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Fungi: Ecological Importance and Impact on Humans

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Abstract

Fungi play vital roles in the biosphere. They are essential to the recycling of nutrients in all terrestrial habitats because they are the dominant decomposers of the complex components of plant debris, such as cellulose and lignin. As opportunistic heterotrophs, they have evolved hyphae to penetrate solid substrates, and spores for long‐range dispersal. They cause many diseases of plants and animals, but they also have established mutualistic symbioses with a wide range of organisms: cyanobacteria and green algae (in lichens), bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms and angiosperms (in mycorrhizae), and coleopteran, dipteran, homopteran, hymenopteran and isopteran insects. As parasites or pathogens they are well equipped to penetrate host organisms and to liberate spores that will effectively transmit them from one host to the next, and many species produce toxic compounds (mycotoxins). Some fungi affect human health in various ways. Key concepts Many fungi are opportunistic heterotrophs, disposers of, or recyclers of, organic substrates, especially those of plant origin. Parasitic fungi attack almost all known taxa of plants and animals. Fungi have established mutualistic symbioses with cyanobacteria and chlorophycota (green algae) to form lichens. Fungi often form symbiotic associations with the roots of plants (bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms and angiosperms) in mycorrhizae. Some fungi live as symbionts with coleoptera, diptera, homoptera and hymenoptera. Some fungi cause diseases (mycoses) in humans or excrete toxic compounds (mycotoxins). Fungal spores can cause severe allergies in humans.

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... Fungi are one of the most important groups of terrestrial organisms that play vital roles in the biosphere (Kendrick 2011). They exist in all possible habitats on the Earth's surface (Peay et al. 2016). ...
... Also, these organisms are considered as the main decomposers of plant and animal debris and therefore play a very vital role in recycling nutrients in nature (McClaugherty 2001, Cosgrove et al. 2007, Peay et al. 2016, Lin et al. 2019, Nicolás et al. 2019. The growth of plants in many habitats largely depends on the decomposition activity of organic matter by saprobic fungi, because without this activity, undecayed debrides accumulate on the surface and it is not possible for plants to benefit from these organic materials (Kendrick 2011). ...
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In March 2019, a number of synnematous fungal specimens were isolated from the dead tissues of Pistacia vera (pistachio) seedlings in a greenhouse at the Azarbaijan Shahid Madani University of Tabriz, Iran. Preliminary identification based on morphological characteristics showed that the fungal isolates belong to the genus Cephalotrichum. Two species namely C. asperulum and C. gorgonifer were identified by combining morphology and phylogeny inferred from ITS-rDNA sequence. To our knowledge, C. gorgonifer is a new record for the Iranian Funga. Moreover, pistachio is reported as a new host for C. asperulum and C. gorgonifer.
... In ecosystem functioning, diversity, and human use, fungi are dominant but often hidden components of terrestrial ecosystems (Gadd, 2006;Stajich et al., 2009;Blackwell, 2011;Kendrick, 2011;Hawksworth & Lücking, 2017;Steidinger et al., 2019). They are perhaps best known as dead organic matter decomposers, which makes them essential for cycling of carbon and other nutrients through Earth's ecosystems and atmosphere (Rayner & Boddy, 1988;Floudas et al., 2012;van der Wal et al., 2013). ...
... Given the dominant role fungi play in the function of different systems (Gadd, 2006;Stajich et al., 2009;Blackwell, 2011;Kendrick, 2011;Hawksworth & Lücking, 2017;Steidinger et al., 2019), there is an urgent need to improve our understanding of the functional and ecological diversity of fungi. Here, we highlight recent advances and key gaps in our knowledge of functional ecology in the kingdom fungi. ...
Article
Fungi play many essential roles in ecosystems. They facilitate plant access to nutrients and water, serve as decay agents that cycle carbon and nutrients through the soil, water and atmosphere, and are major regulators of macro‐organismal populations. Although technological advances are improving the detection and identification of fungi, there still exist key gaps in our ecological knowledge of this kingdom, especially related to function. Trait‐based approaches have been instrumental in strengthening our understanding of plant functional ecology and, as such, provide excellent models for deepening our understanding of fungal functional ecology in ways that complement insights gained from traditional and ‐omics‐based techniques. In this review, we synthesize current knowledge of fungal functional ecology, taxonomy and systematics and introduce a novel database of fungal functional traits (FunFun). FunFun is built to interface with other databases to explore and predict how fungal functional diversity varies by taxonomy, guild, and other evolutionary or ecological grouping variables. To highlight how a quantitative trait‐based approach can provide new insights, we describe multiple targeted examples and end by suggesting next steps in the rapidly growing field of fungal functional ecology.
... Furthermore, this group of microorganisms possesses important roles in ecology, agriculture, forestry and human health. In ecology, fungi play a role as decomposer since they can degrade complex nutrients and contaminants in the environment to balance the biosphere [3]. In addition, fungi are one of the major contributors to diseases in different Kingdoms. ...
... can release trillions of spores per day, which can cause chronic diseases to human through inhalation and to plants through direct contact [10]. These fungal spores can survive long periods of time until the conditions are favorable for growth; hence, the spread of these spores have ability to create pandemics [3]. Therefore, researchers have looked into synthetic and natural sources of antifungal compounds to inhibit fungal growth. ...
