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Hey Buddy, Can You Spare Seventeen Cents? Mindful Persuasion and the Pique Technique1
Abstract
According to the pique technique, a target is more likely to comply if mindless refusal is disrupted by a strange or unusual request. We demonstrated the use of this technique in two experiments. In Experiment 1, passersby on a local municipal wharf were approached by a confederate panhandler who made either one of two strange requests: “Can you spare 17¢ (or 37¢)?” or made either one of two typical requests “Can you spare a quarter (or any change)?” Subjects in the strange conditions were almost 60% more likely to give money than those receiving the typical plea. In addition, a strange request piqued interest as evidenced by increased verbal inquiries about the request. Experiment 2 replicated the first experiment in a laboratory setting and provides additional evidence (via a cognitive response analysis) that strange requests piqued subjects' interest in the appeal as well as increased liking for the panhandler.
... The pique technique consists in using an unusual request to attract mindful consideration from people. In the seminal work on this technique, Santos, Leve, and Pratkanis (1994) asked men and women in the street for money using either a conventional request ("a quarter" or "some change") or an uncommon request ("17 cents" or "37 cents") called the "pique". The researchers observed that the pique increased the number of passersby who agreed with the request but not the amount of money offered. ...
... Initially, Santos et al. (1994) used two theoretical processes, not necessarily opposed, to explain the effectiveness of the pique technique. Based on a heuristic processing explanation, the researchers argued that the pique technique was effective because the uncommon request disrupts the participants' refusal script that is activated when a stranger asks them for money. ...
... The objective of the present experiment was to evaluate the effect of giving a disrupt sentence before using the pique technique. Santos et al. (1994) stated that the pique technique may act as a disruption, which then increases compliance. Thus, it could be hypothesized that if the pique request is preceded by a disrupt phase, greater disruption will be created, and greater compliance will be obtained than with the pique technique alone or the DTR technique alone. ...
This study examined the effect of the pique technique preceded by a disrupting process. Passersby in the street were asked for money, either for a common amount of change (control) or 37 cents (pique technique). In half of the cases, the requester added a disrupting sentence at the beginning of the request. Results showed that the pique technique alone and the disrupting technique alone increased compliance with the request. Adding a first disrupting sentence to the pique also increased compliance compared with the other three conditions. These results support the theoretical explanation that the initial disrupting sentence associated with the pique could reduce the influence of the refusal script activated by the money request
... En périphérie des paradigmes d'influence séquentiels, la Soumission librement consentie compte également nombre de procédures consistant à modifier subtilement la forme de la sollicitation en y ajoutant un geste ou quelques mots. En se cantonnant aux paradigmes opérationnalisés sous la forme de techniques d'influence abouties, l'on peut y ranger le paradigme du Toucher qui consiste à toucher au bras la personne sollicitée en formulant la requête (Kleinke, 1977), le paradigme de l'Étiquetage (souvent combiné au paradigme de P.D.L.P., mais qui peut également être mobilisé isolément) consistant à attribuer à la personne sollicitée un trait de caractère favorable en lien avec la requête (Miller, Brickman et Bollen, 1975), le paradigme de la Légitimation des faibles contributions consistant à informer la personne sollicitée qu'une faible participation de sa part est possible (Cialdini et Schroeder, 1976), le paradigme du Vous-êtes libre-de qui consiste ajouter une formule déclarative rendant saillant la liberté dont l'individu dispose d'y accéder (Guéguen & Pascual, 2000) ; le paradigme du Et-ce-n'est-pas-tout, qui consiste à décomposer une offre commerciale pour la faire apparaitre plus avantageuse (Burger, 1986) ; le paradigme de la Pique (Santos, Leve et Pratkanis, 1994) qui consiste à formuler la requête sous une forme très précise ou encore le paradigme du Décadrer -Recadrer (Davis & Knowles, 1999) mais consistantes avec celles observées dans la majeure partie des paradigmes de Soumission librement consentie. Parmi les variables modératrices de l'effet, seule la situation de sollicitation (en face à face versus par courrier) s'est révélée significative dans la méta-analyse de Andrews et al. (2008). ...
... Les méthodologies étant distinctes, Il n'est pas aisé de comparer ces résultats à ceux obtenus précédemment par Santos et al. (1994). Par ailleurs, l'échantillon n'ait pas non plus le même : le nôtre étant exclusivement composé d'individus ayant accepté la requête. ...
... Cependant, certaines données semblent compatibles, et notamment en ce qui concerne le solliciteur. Santos et al. (1994) observaient que ce dernier était perçu comme plus aimable par les individus de la condition Pique. Certes, nos résultats n'indiquent pas que l'apparence ou la personnalité du solliciteur aient orienté la décision, mais la volonté d'aider celui-ci est une raison exclusivement citée par les répondants de la condition Pique. ...
Résumé : Cette note de synthèse présente une sélection des travaux de recherches que j’ai menés durant ma thèse de doctorat et depuis la soutenance de celle-ci fin 2009. Ces travaux s’inscrivent principalement dans le champ de l’influence sociale, et plus particulièrement dans le champ de la Soumission Librement Consentie dans une perspective à la fois fondamentale et appliquée. La première partie de la synthèse prend la forme d’une revue de la littérature relative aux paradigmes et propositions théoriques qui composent le champ de la soumission librement consentie, augmentée des modestes contributions que j’ai pu y apporter en tentant d’éclairer théoriquement le fonctionnement d’un paradigme, notamment en incluant des variables connexes, ou en élaborant des opérationnalisations alternatives. Les théories de l’Identification de l’action occupent une place centrale dans cette revue, et la mise en évidence de ses apports conduisent à la présentation d’un nouveau paradigme, dit du Pied-dans-le-pourquoi. La seconde partie présente certaine des recherches à visée d’application et en Ingénierie psychosociale que j’ai eu l’opportunité de mener sur les thématiques environnementales de la gestion des déchets et l’écomobilité. Des perspectives de recherches fondamentales et appliquées sont proposées à la suite de chacune des parties, donnant un aperçu de mes questionnements théoriques actuels et travaux à venir.
