the developmental psychopathology of eating disorders, it is crucial to explain the large gender discrepancy in the rates of these disorders, especially anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa. In this paper, meta-analysis was used to examine the relationship between gender role adherence and the existence of eating problems.
Of the 69 studies examined, 22 contained data deemed valid for the analyses. Measures of difference (d) and homogeneity were calculated. These studies used the Personal Attributes Questionnaire (PAQ) or the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI) to measure gender role adherence.
Findings indicated a small, heterogeneous positive relationship between femininity and eating problems and a small, heterogeneous negative relationship between masculinity and eating problems. Studies that used a clinical sample showed a larger discrepancy in masculinity scores between the eating-disordered and the control groups than did studies using surveys to identify eating problems. Six studies measured gender role traditionalism. The eating-disordered groups did not differ significantly on these measures compared to the control groups.
Despite construct validity problems with the use of the PAQ and the BSRI in this area of study, data suggest that gender role is related to eating problems. Crucial aspects of femininity likely to be related to eating problems need to be operationalized and their link to eating disorders examined.
The "weekly food diary" was translated and adapted for use by French subjects. This validated method requires subjects to record every food and drink intake over 1 week, with several descriptors of the physical, psychological and social circumstances. Ten male [age 23. 6+/-2.3 years, body mass index (BMI) 20.7+/-0.6] and 16 female (age 23.3+/-0.6 years, BMI 20+/-0.6) students completed four weekly diaries over 1 year, one per season. Data were processed using a specially designed software. Breakfast was important, (about 400 kcalories). Lunch and dinner were almost equal in energy content but alcohol was consumed mainly with dinner. Meal size correlated positively with premeal hunger, number of people present, duration of premeal interval and time of day. Postmeal satiety correlated positively with meal size, aftermeal stomach content, and negatively with time of day, postmeal hunger and duration of sleep the preceding night. These observations allow hypotheses to be developed about mechanisms of intake in a French population and cross-cultural comparisons to be made.
The study aims at appraising gender differences in health-related practices, and health behaviour among university students of the Khon Kaen University, northeast Thailand, using a self-administered questionnaire. Of 539 university students, there were 155 males, 384 females, with mean ages 19.7 (+/- 1.2) and 19.6 (+/- 1.1) years, respectively. Persistent health problems were not significantly different between male and female students (12.9% vs. 15.4%). An average body mass index (BMI) was significantly different between male and female students (20.2 +/- 2.1 vs. 19.8 +/- 2.1). Female students reported positive health habits, in terms of drinking, smoking, sun protection, tooth brushing, fruit consumption, conscious efforts to avoid fat and cholesterol, over men, while regular exercise and safety belt use were more likely practised among male students. Using ANOVA and pairwise multiple comparisons, female students demonstrated better health eating habits than men (p = 0.0001). Coronary heart disease preventive habits between the medical and nonmedical faculty was greater for female students than for male students (p = 0.0006 for gender; p = 0.0001 for faculty). Health behaviour (combination of health eating habits, deliberate nutritional practices and coronary heart diseases preventive behaviour) was found to be better practised among women than men (p = 0.0001). These findings, therefore, should focus attention on university students as a target group for health education.
We sought to assess whether cultural ideals of the male body, as illustrated by magazine models, have changed over the past 25 years.
We examined 115 male centerfold models in Playgirl magazine from 1973 to 1997. Using the models' heights and weights quoted by the magazine, together with visual estimates of body fat, we calculated the body mass index (BMI) and fat-free mass index (FFMI) of each model.
The Playgirl centerfold models became increasingly "dense" and more muscular over time, as indicated by the significant correlations between BMI, FFMI, and year of publication.
These observations, in combination with previous studies, suggest that cultural norms of the ideal male body are growing increasingly muscular.
This study explored the degree to which people adhere to norms for "appropriate" eating behavior in social situations. Of particular interest was how people determine what is appropriate behavior when they are faced with conflicting norms within a given situation. Participants tasted cookies while alone or while observed by the experimenter. Furthermore, participants were assigned to either a "no norm" condition in which they were given no indication of how much other people in the study had eaten, an "inhibition norm" condition in which they were led to believe that others had eaten minimally, or an "augmentation norm" condition in which they were led to believe that others in the study had eaten a lot. When they were alone, participants were influenced by the norms; but when they were observed, they ate minimally, regardless of the norms to which they were exposed. It seems that a norm for minimal eating superseded a matching norm which prescribes that people should use the intake of their peers as a guide for appropriate behavior. Implications of these findings and limitations of the study were discussed.
Cognitive restraint, a stable disposition to limit food intake, can be assessed by questionnaires, but there is no quantitative, objective measure of its effect.
The goal was to provide an objective measure of the intake-limiting effects of cognitive restraint by testing meal intake under conditions intended to minimize or accentuate restraint.