Article
A combination of approaches, including volatile organic compound (VOC) metabolomics, enzymatic activity and morphological investigations, are employed to provide insights on the toxic interactions among carbon-based nanomaterials and fungi. The model fungi investigated are Aspergillus niger and Aspergillus flavus. Their exposure to graphene (G) and graphene oxide (GO) presents 62% reduction in biomass and abnormal hyphae aspect. The stress response of these microorganisms in the presence of these nanomaterials is further determined by overall cell changes through apoptosis analyses and production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) by the fungal hyphae. The ROS production by these microorganisms exposed to the nanomaterials confirms cellular oxidative stress, which explains the apoptotic-like cell death observed in the presence of the nanomaterials. This fungal response is also linked to lower production of several important enzymes involved in the catabolism of nutrients for cell growth, such as acid phosphatase, Naphthol-ASBI phosphohydrolase, β-glucosidase and β-galactosidase. The presence of these nanomaterials also triggers changes in the production of VOC by the fungi. These changes are indicative of stress conditions since these compounds have significant roles in fungal metabolism. Overall, A. niger was more sensitive to GO and A. flavus was more sensitive to G.
... All fungi require organic matter to grow, but the nutrient requirements depend on the species to be cultivated. There are at least four distinct types of substrate (Table 14.2) that are directly related to the natural ecologic role of species to be cultivated: primary decomposers, secondary decomposers, parasites, and mycorrhizae [62]. Some species are capable of multiple roles. ...
... Fungi are versatile in producing lytic enzymes active on many types of chemical bonds. Without their decomposing power, the earth would be possibly covered with dead organic matter, especially materials rich in lignin and cellulose [62]. ...
... Fungi are ubiquitous eukaryotic organisms of environmental and medical importance. Exposure to airborne fungi is associated with adverse health effects in humans (Kendrick, 2011;Cannon et al., 2018). Fungi reproduce by spore production, many of which are dispersed in the air. ...
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Due to its location in the Caribbean Basin, frequent hurricanes and extreme rain events, Puerto Rico (PR) has a season of elevated outdoor fungal spores during the rainy months of September to November1,2. Hurricane María hit PR on September 20 and halted the 2017 season of fungal spores1. Nevertheless, due to the accumulation of organic debris in the aftermath of the hurricane, record fungal spore levels were observed in 20181. Since most Puerto Rican homes have natural air ventilation, fungal spores present outdoors can infiltrate indoors through open doors and windows and proliferate due to water damage conditions. This infiltration of fungal spores presents a problem of public health concern because exposure to high concentrations of fungal spores is associated with exacerbation of asthma, allergic rhinitis, and other chronic respiratory conditions3–7. We evaluated fungal spore concentration and composition in homes affected by water intrusion in the months following Hurricane María in PR using culture-based methods. Fifty homes in a neighborhood in San Juan, PR, were sampled with the MicroBio MB2 Air Sampler on two different occasions: August-September 2018 and June-July 2019, 12 and 22 months, respectively, after Hurricane María. At each household, air samples were collected from four indoor locations and an outdoor control using Maltose Extract Agar (MEA) and 25% Glycerol Nitrate Agar (G25N) media. After sampling, the Petri plates were incubated at 28 ± 2°C for up to 2 weeks, and fungal colonies were counted (CFU/m3) and identified at the genus level. Household residents self-reported if their homes were flooded, water-damaged, or remained dry non-flooded during the Hurricane. Molecular tools (the Microbiome Analyst and METAGEN assist platforms) were adapted to assess the abundance, composition, and diversity of the viable fungi recovered from the MEA and G25N plates. For the samples collected one year after Hurricane Maria, a significant positive correlation was observed between outdoor fungal spore levels and indoor fungal spore levels (rs = 0.48, p < .001, 95% CI [0.23, 0.67]), meaning that as outdoor fungal spore levels increased, the indoor spore levels tend to increase. The results of the linear regression model were statistically significant, F(1,48) = 119.77, p < .001, R2 = 0.71, indicating that the outdoor fungal levels can explain approximately 71% of the variance in indoor fungal spore levels. Similar results were observed during the second sampling period. These results were expected since an outdoor-indoor air continuum characterizes tropical homes. Results of relative abundance of fungal taxa showed a shift from non-sporulating fungi in the indoor environment of dry homes to Aspergillus (FDR-adjusted p-value = 0.05) taxa enrichment in the indoor environment of flooded homes (Fig. 1A). During the second sampling period, both indoor and outdoor environments were characterized by non-sporulating fungi, regardless of water damage in the sampled homes (Fig. 1B). Non-sporulating fungi are most likely members of the Basidiomycota division, which are the most prevalent fungi in the outdoor air of PR and confirm the naturally ventilated types of homes on the island1,8. In contrast, flooded homes were dominated by Aspergillus taxa which have been previously associated with damp environments and human disease9–16. Eventually, almost two years after the event, there has been a recovery in the fungal communities to the taxa normally present in the outdoor air of PR2. These findings emphasize the importance of after-flood cleanup and remediation at a community scale, bringing attention to the outdoor environment in naturally ventilated homes. Additionally, these findings highlight dynamic changes in indoor fungal populations characterized by different types of fungi between dry and flooded homes. Future studies should evaluate which Aspergillus species are present in these indoor environments and what physiological (i.e., immune or respiratory) effects exposure to these fungal spores potentially induce.
... The fungi kingdom is one of the most diverse on the planet, containing eukaryotic heterotrophs with distinct life cycles, morphologies, and physiologies. Even though they are known for their importance in the ecosystem as decomposers, as well as for their biotechnological potential in pharmaceutical and food industries, many species have been associated with several diseases both in plants and animals, causing a significant number of deaths and major economic losses [1,2]. The incidence of such illnesses has considerably increased worldwide. ...
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Cyanobacteria are a rich source of secondary metabolites, and they have received a great deal of attention due to their applicability in different industrial sectors. Some of these substances are known for their notorious ability to inhibit fungal growth. Such metabolites are very chemically and biologically diverse. They can belong to different chemical classes, including peptides, fatty acids, alkaloids, polyketides, and macrolides. Moreover, they can also target different cell components. Filamentous cyanobacteria have been the main source of these compounds. This review aims to identify the key features of these antifungal agents, as well as the sources from which they are obtained, their major targets, and the environmental factors involved when they are being produced. For the preparation of this work, a total of 642 documents dating from 1980 to 2022 were consulted, including patents, original research, review articles, and theses.