... One of these techniques, the ''pique'' technique, has received little interest. In the first study on this technique, Santos, Leve, and Pratkanis (1994) asked passersby for money using either a traditional request (''a quarter'' or ''some change'') or an unusual ''pique '' request (''17 cents'' or ''37 cents''). They reported that the pique increased the compliance rate with the request but not the amount of money given by the participant. ...
... Burger, Hornisher, Martin, Newman, and Pringle (2007) reported an overall effect of the pique on compliance rate and also reported an increase in the amount of money given by the participant. Santos et al. (1994) used two theoretical processes to explain their results. Based on a heuristic processing explanation, they suggested that the pique technique was effective to increase compliance because the unusual request disrupts the script of refusal activated when a solicitor asks for money. ...
... Our objective in the present study was to examine the effect of adding a reframe to the pique technique. Santos et al. (1994) stated that the pique technique may have acted as a disruption, which in turn increased compliance. Thus, it is posited that H1: If a pique request is immediately followed by a direct reframe, more compliance will be obtained compared with the pique technique alone. ...
This study examined the pique technique associated with a reframing sentence. Passersby in the street were asked for money, either for a common amount of change (control) or 37 cents (pique technique). In half of the cases, the requester added a direct reframing sentence at the end of the request. Results showed that the pique technique increased compliance with the request. Adding a reframing sentence to the pique did not increase compliance rate with the request but increased the amount of money given by the participants. These results support the theoretical explanation that a reframing sentence could reduce the influence of the script of refusal activated by the money request.
... One of these procedures, the "pique" technique, has received little interest from scientists. In the seminal work on this technique, Santos et al. (1994) asked passersby for money, using either a traditional request (a "quarter" or "some change") or an unusual "pique" request ("17 cents" or "37 cents"). ...
... They found that the pique technique increased the number of participants who complied with the request but not the amount of money given by the participants. Based on a heuristic processing explanation, Santos et al. (1994) stated that the pique technique was effective at increasing compliance because the unusual request disrupted the script of refusal activated when the solicitor asked for money. The authors also argued that the pique technique could have aroused the participant's curiosity and focused his/her attention on the unusual request. ...
... The objective of the present study was to see if the pique technique could be expanded to a solicitation other than a monetary request as used by Burger et al. (2007) and Santos et al. (1994). Since this technique requires including a numerical content in the request, in this study, passersby in the street were asked if they had a little time or 37 s to spare to respond to a survey. ...
We examined the pique technique with a new form of solicitation. Passersby in the street were asked to participate in a short survey. Participants were asked if they had a little time to spare to answer a survey (control) or asked if they had 37 seconds to participate (pique). Results showed that the pique increased compliance. Participants who accepted were asked the reason for their compliance. It was found that the number of no reason explanations (i.e., “ I don’t know”) increased in the pique condition, supporting the assumption that the pique disrupts the script of refusal.
... And a stationery store distributes coupons that give customers 23% off the regular price of any item. Intended or not, each of these real-life examples appears to be taking advantage of a compliance procedure known as the pique technique (Santos, Leve, & Pratkanis, 1994). The technique is designed to increase compliance in situations in which people typically pay little attention to the request or routinely reject it. ...
... If successful, the procedure leads to higher rates of compliance than a condition in which the request is presented in a predictable and uninteresting manner. To demonstrate the effectiveness of the pique technique, Santos et al. (1994) had undergraduates act as panhandlers on the Santa Cruz, California, wharf. The location was selected because wharf visitors typically ignore the panhandlers who congregate there. ...
... not have allowed the experimenters to cut in line when presented with a poor reason. Returning to the pique technique, it seems reasonable that passersby who are confronted with an unusual request are taken out of their refusal script. However, it is not clear that this disruption alone leads to an increased likelihood of agreeing with the request. Santos et al. (1994) suggested that subsequent compliance is the result of " arousing the target's curiosity and focusing attention onto the 'strange and unique' appeal " (p. 763). The new focus of attention is said to lead to a decision that compliance is appropriate. This could be the response of a driver who encounters the 19-mph traffic sign mentioned a ...
An unusual request can increase compliance in situations in which the typical response to the request is refusal. This procedure, called the pique technique, is said to be effective because the unusual request causes people to give mindful consideration to it. We tested this explanation in 2 studies. Passersby were asked for either a common amount of change or 37 cents. Participants who inquired about the unusual amount were given either a specific or an uninformative reason. The pique technique increased compliance, but only when participants stopped to ask about the request. These participants gave more money, regardless of the reason provided. The findings failed to support the notion that an unusual request leads to a mindful consideration of it.
... Previous research suggests some advantages of precise numbers, particularly in terms of quality signals (Jerez-Fernandez et al., 2014;Park & Kwon, 2022;Santos et al., 1994;Xie & Kronrod, 2012), perceptions of a lower quantity (e.g., of price or calories; Bizer & Schindler, 2005;Schindler et al., 2023;Thomas & Morwitz, 2005), and distinctiveness (Minton et al., 2018). ...
... This result may reveal counteracting benefits of precision in the current setting. Indeed, prior studies suggest that precise numbers (e.g., 99) may signal quality (Park & Kwon, 2022;Schultze & Loschelder, 2021) and confidence (Jerez-Fernandez et al., 2014) and may be considered more credible, informative, and scientific than round numbers (e.g., 100) (Santos et al., 1994;Xie & Kronrod, 2012;Zhang & Schwarz, 2012). Precise numbers are also more distinctive than round numbers (Minton et al., 2018). ...