Healthy women (n = 41; aged 35 +/- 9 y; body mass index, in kg/m2: 21.3 +/- 1.9) participated in once-weekly laboratory lunch tests under 4 conditions: condition 1, subjects ate alone (baseline); condition 2, subjects ate alone while listening to recorded instructions focusing on the sensory characteristics of the foods (attention); condition 3, subjects ate alone while listening to a recorded detective story (distraction); and condition 4, a group of 4 subjects had lunch together. On all occasions, the same foods were presented and ingested ad libitum. The Three-Factor Eating Questionnaire (TFEQ) was filled out after the series of 4 meals was completed.
Meal size was significantly higher in the distraction condition than at baseline (by 301 +/- 26 kJ; P < 0.001). The difference in energy intake between the baseline and distraction conditions significantly correlated with factor 1 (cognitive restraint) of the TFEQ (r = 0.51, P < 0.01) and with total score (r = 0.32, P < 0.05) but not with disinhibition or hunger. For each additional point on factor 1, meal size increased by 50 kJ under the distraction condition compared with baseline. The group eating condition induced no increase in meal size.
Cognitive restraint exerts a quantifiable limiting effect on intake at meal times and this effect can be offset by cognitive distraction.
Fruits and vegetables are important components of a healthy diet, but intakes in most Western countries are well below the recommended five servings a day. Men in particular are eating too little. The aim of this study is to understand the processes underlying this gender difference. Fruit and vegetable intake, nutrition knowledge, taste preferences, attitudes to fruit and vegetable intake, and dieting status, were assessed in a simple questionnaire in 1,024 older adults attending population-based cancer screening across the UK. The results confirmed the pattern of men consuming fewer servings of fruit and vegetables daily than women (2.52 vs 3.47; p<0.01). Fewer men than women knew the current recommendations for fruit and vegetable intake, and fewer were aware of the links between fruit and vegetable consumption and disease prevention. Women rated their liking for vegetables but not fruit higher, and there were no differences in attitudes. Men were less likely to be dieting to lose weight. Multivariate analysis showed that the gender difference in intake was substantially attenuated by controlling for nutrition knowledge. There were no significant attenuating effects of preferences, attitudes or dieting status. These results indicate that men's poorer nutrition knowledge explains a significant part of their lower intake of fruit and vegetables.
In two parallel studies, we examined the effect of social influence and palatability on amount consumed and on food choice. In Experiment 1, which looked at amount consumed, participants were provided with either palatable or unpalatable food; they were also given information about how much previous participants had eaten (large or small amounts) or were given no information. In the case of palatable food, participants ate more when led to believe that prior participants had eaten a great deal than when led to believe that prior participants had eaten small amounts or when provided with no information. This social-influence effect was not present when participants received unpalatable food. In Experiment 2, which looked at food choice, some participants learned that prior participants had chosen the palatable food, others learned that prior participants had chosen the unpalatable food, while still others received no information about prior participants' choices. The social-influence manipulation had no effect on participants' food choices; nearly all of them chose the palatable food. The results were discussed in the context of Churchfield's (1995) distinction between judgments about matters of fact and judgments about preferences. The results were also used to illustrate the importance of palatability as a determinant of eating behavior.
Male and female participants provided impression ratings for either a normal-weight or overweight male or female target, who was portrayed as eating either small or large meals. Males rated normal-weight targets as more physically attractive than overweight targets, whereas ratings of physical attractiveness were unaffected by the body size manipulation among female participants. In addition, among male targets, the overweight large eater was rated the least socially attractive. For female targets, males rated the normal-weight large eater as the most socially attractive, whereas females rated the normal-weight small eater as the most socially attractive. Results are discussed in terms of how body and meal sizes interact to affect impressions of others.
To assess the stigmatization of obesity relative to the stigmatization of various disabilities among young men and women. Attitudes across ethnic groups were compared. In addition, these findings were compared with data showing severe stigmatization of obesity among children.
Participants included 356 university students (56% women; mean age, 20.6 years; mean BMI, 23.3 kg/m2; range, 14.4 to 45.0 kg/m2) who ranked six drawings of same-sex peers in order of how well they liked each person. The drawings showed adults with obesity, various disabilities, or no disability. These rankings were compared with those obtained through a similar procedure with 458 fifth- and sixth-grade children.
Obesity was highly stigmatized relative to physical disabilities. African-American women liked obese peers more than did African-American men, white men, or white women [F(1,216) = 4.02, p < 0.05]. Overweight and obese participants were no less stigmatizing of obesity than normal weight participants. Adults were more accepting than children of their obese peers [t(761) = 9.16, p < 0.001].