... Certain microorganisms use metal ions as parts of their cellular metabolism; therefore, some of them, such as fungi, are used for the elimination of heavy metals present in the environment [38][39][40]. Fungi play a very important role in the ecosystem as efficient recyclers [41] and are also used in biotechnology to produce antibiotics and other metabolites for commercial use. Y. lipolytica has been widely studied and used in biotechnology due to its ability to secrete products such as lipases [42]. ...
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Mine tailings are produced by mining activities and contain diverse heavy metal ions, which cause environmental problems and have negative impacts on ecosystems. Different microorganisms, including yeasts, play important roles in the absorption and/or adsorption of these heavy metal ions. This work aimed to analyze proteins synthesized by the yeast Yarrowia lipolytica AMJ6 (Yl-AMJ6), isolated from Andean mine tailings in Peru and subjected to stress conditions with common heavy metal ions. Yeast strains were isolated from high Andean water samples impacted by mine tailings from Yanamate (Pasco, Peru). Among all the isolated yeasts, the Yl-AMJ6 strain presented LC50 values of 1.06 mM, 1.42 mM, and 0.49 mM for the Cr+6, Cu+2, and Cd+2 ions, respectively. Proteomic analysis of theYl-AMJ6 strain under heavy metal stress showed that several proteins were up- or downregulated. Biological and functional analysis of these proteins showed that they were involved in the metabolism of proteins, nucleic acids, and carbohydrates; response to oxidative stress and protein folding; ATP synthesis and ion transport; membrane and cell wall; and cell division. The most prominent proteins that presented the greatest changes were related to the oxidative stress response and carbohydrate metabolism, suggesting the existence of a defense mechanism in these yeasts to resist the impact of environmental contamination by heavy metal ions.
... ectomycorrhiza), or antagonistic ones, for example plant pathogens (Willis, 2018). In addition to their relevance in natural ecosystems, fungi are also economically and socially important resources for direct human usage (e.g. for antibiotics and as food source ;Frąc et al., 2018;Kendrick, 2011). Notwithstanding these features and the identification of a considerable number of known non-native species (Desprez-Loustau, 2009;Desprez-Loustau et al., 2010;Monteiro et al., 2020;Santini et al., 2013;Vellinga et al., 2009;Vizzini et al., 2009), fungi are still largely missing in macroecological and biogeographical analyses of invasion patterns, particularly at the global scale. ...
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Aim To uncover the biogeography of non‐native macrofungal diversity worldwide, by analysing patterns and drivers of (1) regional variation in species richness, (2) compositional similarity between regional species assemblages and (3) the spatiotemporal trends of first records. Location Global. Methods We used a database providing 1608 distribution records of 554 non‐native macrofungal species in 167 national and sub‐national regions worldwide. Regression models accounting for regional levels of recording capacity were used to relate spatial variation of non‐native macrofungal richness and of regional compositional similarities to variables representing geographical, socio‐economic and biophysical characteristics of regions. Temporal trends of first records were assessed at the global and continental scales and for distinct ecofunctional groups. Results Regions reporting higher diversity of non‐native species occur mainly in Europe, the Americas and Oceania. Regression models showed that regions with greater gross domestic product per capita, areal extent and in the Southern Hemisphere have higher non‐native species richness, while regions with similar mean temperatures and latitudinal position share higher compositional similarities. Numbers of first records of non‐native macrofungi have grown quasi‐exponentially between 1753 and 2018, reflecting not only improved recording capacities but also likely an increasing number of introductions. Main Conclusions We find that many regions of the world already harbour a high diversity of non‐native macrofungi, with economic, climatic and introduction pathway‐related factors explaining a relevant portion of the geographical patterns formed by these taxa. Given that socio‐economic activity has increased strongly in recent decades, the global anthropogenic redistribution of macrofungi is likely to intensify further in the near future.
... Fungi-mineral interactions take place from the lithosphereatmosphere border 1 to the deep subsurface of our planet 2 , but their influence on biogeochemical processes is especially significant in aerobic terrestrial environments 3 . In these vast niches, fungi acquire nutrients via the breakdown of airborne dust and (soil) organic matter, the allocation of carbon from phototrophic symbionts, and the weathering of rock substrates [4][5][6] . ...
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The roles extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) play in mineral attachment and weathering were studied using genetically modified biofilms of the rock-inhabiting fungus Knufia petricola strain A95. Mutants deficient in melanin and/or carotenoid synthesis were grown as air-exposed biofilms. Extracted EPS were quantified and characterised using a combination of analytical techniques. The absence of melanin affected the quantity and composition of the produced EPS: mutants no longer able to form melanin synthesised more EPS containing fewer pullulan-related glycosidic linkages. Moreover, the melanin-producing strains attached more strongly to the mineral olivine and dissolved it at a higher rate. We hypothesise that the pullulan-related linkages, with their known adhesion functionality, enable fungal attachment and weathering. The released phenolic intermediates of melanin synthesis in the Δ sdh1 mutant might play a role similar to Fe-chelating siderophores, driving olivine dissolution even further. These data demonstrate the need for careful compositional and quantitative analyses of biofilm-created microenvironments.