The term “100%” represents perfection. Thus, it is not surprising that marketers believe that claims that contain this term (e.g., “100% organic”) can make products more appealing. This intuition is reflected in the extensive use of 100% claims to describe products' qualities. We discuss how the term 100% can be used to create a claim about perfection that seems to, but does not, provide meaningful information about a product's benefits (e.g., “100% juice”). By appearing to be, but actually not being, relevant to the judgment at hand, these so‐called pseudo‐relevant 100% claims may mislead consumers into making baseless positive assumptions regarding the focal product. Three studies examine how consumers respond to pseudo‐relevant 100% claims. Our results suggest that pseudo‐relevant 100% claims lead to lower product evaluations and consumption intentions than similar claims that include adjacent percentages or no numerical terms. Interestingly, they also suggest spillover effects onto evaluations of the products' customers. Our findings show that consumers pick up on the meaninglessness of the promise of perfection implied by the term “100%” in pseudo‐relevant 100% claims, which causes them to perceive the product as less appealing.
... We base this proposition on several streams of research. First, numerical precision can affect evaluations and estimates (Janiszewski and Uy 2008;Thomas and Park 2014;Xie and Kronrod 2012), and precise numbers draw more interest and attention than round numbers (Santos, Leve, and Pratkanis 1994). The precision of a numerical scale can also affect consumer perceptions (Pandelaere et al. 2011). ...
... Precise numbers generate different perceptions than round numbers. They are seen as more accurate, credible, factual, and scientific, while round numbers may seem estimated or arbitrary (Santos et al. 1994;Schindler and Yalch 2006;Xie and Kronrod 2012). Consumers often assume that more precise numbers are used for a reason and convey important information (Isaac, Brough, and Grayson 2016;Zhang and Schwarz 2012). ...
Consumers often encounter product-related numerical information, such as attribute ratings and version numbers. This research demonstrates that a smaller (compared to a larger) numerical difference can increase perceived improvement and enhance product appeal. We find that when a product’s version number or a rating changes from a decimal number to an integer (e.g., 2.4 to 3), product appeal is enhanced compared to when the change is between two integers (e.g., 2 to 3), even though the latter difference is mathematically larger. This effect occurs when the meaning of the numerical information is unclear, leading consumers to try and infer what it represents. We suggest that a decimal number is inferred to be part of a fine-grained scale, in which decimals are the intermediate values and integers are endpoints or category boundaries. The switch from a decimal to an integer is therefore perceived as skipping over intermediate values and crossing a category boundary. This suggests that the product has made a substantive improvement, making it more appealing. A consecutive integer-to-integer change does not provide a cue to support such inferences. In five studies, we demonstrate the decimal-to-integer effect, its underlying process, and its boundary conditions.
... Explanations may only be needed when the offer is so precise that it is unusual and causes recipients to question it. For example, research on the pique technique has demonstrated that an unusual request (e.g., asking for 37 cents) may increase compliance (Burger et al., 2007;Santos et al., 1994). An unusual request for money (17 or 37 cents) led to more people giving money than a traditional request (25 cents or any change) but only when a reason was provided with the request (Burger et al., 2007). ...
Two studies were conducted which examined explanations and precise anchors on counteroffers and perceptions in a salary negotiation. Study 1 found that precise offers reduced counteroffers compared to round offers, but explanations focused on internal equity concerns or external equity concerns had no effect on counteroffers. Study 2 also found that precise offers reduced counteroffers compared to round offers. Explanations, which were manipulated to focus on constraint or disparagement rationales, failed to affect counteroffers, but a constraint explanation led to higher attributions of competence compared to a disparagement explanation or no explanation. These results suggest that precise offers are an effective tactic for reducing counteroffers and that explanations are relatively unimportant. Further research is needed to determine under what conditions an explanation may improve or harm negotiation outcomes.
... Michael Santos, Craig Leve, and Anthony Pratkanis (1994) are the researchers who first described and empirically examined the technique known as the pique. They did so inspired by their observation of the very low effectiveness of American beggars asking for alms. ...
... Michael Santos, Craig Leve, and Anthony Pratkanis (1994) are the researchers who first described and empirically examined the technique known as the pique. They did so inspired by their observation of the very low effectiveness of American beggars asking for alms. ...
... Negative awards may be perceived by the public as more innovative, attractive, and unusual than their standard positive counterparts. Because of their singularity (Lee & Feeley, 2017;Santos et al., 1994), they may force people to think about a given situation, quitting their automatic and frugal mode (system 1), which will help them to mobilize more energy to engage in subsequent behaviors. ...
We characterize negative awards. Their pervasiveness in various domains as well as the objectives of their designers and promoters are documented. We discuss the outcomes generated by negative awards and provide some rationales explaining why individuals and organizations may be interested in getting them. Several issues deserve further exploration.
... Precise numbers often draw people's attention and are evaluated as credible and accurate (Santos et al., 1994;Schindler and Yalch, 2006;Xie and Kronrod, 2012). Negotiators who use precise numbers in their offers come across as better informed, leading to counteroffers closer to the amount they had named (Janiszewski and Uy, 2008;Mason et al., 2013). ...
People can use social or personal information as a reference point against which they compare their performance. While previous research has shown that reference point choice can be affected by individual characteristics, situational factors, and goals, we suggest that properties of the performance feedback itself can also play a role in this choice. We focus on the effects of round vs. precise numerical feedback on reference point preferences. In three studies, we show that people are more likely to use themselves as a reference point to evaluate their performance following a feedback in the form of a round score (e.g., a score of 70 in a task) and to use others as a reference point following a precise score (e.g., a score of 71). Study 1 shows decreased interest in comparisons with others following round rather than precise feedback. Study 2 shows that round (vs. precise) feedback also increases actual choice of the self (vs. others) as a reference point. Study 3 demonstrates that the effect of the numerical feedback on reference point preferences extends to the choice of a benchmark for future comparisons. We discuss the implications of our results for the literature and practice, including how this can be used to encourage desirable behaviors.