Although the stigmatization of obesity was high among participants overall, African-American women seemed to have more positive attitudes toward obesity than did white women, white men, or African-American men. Participants' weight did not affect their stigmatization of obesity: obese and overweight adults were as highly stigmatizing of obesity as non-overweight adults. Such internalized stigmatization could help to explain the low self-esteem and poor body image among obese young adults. However, adults seemed to have more positive attitudes about obesity than children. An understanding of the factors that limit the stigma of obesity among African-American women could help efforts to reduce stigma.
This experiment examined the 'time extension' explanation for the social facilitation effect, which is that people eat more as the number of co-eaters increases. Seventy male and 62 female participants ate a lunch consisting of pizza, cookies, and bottled water, alone or in (same-gender) groups of two or four and were given either 12 or 36 min in which to do so. The independent variables were gender, group size, and meal duration. The main dependent variable was amount consumed in the meal. The results showed that male participants ate more than did females, and participants eating the longer meal ate more than did those eating the shorter meal. However, the effect of group size was not significant. It was also the case that the amounts consumed by participants eating in two-person groups resembled one another to a greater extent than did of pairs of participants who ate alone or by participants in four-person groups. It was concluded that the results of the present paper provide strong support for the idea that the effect of group size on intake seen in previous studies is mediated by meal duration.
Eating in competition with other tasks has been shown to increase food intake, particularly when tasks are cognitively demanding. To test the hypothesis that social facilitation of eating occurs, in part, as a function of distraction which impairs the ability to self-monitor, eating with others was compared with eating alone or in front of the television. Using a repeated measure within-subjects design, thirty-seven participants (21 males) visited the laboratory 4 times to eat a buffet-style lunch ad libitum. All eating episodes were filmed. Energy intake (EI) was measured when participants ate alone (A), ate alone while watching TV (B), ate with two same sex strangers (C), and ate with two same sex friends (D) in a counterbalanced order. EI was significantly enhanced by presence of familiar others (D: 4565+/-272 kJ, p < 0.001) and watching TV (B: 4350+/-252 kJ, p < 0.05) compared to baseline (A: 3861+/-200 kJ). Length of eating episode correlated significantly (p < 0.05) with EI, however, amount of time spent eating and looking at food differed by condition with a greater percentage of time focussed on food during baseline (p < 0.001). Eating with friends increased EI by 18% and eating in front of the TV increased EI by 14% relative to baseline. Engaging in conversation or watching TV draws attention away from the eaten food and can stimulate food intake. However, since eating with strangers also drew attention away from food but did not result in increased intake, social facilitation effects are not simply due to distraction. Thus food intake can be enhanced when attention to food and self-monitoring are impaired during distraction, however, this effect is moderated when eating with strangers.
Consumption stereotypes refer to judgments about others based on their food intake. We review the empirical research on stereotypes based on what and how much people eat. The characteristics stereotypically associated with food intake pertain to domains ranging from gender roles and social appeal to health and weight. For example, people who eat "healthy" foods and smaller meals are seen as more feminine; conversely, those who eat "unhealthy" foods and larger meals are seen as more masculine. We further discuss how these stereotypes can be exploited by the eater to convey a particular impression (e.g., femininity, social appeal). Finally, we discuss the ways in which using food intake as an impression-management tactic can lead to chronic food restriction and unhealthy eating habits.
Previous research indicates that both males and females eat less in the presence of a stranger of the opposite sex than in the presence of a same sex. Another literature shows that people tend to model or matching the amount eaten by others. The extent to which people are eager to inhibit their food consumption or match other's intake is likely to vary as a function of the characteristics of the co-eater. The present study examines how males and females adjust their level of eating as a function of their familiarity with and the gender of their eating companion, using a free-eating paradigm. Findings indicated that both the familiarity between co-eaters and the participants' gender predicted food consumption. Although unfamiliarity suppressed both men's and women's food intakes, the matching effect operated only when a female co-eater was involved. We conclude that the overarching motive (i.e., producing a positive impression) does not necessarily vary substantially across the various gender-familiarity combinations, but that the means or strategies (eating lightly and or matching of intake) by which the person accomplishes it and the strength of the motive vary as a function of the audience. In other words, in some social contexts self-enhancing motives can be served by restricting intake as well as through ingratiatory strategies such as attitudinal or behavioral conformity.
Dating, dieting, and denial: Whose body is it? Paper presented at the meeting of the American College Health Association Social facilitation of eating among friends and strangers
- L Brand
- L Hong
- C P Herman
- J Polivy
Brand, L., & Hong, L. (1997, May). Dating, dieting, and denial: Whose body is it? Paper presented at the meeting of the American College Health Association, New Orleans, LA. Clendenen, V., Herman, C. P., & Polivy, J. (1994). Social facilitation of eating among friends and strangers. Appetite, 23, 1–13.