... This includes ecological observations concerning the relevance of, e.g., climate (temperate, tropical), seasonality, weather, environmental factors (pH, water, nutrient availability, substrate, soil characteristics), and habitat, as well as insights concerning dispersal strategies, interactions with other organisms (natural enemies, hosts), and responses to anthropogenic pressures. These data also facilitate the discovery of abiotic and biotic connections between fungal clades and biodiversity more broadly (Kendrick, 2011;. Meta-analysis and ecological studies rely on key spatial data obtained from surveys (Shrestha and Bawa, 2014;Yan et al., 2017) and temporal variations of fungal diversity governed by natural and anthropogenic environmental change can advise conservation efforts (Haelewaters et al., 2021c;Kaishian, 2021). ...
Article
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Understanding and describing the diversity of living organisms is a great challenge. Fungi have for a long time been, and unfortunately still are, underestimated when it comes to taxonomic research. The foundations were laid by the first mycologists through field observations. These important fundamental works have been and remain vital reference works. Nevertheless, a non-negligible part of the studied funga escaped their attention. Thanks to modern developments in molecular techniques, the study of fungal diversity has been revolutionized in terms of tools and knowledge. Despite a number of disadvantages inherent to these techniques, traditional field-based inventory work has been increasingly superseded and neglected. This perspective aims to demonstrate the central importance of field-based research in fungal diversity studies, and encourages researchers not to be blinded by the sole use of molecular methods.
... Fungi are ubiquitous eukaryotic organisms of environmental and medical importance. Exposure to airborne fungi is associated with adverse health effects in humans (Kendrick, 2011;Cannon et al., 2018). Fungi reproduce by spore production, many of which are dispersed in the air. ...
Article
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Extensive flooding caused by Hurricane María in Puerto Rico (PR) created favorable conditions for indoor growth of filamentous fungi. These conditions represent a public health concern as contamination by environmental fungi is associated with a higher prevalence of inflammatory respiratory conditions. This work compares culturable fungal spore communities present in homes that sustained water damage after Hurricane María to those present in dry, non-flooded homes. We collected air samples from 50 houses in a neighborhood in San Juan, PR, 12 and 22 months after Hurricane María. Self-reported data was used to classify the homes as flooded, water-damage or dry non-flooded. Fungi abundances, composition and diversity were analyzed by culturing on two media. Our results showed no significant differences in indoor fungal concentrations (CFU/m ³ ) one year after the Hurricane in both culture media studied (MEA and G25N). During the second sampling period fungal levels were 2.7 times higher in previously flooded homes (Median = 758) when compared to dry homes (Median = 283), ( p -value < 0.005). Fungal profiles showed enrichment of Aspergillus species inside flooded homes compared to outdoor samples during the first sampling period (FDR-adjusted p -value = 0.05). In contrast, 22 months after the storm, indoor fungal composition consisted primarily of non-sporulated fungi, most likely basidiospores, which are characteristic of the outdoor air in PR. Together, this data highlights that homes that suffered water damage not only have higher indoor proliferation of filamentous fungi, but their indoor fungal populations change over time following the Hurricane. Ultimately, after nearly two years, indoor and outdoor fungal communities converged in this sample of naturally ventilated homes.
... Nevertheless, there are many phytopathogenic species among fungi that can negatively affect plants. Moreover, many fungal species involved in bioremediation can release toxins into the environment, which can decrease the quality of the treated water [28]. ...
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Plants, fungi, bacteria and protozoa are highly interconnected in constructed wetlands. These heterogeneous groups of organisms constitute a single system with complex internal trophic interactions. Thus, the joint activity of micro- and macroorganisms in constructed wetlands provides highly efficient wastewater treatment: both nutrients and complex organic substances can be effectively removed in branched trophic chains. The bacterial community of constructed wetlands has recently received much attention, while the fungal component remains less studied, particularly saprotrophic fungi. This paper reveals a taxonomic analysis of the cultivated saprotrophic fungi combined with the bacterial community in vertical flow constructed wetlands (VSCWs) operated by the Azoé-NP® process. These systems have unique features to affect the microbial community, which results in a high treatment efficiency and nitrogen removal. There are very few studies of saprotrophic fungi in VFCWs, while this work shows their abundance and diversity in VFCWs. We found 62 species of cultivated microscopic fungi and described the taxonomic composition of bacterial and fungal community at all wastewater treatment stages. In the studied VFCWs, we identified the species of micromycetes, which proved effective in the removal of contaminants. The data obtained can provide a deeper insight into the characteristics of Azoé-NP® systems and the treatment processes occurring in constructed wetlands.
... Fungi play a critical function in ecosystem equilibrium. They populate almost every habitat on the planet, favouring dark, moist circumstances and growing at their strongest on the forest floor, where the gloomy, damp environment is rich in rotting plant and animal waste [7]. As a result, any decline in fungal populations can have a significant impact on ecosystem health [8]. ...
Article
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Microbes play a critical role in maintaining a healthy global ecology. Understanding the complex interactions of microbial biomes with higher creatures (particularly plants) and how climate change affects these microbe communities is therefore crucial. Microbial-based applications for climate-mitigation technology are likewise becoming increasingly popular. In these ecosystems, fungi play a crucial role as decomposers and recyclers, ensuring that members of other kingdoms have access to nutrients and can thrive. These fungi are climate change fighters, helping trees absorb CO2, delay the effects of global warming, and protect our planet. Forests are losing these fungal carbon guardians as a result of human activity and pollution, and the loss of these fungi may be hastening climate change.
... Because of their elaborate genetic makeup and metabolism, fungi are considered geological microorganisms (57). In addition, a group of microorganisms plays an important role in the environment, agriculture, forestry and human health. ...