... This procedure could be useful to interpret our results. For example, it was used for the pique technique (Santos, Leve & Pratkanis, 1994) by (Guéguen, Meineri, Pascual, Girandola & Silone, under press). These authors found that the number of "no reason" explanations (i.e., "I don't know") increased in the pique condition, supporting the assumption that the pique disrupts the script of refusal. ...
Introduction
The chaining procedure consists in linking together two or more compliance gaining strategies in order to obtain greater behavioral compliance.
Objective
In two studies we tested chaining that included two compliance gaining procedures: the “but you are free” technique (BYAF) and social proof (SP).
Method
A total of 2204 passersby were approached in different countries (France, Tunisia, China and Moldavia). They were asked to donate money for cancer research with, respectively, a control formulation, a BYAF formulation, a SP formulation or a BYAF + SP formulation.
Results
Observations indicate that chaining did not work because the BYAF + SP condition produced the same behavioral compliance as BYAF or SP separately (studies 1 and 2). Furthermore, we analyzed the participants’ justifications after complying with or rejecting the request and the reasons were substantially the same under each condition (study 2).
Conclusion
Failure to observe the chaining process is interpreted through theoretical explanations whereby BYAF and SP are antagonistic.
... Some studies (e.g., Fraser & Hite, 1989;Santos, Leve, & Pratkanis, 1994;Shearman & Yoo, 2007) have noted a potential weakness of the LPF technique, in that although targets might be more inclined to comply with a LPF request, the amount of their mean contribution might be less than what would have been given if a direct request had been made; namely, the LPF technique might create "the dilemma of small requests"-that small requests produce high compliance but low payoff. Cialdini and Schroeder (1976) tested whether the LPF technique would result in the dilemma of small requests through two experiments or not. ...
The that’s-not-all (TNA) compliance-gaining technique offers a product at an initial price and then improves the deal by either lowering the price or adding an extra product before the target responds to the final and adjusted offer. A meta-analysis with 18 comparisons examining the effectiveness of the TNA strategy found that the technique is a reliable method for increasing compliance (r = .16). Moderator analyses showed that the technique is effective when the purchase of a product is requested, when the price of a product offered in the final request is lower, and when the concession size is not too large. It is argued that the principles of hedonic editing and mindlessness account for the TNA effect.
... These findings echo much of the previous findings in persuasion research that demonstrate individuals comply to persuasive appeals because they are cognitively preoccupied or cognitively lazy in allocating resources for elaboration on a persuasive message. Instead, they often react mindlessly to persuasive appeals, which suggest that peripheral cues such as physical attractiveness can exert their influence on recipients' attitudes and evaluations (Santos, Leve, & Pratkanis, 1994). Taken together, research question 1 is proposed: RQ2: Will the crisis response type moderate the effect of physical attractiveness of spokespeople? ...
This paper empirically examines the effects of organizational spokesperson's physical attractiveness and their social cues usage on message effectiveness. A 2 (physical attractiveness of spokesperson) × 2 (social cues) × 2 (crisis response strategy) mixed subject design was tested. The results show that spokespeople with high physical attractiveness as communicating more credible messages, being more expert sources, and as being more persuasive. Also, social cues of spokespeople have an influence on the participants’ perceived credibility and expertise while the interaction effects suggest that the effects of social cue override the effects of physical attractiveness. This indicates that crisis communication practitioners can use social cues to boost persuasiveness and/or message credibility of less attractive spokespeople. Theoretical and practical implications are also discussed.
... Since Freedman and Frazer (1966) introduced the concept of compliance without pressure with their foot-in-the-door (FITD) techniques, many procedures have been developed and demonstrated the possibility to produce influence without recourse to persuasion or authority (Joule & Beauvois, 1998). Without being exhaustive, these procedures are known as the Lowball technique Cialdini, Cacioppo, Bassett, & Miller, 1978), the Foot-in-the-mouth technique (Howard, 1990), the That's not all technique (Burger, 1986), the Pique technique (Santos, Leve, & Pratkanis, 1994), or more recently the Service request technique (Meineri, Dupre´, Valle´e, & Gue´guen, 2015). In line with the proposition of Howard (1995) that "if one technique is effective, then perhaps the use of two or three of them together might be even more effective" (cited in Howard, Shu, & Kerin, 2007, p. 18), some authors were also interested in combining techniques together (Gue´guen, Meineri, Martin, & Grandjean, 2010;Gue´guen, Meineri, Pascual, & Girandola, 2015). ...
According to Howard’s proposal of chaining compliance techniques and based on the proximity of interpretation of their effects, this study aimed to test a combination of two paradigms: a door-in-the-face request that makes a high-cost request before the target request and the but-you-are-free request that adds an evocation of freedom to the request. Two experiments were conducted (N = 120 and 1,292) to promote donations to non-profit organizations. There were four conditions. Participants were approached according to the door-in-the-face procedure, to the but-you-are-free procedure, to a combination of both of them, or directly in a control condition. There was an increase of compliance rates in experimental conditions compared to the control condition and an increase in the average amount donated in the combination condition compared to the control condition in the second study. Results are discussed in terms of responsibility and guilt mechanisms, and future developments are proposed.
... Some studies (e.g., Fraser & Hite, 1989;Santos, Leve, & Pratkanis, 1994;Shearman & Yoo, 2007) have noted a potential weakness of the LPF technique, in that although targets might be more inclined to comply with a LPF request, the amount of their mean contribution might be less than what would have been given if a direct request had been made; namely, the LPF technique might create "the dilemma of small requests"-that small requests produce high compliance but low payoff. Cialdini and Schroeder (1976) tested whether the LPF technique would result in the dilemma of small requests through two experiments or not. ...
The legitimization of paltry favors compliance-gaining technique involves a phrase that validates a very small amount of requested aid. A random-effects meta-analysis was conducted to examine the effectiveness of the legitimization of paltry favors technique on the compliance rate, mean contribution amount per contributor, and total contribution amount. Results indicated that the legitimization of paltry favors technique significantly increased the compliance rate relative to a direct request control without markedly diminishing the mean contribution amount per contributor. In terms of total contribution amount, the legitimization of paltry favors technique was more successful than controls. Moderator analyses showed none of 14 identified moderators explained the relationship between technique use and compliance rate. Three variables (target request, time interval, and country), however, moderated the relationship between technique use and the mean contribution per contributor. Theoretical and practical implications for legitimization of paltry favors-based research are discussed.
... However, in spite of this money change, in both experiments, participants gave more frequently and gave more generously. In many cases where " money-given " is used as the dependent variable, the influence tactic affects the propensity to comply but not the amount given (Cialdini & Schroeder, 1976; Guéguen, 2001; Hornik, 1988; Reeves & Saucer, 1993; Reingen, 1978; Santos, Leve, & Pratkanis, 1994). Our results suggest that the " evoking freedom " tactic extends the predisposition to comply, created by the influence tactic, by overcoming the inertia of just giving a minimum amount. ...
... Compliance behavior can also be obtained with verbal procedures such as the Legitimization Paltry Contribution technique ("even a penny will help" - Cialdini & Schroeder, 1976), the semantic evocation of freedom ("but you are free of…" - Guéguen & Pascual, 2000), or the Pique technique (e.g., "Can you spare 17 cents?" -Santos, Leve, & Pratkanis, 1994). ...
A field experiment was conducted (N = 216) to test the sequential
priming of love as a compliance-gaining technique. Employees of the
Parisian metro were asked for an undue late note by a female confederate. A sequential design was used. First, the request for a late note was made together with an implicit priming of love, i.e., stating that the reason for being late was an encounter with a hospitalized grandmother, or a favorite star. When the target employee refused to comply with the request, the confederate was instructed to use an explicit priming of love, i.e., the sentence “It’s someone I love so much!” Results showed that this procedure, as compared to a control condition, led to increased compliance to the request. It was also found that participants were more compliant when explicitly primed with love, but not when implicitly primed with love. These results are explained in light of mindlessness behavior, likability of the requester, and reduced processing of information.
... One potential weakness of the LPF technique is that, although targets may be more inclined to donate, their mean donation might be substantially lower than what would be obtained when making a direct request (Santos, Leve, & Pratkanis, 1994). If so, then a lower compliance rate obtained from employing a direct request might net more money, time, or effort than that obtained from employing the LPF technique, despite the latter generating a higher compliance rate. ...
This experiment builds upon previous research on the legitimization of paltry favors (LPF) technique by probing the conditions that explain the effectiveness of the technique. Specifically, impression management as a potential mediator was explored. Subjects were randomly exposed to one of eight solicitation conditions where cause (highly prosocial, less prosocial) and social comparison (No C [confederate], C does not donate, C donated 10.00) were varied. The robustness of the LPF technique was assessed by examining the impact of the extent to which the cause was prosocial and by the magnitude of the pledge made by another on the probability of targets’ compliance as well as on the magnitude of the pledges. Results indicated that both factors influenced the effectiveness of the LPF technique.
... Erickson's technique involved the use of unexpected sources, timing, and mechanisms so that the target's primed forces of resistance were not adjusted in time to resist the unexpected persuasive assault. This "disruption" or "confusion" technique has proven to induce compliance effectively in a variety of persuasive contexts, including hypnotic induction (e.g., Rosen, 1991), panhandling ( Santos, Leve, & Pratkanis, 1994), attitude change (e.g., Vallacher & Wegner, 1985), and sales (e.g., Davis & Knowles, 1999). Although a police interrogator might employ variations of this technique throughout the interrogation, his basic demeanor provides a fundamental departure from the scripted expectations of many suspects. ...
This chapter explores the “road to perdition”—the nature and typical sequence of interrogative strategies and events leading to false confession as well as the underlying psychological principles through which they exert their influence. In recognition of the various contributory causes of false confession, the chapter considers several classification schemes for confessions and their underlying causes. The chapter provides a brief summary of common sequences of police tactics—beginning with selection of a suspect, and following the interrogation of that suspect through the production of the full confession and account of the crime. Basic psychological processes through which specific interrogative tactics exert their effects have been considered. The chapter focuses on individual differences that render specific individuals particularly vulnerable to influence and false confession. The chapter also considers the consequences of confession evidence for eventual disposition of the case. The interrogation tactics themselves are designed to both constrain and falsify the information suspects use to analyze their situations.
... A votre passage en caisse, on vous remet un bon de réduction à valoir sur la prochaine collection de 18 %. Ces situations issues de la vie quotidienne illustrent le principe de la technique de la Pique (Santos et al., 1994) : présenter une requête de façon inhabituelle, étrange, augmente la probabilité qu'elle soit acceptée. Utilisée dans des interactions de face à face, la technique de la Pique s'est révélée efficace pour contrecarrer des situations sociales où le refus est la réponse spontanée. ...