Article
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Having an insight into graphene and graphene derivatives such as graphene oxide, reduced graphene oxide and graphene quantum dots is necessary since it can help scientists to detect possible properties and features that could be useful when using these carbon materials in preparation of a nanocomposites. In recent years, graphene and its derivatives have attracted a lot of attention and been extensively applied in biosensors due to fascinating properties, such as large surface area, optical and magnetic properties, and high elasticity for the detection of microorganisms as they can be modified with some other materials such as macromolecules, oxide metals and metals to improve the electro-chemical behaviour of the biosensor. In this review paper, biosensor design strategies based on graphene and its derivatives (graphene-based nanocomposites in biosensors) are described. Then their application for the detection of microorganisms including prions, viroids, viral and bacterial cells as well as fungi, protozoa, microbial toxins and even microbial sources of antibiotics is reviewed.
... Because of their elaborate genetic makeup and metabolism, fungi are considered geological microorganisms (57). In addition, a group of microorganisms plays an important role in the environment, agriculture, forestry and human health. ...
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Having an insight into graphene and graphene derivatives such as graphene oxide, reduced graphene oxide, and graphene quantum dots structures is necessary since it can help scientists to suspect the possible properties and features that using these carbon materials in preparation of a nanocomposite could bring out. In recent years, graphene and its derivatives are attractive with extensive applications in biosensors due to fascinating properties, such as high surface area, optical and magnetic properties, and high elasticity for the detection of microorganisms can be modified with some other materials such as macromolecules, oxide metals, and metals to improve the electrochemical behavior of the biosensor, and also can be modified with some other materials such as macromolecules, oxide metals, and metals to improve the electrochemical behavior of the biosensor. In this review paper, biosensors design strategies based on graphene and its derivatives (graphene-based nanocomposites in biosensors) are introduced. Then their application for the detection of microorganisms including Prions, Viroids, viral and bacterial cells as well as fungi, protozoa, microbial toxins, and even microbial-derived antibiotics are reviewed.
... Algunos hongos establecen relaciones mutualistas con las raíces de las plantas, a dicha asociación se le conoce como micorrizas, en ésta, ambos organismos se benefician intercambiando nutrientes. Por otro lado, se encuentran los hongos parásitos, éstos causan diversas enfermedades en plantas y animales (Kendrick, 2011). Dentro de los hongos parásitos se encuentran los entomopatógenos, que son aquéllos capaces de infectar insectos que utilizan como sus hospederos, es decir, organismos que el hongo utiliza como alimento y refugio, de esta forma cumplen un rol ecológico al reducir el crecimiento de las poblaciones de algunos insectos que podrían convertirse en plaga y dañar los sistemas forestales y agrícolas (García-García et al., 2008). ...
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Los hongos son organismos de vital importancia en todos los ecosistemas terrestres debido a que cumplen diversas e importantes funciones ecológicas como el reciclaje de nutrientes al degradar la materia orgánica de los restos vegetales y animales. Algunos hongos establecen relaciones mutualistas con las raíces de las plantas, a dicha asociación se le conoce como micorrizas, en ésta, ambos organismos se benefician intercambiando nutrientes. Por otro lado, se encuentran los hongos parásitos, éstos causan diversas enfermedades en plantas y animales. Dentro de los hongos parásitos se encuentran los entomopatógenos, que son aqueellos capaces de infectar insectos que utilizan como sus hospederos, es decir, organismos que el hongo utiliza como alimento y refugio, de esta forma cumplen un rol ecológico al reducir el crecimiento de las poblaciones de algunos insectos que podrían convertirse en plaga y dañar los sistemas forestales y agrícolas.
... Fungi play important roles in human nutrition and well-being. These tiny organisms serve as biofactories in biotechnology and food industry, are essential for the biodegradation of complex organic compounds, but also act as highly destructive pathogens of plants, animals, and humans (Kendrick, 2011;Lange, 2014;Meyer et al., 2016;Cerimi et al., 2019). Recent studies estimate the number of fungal species to more than one million, many of which are specialized to specific ecological niches, thereby providing an arsenal of useful compounds (Blackwell, 2011;Hawksworth and Lücking, 2017;Naranjo-Ortiz and Gabaldón, 2019). ...
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Super-resolution microscopy has evolved as a powerful method for subdiffraction-resolution fluorescence imaging of cells and cellular organelles, but requires sophisticated and expensive installations. Expansion microscopy (ExM), which is based on the physical expansion of the cellular structure of interest, provides a cheap alternative to bypass the diffraction limit and enable super-resolution imaging on a conventional fluorescence microscope. While ExM has shown impressive results for the magnified visualization of proteins and RNAs in cells and tissues, it has not yet been applied in fungi, mainly due to their complex cell wall. Here we developed a method that enables reliable isotropic expansion of ascomycetes and basidiomycetes upon treatment with cell wall degrading enzymes. Confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) and structured illumination microscopy (SIM) images of 4.5-fold expanded sporidia of Ustilago maydis expressing fluorescent fungal rhodopsins and hyphae of Fusarium oxysporum or Aspergillus fumigatus expressing either histone H1-mCherry together with Lifeact-sGFP or mRFP targeted to mitochondria, revealed details of subcellular structures with an estimated spatial resolution of around 30 nm. ExM is thus well suited for cell biology studies in fungi on conventional fluorescence microscopes.
... Both wild-type mushrooms and mushrooms which are difficult to cultivate such as truffles, matsutake and morel are consumed as food by humans; Amanita phalloides, however, is highly poisonous and has been termed as death cap mushroom. Beside consumption as food, they are also utilized as an excellent source of antibiotics like penicillin, vitamins (thiamine and riboflavin) and in industrial production of Bakers' yeast (Kendrick 2001). ...