This experimental research was designed 1) to examine the persuasiveness of a non-commercial website in terms of cognitive responses and confidence and 2) to test the efficiency of a specific compliance technique, the so-called Pique technique (i.e. an odd or unusual request can increase compliance in situations in which the typical response to the request is refusal). The participants were led to visit a non-commercial website during ten minutes. Five minutes after the beginning of the experimental task, some participants were exposed to a standard pop-up (standard pop-up condition), whereas others were exposed to a Pique pop-up (pique pop-up condition). In a control condition, no pop-up appeared during the task. Then each participant completed a questionnaire, in which the persuasiveness was assessed. The results show that the Pique pop-up was the most persuasive, suggesting that the pique message rather than the pop-up by itself can influence the web user.
... Perceived similarity bypasses the normal process of relationship building, at least for short-term associations. Santos, Leve, and Pratkanis (1994) note, however, that patterns of behavior that do not fit into previous heuristic models are likely to attract directed attention, suggesting that superficial similarity will only generate liking so long as the target is unsuspecting of the motives of the other. ...
Proliferation of social media has increased the amount of personal information available about users online, and this information is increasingly available to anyone including advertisers and other (unknown) users. Having knowledge about others creates information asymmetries that can be used strategically in compliance gaining scenarios. In an online text-based interaction, 66 (31 male and 35 female) same-sex dyads engaged in conversation with one partner tasked in gaining his partner's compliance. When the persuading partner benefited from information asymmetry, he was more successful at getting his conversation partner to comply with requests (42% success rate vs. 9% in the control condition). Text analysis using Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count indicates that while asymmetry affected conversational topics, compliance was linked to linguistic style – not content – as well as individual differences such as sex and behavioral sensitivity. This study demonstrates how individuals might utilize publicly available information about others in conversation to achieve self-serving goals. Implications for information sharing online are discussed.
... The first consists in a sudden and unexpected event that occurs during the interaction, aiming to disarm people's habitual resistance to succumbing to persuasion by other people (especially by strangers). There are other techniques based on a similar mechanism, like the pique technique (Santos, Leve, & Pratkanis, 1994) or that's-not-all (Burger, 1986;Burger, Hornisher, Martin, Newman, & Pringle, 2007). What clearly distinguishes the DTR from these techniques is the presence of the second factor: the simple verbal argument emphasizing the sense of accepting the proposal or offer. ...
Davis and Knowles proposed a social influence technique, which they named disrupt-then-reframe (DTR). In a series of four experiments, they demonstrated that compliance could be increased by a subtle disruption to the sales request, followed immediately by a reframing that provided additional reasons for purchasing the goods. The DTR technique is strictly cognitive in nature: The person, hearing simple argumentation during the short state of her or his cognitive disorganization, becomes more inclined to fulfill the requests made of her or him. In three experiments presented in this article, it is shown that a similar effect can be obtained when the fear-then-relief state, which could be seen as an emotional disruption, is followed by an argument.
... In Study 3, we tried to replicate the results obtained in Study 2 in France, Romania, and Russia while changing the target request. In this case, passerby will be asked for money, a classic request in the field of compliance without pressure (Abrahams & Bell, 1994; Burger & Cornelius, 2003; Cialdini & Schroeder, 1976; Harris, 1972; Howard, 1990; Kleinke, 1977; Santos, Leve, & Pratkanis, 1994). ...
Compliance-without-pressure techniques have been widely studied in North America and West Europe. Among these techniques, the “but you are free” (BYAF) is a verbal compliance procedure that solicits someone to
comply with a request by simply telling a person that he or she is free to accept or refuse the request. This technique is interpreted with the commitment theory and the psychological reactance theory which are more relevant in individualistic cultures than in collectivist cultures. So, four studies compared the efficiency of the BYAF technique in collectivist cultures (Ivory Coast, Russia, and China) and in individualist cultures (France and Romania).
As suggested in the hypothesis, our analysis indicated that the BYAF technique will be much less successful in more collectivist cultures. Such results underline the importance of considering specific cultural contexts in social influence studies.
... However, in spite of this money change, in both experiments, participants gave more frequently and gave more generously. In many cases where "money-given" is used as the dependent variable, the influence tactic affects the propensity to comply but not the amount given (Cialdini & Schroeder, 1976;Guéguen, 2001;Hornik, 1988;Reeves & Saucer, 1993;Reingen, 1978;Santos, Leve, & Pratkanis, 1994). Our results suggest that the"evoking freedom" tactic extends the predisposition to comply, created by the influence tactic, by overcoming the inertia of just giving a minimum amount. ...
The “evoking freedom” technique is a verbal compliance procedure that solicits
someone to comply with a request by simply telling them they are free to accept or to
refuse the request. The measure of the efficiency of this technique on compliance
with large samples and the evaluation of its influence on various requests was tested
in the first set of experiments. This technique was found to be efficient in increasing
the number of people who agreed to give money to a requester, the number of
smokers who agreed to give a cigarette, passersby who agreed to respond to a survey,
and homeowners who agreed to buy pancakes. In the second set of experiments in
which the mode of interaction between the requester and the person solicited was
tested, the “evoking freedom” technique was found to be associated with greater
compliance with a request addressed by mail and through face-to-face, phone-tophone,
or computer-mediated interaction. The third set of experiments tested the
effect of semantic variations of the “evoking freedom” technique and the weight of
the repetition of the semantic evocation of freedom. These later experiments that
used various phrases evoking the freedom to comply were found to be associated
with greater compliance. Moreover, a double evocation of freedom was associated
with even greater compliance than a single evocation. The importance of this technique
for commitment communication is discussed.