Chapter
All major biomes on earth contain a multitude of microorganisms; of this, a considerable proportion is shared by fungi in terms of abundance, genetic diversity, biomass and total biospheric DNA. In various ecosystems, fungi exist as pathogens, mutualists and decomposers and are of considerable ecological value as they influence nearly every component of the ecosystem services, viz. protection against pathogens, homeostatic balance, decomposition and other functions. Fungi are, however, functionally redundant in some ecosystems and endemic to certain bioregions. Next-generation sequencing has now uncovered unculturable fungal forms that has transformed our understanding towards their role in unexplored environments; cataloguing their diversity and study of their biogeographical patterns at local and global scale have become simpler. The data generated through advanced molecular approaches have introduced the concept of ‘mycobiome’ which was largely overlooked or considered as an integral yet small component of the ‘microbiome’ until now. In this chapter, we report new information that reveals various deterministic factors that shape fungal communities and their probable role in maintaining human, soil and plant health. Finally, we also discuss how the view of mycobiome has taken an independent shape and has more recently helped understand interkingdom interactions.
... found growing on dead and decaying material. Some of them are useful as food, source of medication, and recycling, mycorrhizae and plant growth, and others are less desirable, such as mold on food or spores that cause diseases (Kendrick 2011). ...
... Fungi are ubiquitous and are among the most ecologically important and widespread groups of organisms which play key roles in multiple environments [1]. Fungal fragments are usually so small that they belong to the group of particles that becomes and can be aerosolized (average size of 10 μm); therefore they have been investigated by aerobiologists since the early years of this field [2]. ...
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Fungal spores and mycelium fragments are particles which become and remain airborne and have been subjects of aerobiological studies. The presence and the abundance of taxa in aerobiological samples can be very variable and impaired by changeable climatic conditions. Because many fungi produce mycotoxins and both their mycelium fragments and spores are potential allergens, monitoring the presence of these taxa is of key importance. So far data on exposure and sensitization to fungal allergens are mainly based on the assessment of few, easily identifiable taxa and focused only on certain environments. The microscopic method used to analyze aerobiological samples and the inconspicuous fungal characters do not allow a in depth taxonomical identification. Here, we present a first assessment of fungal diversity from airborne samples using a DNA metabarcoding analysis. The nuclear ITS2 region was selected as barcode to catch fungal diversity in mixed airborne samples gathered during two weeks in four sites of North-Eastern and Central Italy. We assessed the taxonomic composition and diversity within and among the sampled sites and compared the molecular data with those obtained by traditional microscopy. The molecular analyses provide a tenfold more comprehensive determination of the taxa than the traditional morphological inspections. Our results prove that the metabarcoding analysis is a promising approach to increases quality and sensitivity of the aerobiological monitoring. The laboratory and bioinformatic workflow implemented here is now suitable for routine, high-throughput, regional analyses of airborne fungi.
... Naturally, lignocellulose is degraded by a large group of fungi and bacteria (Daniel 2014). Fungi have evolved progressively with their dominant degrading abilities to decay organic debris including plant biomass by penetrating through their hyphae and spores (for long-distance dispersal) (Kendrick 2001). Wood-rotting fungi are categorised into white, brown and soft rot fungi based on their growth substrate preferences and wood-decaying patterns (Kameshwar and Qin 2016a). ...
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We have conducted a genome-level comparative study of basidiomycetes wood-rotting fungi (white, brown and soft rot) to understand the total plant biomass (lignin, cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin) -degrading abilities. We have retrieved the genome-level annotations of well-known 14 white rot fungi, 15 brown rot fungi and 13 soft rot fungi. Based on the previous literature and the annotations obtained from CAZy (carbohydrate-active enzyme) database, we have separated the genome-wide CAZymes of the selected fungi into lignin-, cellulose-, hemicellulose- and pectin-degrading enzymes. Results obtained in our study reveal that white rot fungi, especially Pleurotus eryngii and Pleurotus ostreatus potentially possess high ligninolytic ability, and soft rot fungi, especially Botryosphaeria dothidea and Fusarium oxysporum sp., potentially possess high cellulolytic, hemicellulolytic and pectinolytic abilities. The total number of genes encoding for cytochrome P450 monooxygenases and metabolic processes were high in soft and white rot fungi. We have tentatively calculated the overall lignocellulolytic abilities among the selected wood-rotting fungi which suggests that white rot fungi possess higher lignin and soft rot fungi potentially possess higher cellulolytic, hemicellulolytic and pectinolytic abilities. This approach can be applied industrially to efficiently find lignocellulolytic and aromatic compound-degrading fungi based on their genomic abilities.
... Although fungi play a beneficial role in human life, some of them are hazardous to human health. [11] Yeast fungi, like Candida albicans, typically associate as a commensal symbiont with human hosts. Candida is also notoriously found as an opportunistic pathogen. ...
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Invasive candidiasis remains one of the most serious community and healthcare-acquired infections worldwide. Conventional Candida detection methods based on blood and plate culture are time-consuming and require at least 2–4 days to identify various Candida species. Despite considerable advances for candidiasis detection, the development of simple, compact and portable point-of-care diagnostics for rapid and precise testing that automatically performs cell lysis, nucleic acid extraction, purification and detection still remains a challenge. Here, we systematically review most prominent conventional and nonconventional techniques for the detection of various Candida species, including Candida staining, blood culture, serological testing and nucleic acid based analysis. We also discuss the most advanced lab on a chip devices for candida detection.
... In the last decade, researchers have used increasingly sophisticated culture-independent molecular methods to show that humans share the built environment (BE) with an astonishing diversity of microorganisms (Kelley and Gilbert, 2013). Most of this research has focused on bacterial diversity, partly because of the general importance of bacteria to human health (Larsen et al., 2010) and the environment (Kendrick, 2011) but also because the molecular techniques for identifying microbial community diversity have worked best with bacteria (Tringe and Hugenholtz, 2008). ...