Ce chapitre aborde le changement des attitudes au travers de la persuasion, ainsi que la résistance à la persuasion. Il vise à fournir une compréhension des dynamique de changement des attitudes et des comportements, notamment par (1) l'exploration de la relation entre attitude et comportement (2) la présentation du paradigme de la soumission librement consentie (3) l'examen de la théorie de la dissonance cognitive (4) la présentation des principales théories et modèles d'interventions psychosociales (5) la présentation des effets de diverses techniques d'inductions comportementale, des nudges, de la communication numérique, des normes sociales sur les comportements
Ce chapitre aborde: (1) une explication de ce qu'est l'attitude, son origine, les méthodes pour la mesurer (2) une présentation des théories et modèles de la persuasion (3) un questionnement sur la durabilité des changements d'attitude (4) une exploration de la résistance à la persuasion, à la désinformation, au changement (5) une mise en perspective des nouvelles recherches liées au développement de la communication numérique et virtuelle
Urban panhandling and its regulation are global phenomena. Panhandling regulation, like other regulation, is likely to be effective only if it is informed about that which it regulates. We investigate whether American panhandling regulation is informed by examining what information about American panhandlers is available to inform it. Information is available about panhandlers' demographics, housing, income, and psychological health. Information is not available about the determinants of panhandling activities. Since those activities are the target of panhandling regulation, this suggests that American panhandling regulation is uninformed. And since American panhandlers are among the most studied in the world, it further suggests that panhandling regulation in most other countries may also be uninformed. Economic analysis of the potential (in)effectiveness of uninformed panhandling regulation suggests that existing panhandling regulation in US cities may not reduce public nuisance associated with panhandlers and may even increase it.
Does merely referencing that an object or entity has changed affect people’s attitudes and intentions toward it? This research investigates the possibility that change references spark curiosity and information seeking, which can have a positive or negative effect on people’s evaluations of a target stimulus, depending on the information environment. Seven experiments reveal that referencing that an object or entity has changed decreases perceptions of its longevity, but also sparks curiosity about it—a desire to learn more. This curiosity motivates people to seek information about the object or entity, which can enhance or depress their evaluations depending on whether that information search leads to favorable or unfavorable information. When further information is unavailable, change references appear to have a negative impact on people’s evaluations, consistent with well-established longevity biases. This research suggests that change references have an important and generalizable impact on persuasive outcomes and pinpoints the conditions surrounding and processes driving this effect.
Background and aims:There is a cultural stereotype that considers women living with disabilities unfit for reproduction. The aim of this study is to investigate the experiences of visually impaired women regarding motherhood and their perception of the dominant social group’s attitude.
Methods: In the current study we conducted semi-structured interviews with five visually
impaired mothers, which we analyzed with interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA)
due to the sensitivity of the topic.
Results: In our analysis of the interviews, we identified the attitude of the broader environment’s as the master theme. Several new themes appeared within the other themes we examined. Within the master theme of gender role expectations and stereotypes, the themes of maternal identity and the experience of motherhood, the coordination of roles and the contribution of the husband/father surfaced. Additionally, within the master theme of microenvironment, the themes of small communities and family’s attitude emerged, while within the master theme of health and social care, the themes of prenatal care and giving birth, health visitors and paediatric and social care appeared.
Discussion: The typical experience of visually impaired mothers is primarily that they are
treated as a person with disability by members of the dominant social group. Emphasizing their competence plays a major role in their lives as, based on their experiences, members of the social majority question its existence, while their families’ attitude towards them is characteristically paternalistic. It is not only the family members but also health care employees who express doubts regarding their suitability as parents. And similarly to family members, occasionally, they go so far as to suggest the possibility of abortion.
Keywords: visually impaired persons, motherhood, attitudes of dominant social group,
interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA)
Reactance is one of the most common underlying causes of resistance. Reactance, a term coined by Brehm, is the reaction that occurs when a person feels their freedom of choice is threatened. Reactance can be especially troublesome for those attempting to gather information through interviews, such as mental health or law enforcement personnel. We explore resistance and reactance, and methods identified to ameliorate these phenomena when they arise during both clinical and forensic interviewing, such as the use of particular language construction, optimal eye contact, acknowledgment of resistance, providing limited and double-bind choices, and advancing the interview through affirmative comments.
The concept of mindfulness has been applied to problems ranging from promoting creativity to reducing prejudice to improving health. The current chapter provides a brief overview of social cognitive neuroscience investigations of the neural correlates of mindfulness and addresses the idea that trait mindfulness is likely to moderate many well-documented social cognitive neuroscience findings. As one example to illustrate how this might be conceptualized, I focus on mindfulness as a potential moderator of the neural bases of persuasion and social influence. I argue that mindfulness may alter the input weights that the brain assigns to different stimulus dimensions and suggest ways in which state and trait mindfulness might affect the neural processes involved in social influence. Further study that simultaneously examines connectivity between brain regions during social influence, as well as changes in structure in response to changes in mindfulness may be especially helpful in uncovering links between state and trait levels of mindfulness, and the ways that we are mindfully or mindlessly open to cues from those around us. This, in turn, stands not only to increase our understanding of mindfulness and of influence, but also our ability to integrate diverse forms of measurement to predict behavioral outcomes.
From the perspective of cognitive psychology and decision-making theory, mindfulness is the opposite of mindlessness-rapid, automatic thinking. We spend much of our everyday lives in a state of mindless thought-on "automatic pilot"-and indeed such thinking is crucial to navigating the world. It is cognitively efficient, conserving our miserly minds' limited resources. But mindless living is also fraught with risk, and can lead to serious errors of judgment. This chapter explores basic research on how to disrupt automatic, scripted thought and behavior, and make more mindful decisions. It points toward possible "de-biasing" strategies in such diverse realms as aggression and teenage delinquency, personal finance, obesity, and alcohol abuse.