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An increasing proportion of humanity lives in urban environments where they spend most of their lives indoors. Recent molecular studies have shown that bacterial assemblages in built environments (BEs) are extremely diverse, but BE fungal diversity remains poorly understood. We applied culture-independent methods based on next-generation sequencing (NGS) of the fungal internal transcribed spacer (ITS) to investigate the diversity and temporal dynamics of fungi in restrooms. Swab samples were collected weekly from three different surfaces in two public restrooms (male and female) in San Diego, CA, U.S.A. over an 8-week period. DNA amplification and culturing methods both found that the floor samples had significantly higher fungal loads than other surfaces. NGS sequencing of floor fungal assemblages identified a total of 2550 unique phylotypes (~800 per sample), less than half of which were identifiable. Of the known fungi, the majority came from environmental sources and we found little evidence of known human skin fungi. Fungal assemblages reformed rapidly in a highly consistent manner and the variance in the species diversity among samples was low. Overall, our study contributes to a better understanding of public restroom floor fungal communities. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
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Citation: Kaundal R., Parkash V., Paul S., Thapa M. (2023): Synergism of plant microbe interactions for remediation of potentially toxic elements. J. For. Sci., 69: 127-143. Abstract: Industrialization and urbanization are important for economic development which makes the human life easy by providing different job opportunities, increasing the production level of cheaper goods and standard of living. Despite its many positive effects, industrialization has had a negative impact on the natural ecosystem through environmental pollution. It is responsible for a greater input of potentially toxic and non-toxic substances into essential environmental components such as air, soil and water. Continuous industrialization has resulted in significant environmental problems due to the release of pollutants and extremely difficult treatment of contaminated areas. This review focuses on the recent literature dealing with the role of Plant Growth Promoting Microbes (PGPMs), i.e. bacteria and Arbuscular mycorrhizal Fungi (AMF) in the remediation of polluted sites.
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Presentation and illustration of the Red List of endangered fungi of the French region Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes
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Substrate characteristics and proteins that affect lignocellulose-hydrolysis by the hypercellulolytic fungus Penicillium janthinellum NCIM 1366 (PJ-1366) were investigated. The hydrolysis rate of PJ-1366 enzymes was very high, with upto 75% of the reaction being completed in initial 4h. Comparison of the hydrolytic efficiencies on differently pretreated biomass indicated that the greatest (negative) effect was imparted by lignin, suggesting that improving ligninase activity of the PJ-1366 enzymes may help to improve hydrolysis. Larger pore sizes and higher crystallinity of substrates, which favor enzyme penetration and processive hydrolysis, positively influenced hydrolysis efficiency. For alkali-pretreated substrates, 16 FPU/g of PJ-1366 cellulases released the sugar-equivalent of using 10 FPU/g of a commercial biomass hydrolyzing enzyme. By correlation analysis, 41 proteins, including 20 CAZymes were identified, whose abundance in the secretome positively correlated with the cellulase activities of the culture filtrate. These proteins may be considered as the primary drivers of FPase/CMCase/pNPGase/xylanase activity in PJ-1366.
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Fungi play many essential roles in ecosystems. They facilitate plant access to nutrients and water, serve as decay agents that cycle carbon and nutrients through the soil, water and atmosphere, and are major regulators of macro-organismal populations. Although technological advances are improving the detection and identification of fungi, there still exist key gaps in our ecological knowledge of this kingdom, especially related to function. Trait-based approaches have been instrumental in strengthening our understanding of plant functional ecology and, as such, provide excellent models for deepening our understanding of fungal functional ecology in ways that complement insights gained from traditional and -omics-based techniques. In this review, we synthesize the current knowledge of fungal functional ecology, taxonomy and systematics and introduce a novel database of fungal functional traits (FunFun). FunFun is built to interface with other databases to explore and predict how fungal functional diversity varies by taxonomy, guild, and other evolutionary or ecological grouping variables. To highlight how a quantitative trait-based approach can provide new insights, we describe multiple targeted examples and end by suggesting next steps in the rapidly growing field of fungal functional ecology.
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Understanding the genetic basis of the switch from asexual to sexual lifestyles in response to sometimes rapid environmental changes is one of the major challenges in fungal ecology. Light appears to play a critical role in the switch—but fungal genomes harbor diverse light sensors. Fungal opsins are homologous to bacterial green-light sensory rhodopsins, and their organismal functions in fungi have not been well understood. Three of these opsin-like proteins were widely distributed across fungal genomes, but homologs of the Fusarium opsin-like protein CarO were present only in plant-associated fungi. Key amino acids, including potential retinal binding sites, functionally diverged on the phylogeny of opsins. This diversification of opsin-like proteins could be correlated with life-history associated differences among fungi in their expression and function during morphological development. In N. crassa and related species, knockout of the opsin NOP-1 led to a phenotype in the regulation of the asexual-sexual switch, modulating response to both light and oxygen conditions. Sexual development commenced early in ∆nop-1 strains cultured in unsealed plates under constant blue and white light. Furthermore, comparative transcriptomics showed that expression of nop-1 is light-dependent and that the ∆nop-1 strain abundantly expresses genes involved in oxidative stress response, genes enriched in NAD/NADP binding sites, genes with functions in proton trans-membrane movement and catalase activity, and genes involved in the homeostasis of protons. Based on these observations, we contend that light and oxidative stress regulate the asexual-sexual switch via light-responsive and ROS pathways in model fungus N. crassa and other fungi. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
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The human gastrointestinal tract is inhabited by a vast population of bacteria, numbering ~100 trillion. These microorganisms have been shown to play a significant role in digestion, metabolism, and the immune system. The aim of this study was to review and discuss how the human body interacts with its gut microbiome and in turn the effects that the microorganisms have on its host, overall resulting in a true mutualistic relationship.
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Protection and conservation of fungi has only recently became an issue of concern. Main motives for increased attention are uncontrolled, mass collecting of edible wild mushrooms and environmental pollution which leads to the rapid decline of their natural habitats, some of which are rich with rare and endangered species. By Serbian Nature Conservation Law 2010. there are 38 strictly protected fungal species of which 17 species are recorded in this paper. 11 of those recorded species are on European and/or National Red List of endangered fungal species. All investigated territories were in South Serbia region. This study is a contribution to conservation of protected and threatened fungi and their respective habitats in Serbia.
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Fungi play a central role in both ecosystems and human societies. This is in part because they have adopted a large diversity of life history traits to conquer a wide variety of ecological niches. Here, I review recent fungal genomics studies that explored the molecular origins and the adaptive significance of this diversity. First, macro-ecological genomics studies revealed that fungal genomes were highly remodelled during their evolution. This remodelling, in terms of genome organization and size, occurred through the proliferation of non-coding elements, gene compaction, gene loss and the expansion of large families of adaptive genes. These features vary greatly among fungal clades, and are correlated with different life history traits such as multicellularity, pathogenicity, symbiosis, and sexual reproduction. Second, micro-ecological genomics studies, based on population genomics, experimental evolution and quantitative trait loci approaches, have allowed a deeper exploration of early evolutionary steps of the above adaptations. Fungi, and especially budding yeasts, were used intensively to characterize early mutations and chromosomal rearrangements that underlie the acquisition of new adaptive traits allowing them to conquer new ecological niches and potentially leading to speciation. By uncovering the ecological factors and genomic modifications that underline adaptation, these studies showed that Fungi are powerful models for ecological genomics (eco-genomics), and that this approach, so far mainly developed in a few model species, should be expanded to the whole kingdom.
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This new edition of the universally acclaimed and widely-used textbook on fungal biology has been completely re-written, drawing directly on the authors' research and teaching experience. The text takes account of the rapid and exciting progress that has been made in the taxonomy, cell and molecular biology, biochemistry, pathology and ecology of the fungi. Features of taxonomic relevance are integrated with natural functions, including their relevance to human affairs. Special emphasis is placed on the biology and control of human and plant pathogens, providing a vital link between fundamental and applied mycology. The book is richly illustrated throughout with specially prepared drawings and photographs, based on living material. Illustrated life-cycles are provided, and technical terms are clearly explained. Extensive reference is made to recent literature and developments, and the emphasis throughout is on whole-organism biology from an integrated, multidisciplinary perspective.
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Symbiotic Fungi – Principles and Practice presents current protocols for the study of symbiotic fungi and their interactions with plant roots, such as techniques for analyzing nutrient transfer, ecological restoration, microbial communication, and mycorrhizal bioassays, AM inoculum procedures and mushroom technology. The protocols offer practical solutions for researchers and students involved in the study of symbiotic microorganisms. The volume will be of great use for basic research, biotechnological applications, and the development of commercial products.
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The roots of most plants are colonized by symbiotic fungi to form mycorrhiza, which play a critical role in the capture of nutrients from the soil and therefore in plant nutrition. Mycorrhizal Symbiosis is recognized as the definitive work in this area. Since the last edition was published there have been major advances in the field, particularly in the area of molecular biology, and the new edition has been fully revised and updated to incorporate these exciting new developments. . Over 50% new material . Includes expanded color plate section . Covers all aspects of mycorrhiza . Presents new taxonomy . Discusses the impact of proteomics and genomics on research in this area.
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The fungi are a highly diverse kingdom of eukaryotic microbes. Recent advances in molecular genetics, together with the release of whole genome sequences of an increasing number of fungi, are facilitating their exploitation and commercialisation. Fungi have the ability to secrete large quantities of proteins of commercial value, and their complex secondary metabolic pathways produce a diverse range of bioactive compounds which have had a major impact in the pharmaceuticals market. In addition, the fungi themselves are increasingly being developed as alternatives to conventional chemically-based pest control strategies, and as bioremediation agents capable of transforming pollutants in the soil environment. With chapters written by international experts, this volume highlights current and future biological, biochemical, and molecular exploitation of the fungi in biotechnology. It will have broad appeal, not only to mycologists and microbiologists, but also to biomedical scientists, biotechnologists, environmental and molecular scientists, plant pathologists and geneticists.
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"Wood and Tree Fungi" provides an up-to-date overview of the various wood and tree fungi that damage trees, lumber, and timber, with special focus given to identification, prevention, and remediation techniques. First, the fundamentals of cytology and morphology, growth and reproduction, formal genetics, and enzymatic wood decay are addressed. Causative factors are then analyzed, followed by descriptions of interactions like antagonism, succession, and mycorrhiza. The more practical section describes damages by viruses on trees and by bacteria on the xylem of trees and on structural timber, wood discoloration caused by molds and stain fungi, wood decays by rot fungi, and preservation methods. The habitats of wood fungi are described as well as tree care. Important tree pathogens and wood decay fungi are characterized for prevention and identification. The final section focuses on the positive effects of wood-inhabiting microorganisms, covering past and classical methods like myco-wood, mushroom cultivation, biological pulping, and "palo podrido", as well as recent biotechnological processes.
Insect–Fungus Symbiosis Atlas of Clinical Fungi Fungal symbioses and evolutionary innov-ations
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Batra LR (ed.) (1979) Insect–Fungus Symbiosis. Montclair, NJ: Allanheld, Osmun. de Hoog GS, Guarro J, Gene´Geneá Figueras MJ (eds) (2000) Atlas of Clinical Fungi, 2nd edn. Utrecht: Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures. Kendrick B (1991) Fungal symbioses and evolutionary innov-ations. In Margulis L and Fester L (eds) Symbiosis as a Source of Evolutionary Innovation, pp. 249–261.
Exploitation of Fungi
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Robson GD, van West P and Gadd G (eds) (2007) Exploitation of Fungi. British Mycological Symposia (No. 26). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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