From 1933 to 1944, US president Franklin D. Roosevelt used a series of radio broadcasts—his famous “fireside chats”—to persuade Americans to remain calm through a continuing series of financial, domestic, and military crises. In the early 1980s IBM hired Bill Gates to write an operating system for that company’s computers, but Gates convinced IBM to allow him to market the system through his own start-up company, which he named Microsoft. In 2013 Secretary of State John Kerry threatened Syria’s leaders, warning them the United States would launch a military strike against that country unless they curtailed their weapons program. In 1978 Jim Jones, the leader of a religious sect known as the Peoples Temple, ordered his followers to commit suicide, and nearly all complied with his deadly demand.
En este libro nos hemos orientado hacia el estudio de lo “prosocial” frente a lo “antisocial”. Es decir hacia aquellas conductas que favorecen la ayuda entre las personas frente a aquellas que no son de ayuda, que llegan a atentar contra las mismas y por ende contra la sociedad en general. un ámbito de especial interés para nosotros será el del tráfico y la seguridad vial.
La prosocialidad esté basada en una decisión interior que requiere, sin lugar a dudas, de un control personal dirigido a un cambio direccional de la naturaleza del ser humano.
En este estudio se pretende trabajar el continuo que representa la conducta prosocial y la conducta antisocial y elaborar un análisis de los hallazgos e ideas que, desde la investigación más empírica y experimental, así como desde su interpretación más teórica, nos permita crear un marco conceptual.
Sólo el conocimiento del individuo como usuario de la vía y como ser humano, nos permite comprender qué determina su conducta tanto en el tráfico como en otros ámbitos vitales. No obstante, tampoco olvidamos nuestra naturaleza social: el objetivo de nuestro estudio lo constituye el individuo, sí, pero en interacción con otros seres humanos dentro de un determinado espacio social.
A lo largo de los diferentes apartados que conforman este libro, realizamos un recorrido por el mundo de la competencia social. Dicho recorrido parte de la descripción y análisis del comportamiento prosocial y lo que hemos considerado su antítesis la conducta antisocial en sus aspectos más generales para llegar a analizar el comportamiento social en el contexto vial
Indicaremos que hace falta que nos refiramos al comportamiento prosocial en general, sus interacciones, determinantes, su evaluación… por varias razones.
En primer lugar, es imposible entender la conducta prosocial en la conducción sin entender la conducta prosocial en general.
En segundo lugar, el comportamiento social en general afecta a la conducción. En efecto, puede ser que el tráfico sea víctima de la prosocialidad o antisocialidad del usuario y que esto tenga su implicación en determinado tipo de accidentes o incidentes, pero no es menos cierto que otros elementos del ámbito generen conductas prosociales en seres que calificamos de “antisociales”, y ¿por qué no? conductas antisociales en los seres más prosociales. Porque, “no hay nadie radicalmente bueno ni malo”.
Por último, es necesario realizar un ejercicio de inferencia si queremos dibujar un panorama más o menos completo sobre esta cuestión.
Comenzaremos definiendo qué es una conducta prosocial y su relación con conductas y valores como la solidaridad y el altruismo.
Posteriormente, vamos a relacionar y describir los determinantes de la conducta prosocial desde el punto de vista biológico, socio-cultural, del aprendizaje y cognitivo.
También abordaremos específicamente la participación de la personalidad del sujeto a la hora de ser y comportarse de forma prosocial o antisocial. Trataremos por último algunas perspectivas teóricas y abordaremos la conducta antisocial como opuesta a la prosocialidad.
A partir de este momento es cuando nos centraremos en la conducta social en el contexto vial.
Recogeremos algunas de las cuestiones que anteriormente tratamos en general y lo particularizaremos en este ámbito y plantearemos la intervención de la competencia social en el tráfico. Para ello hablaremos de las habilidades necesarias para la conducción, la prevención y la rehabilitación de la conducta antisocial y de lo que desde nuestro punto de vista es eje de la prevención, “el desarrollo social”, es decir, el fomento de la empatía y la prosocialidad
Para finalizar, se describirán algunas conclusiones donde se recogen las cuestiones citadas anteriormente desde una perspectiva si cabe más práctica, aplicada y sencilla.
The effect of justifying a request for money combined with the pique technique was examined in three studies. Passersby in the street were asked for money, either for some small change (control condition) or for exactly 42 cents (pique technique condition). Results reported that use of the pique technique increased compliance (Study 1), particularly when a legitimate reason for asking was given (Study 2). Study 3 found that, when the requester stated that they were close to obtaining the sum necessary to buy a product, compliance was increased with the pique technique. The pique technique likely increased participants’ feeling that the person asking was close to reaching the sum necessary to buy something, thus increasing the pressure to comply with the request.
Research has shown that individuals comply more readily to a monetary request made by a solicitor if the request disrupts the refusal script or if it is perceived as a legitimate request. We tested the effect of a new technique called the foot-in-the-hand technique (FITH), whereby solicitors requested money while holding a few coins in their hand. Findings show that the presence of money increased compliance with the request (Study 1), particularly when a reason for solicitation was added (Study 2). When the requesters stated that they were close to reaching the sum necessary to buy a particular product, more compliance was obtained (Study 3). A goal-oriented explanation was used to interpret the effect of the FITH technique.
This paper compares sharp versus round numbers in advertising claims. Round numbers have a salient conceptual basis (e.g., 10 years are a decade). Sharp numbers do not (e.g., 11 years). Estimates tend to be expressed with round numbers. An experiment is described that examines whether consumers make the false assumption that claims using sharp numbers are less likely to be estimates (i.e., are more factual) than those using round numbers and, if so, whether this makes sharp-number claims more believable. The results demonstrate that such assumptions do occur, even for those consumers considered to be advertising skeptics.
Two studies were conducted to assess the extent to which prepaid monetary incentives increase response rates to company-sponsored employee surveys. The first study indicated that providing a prepaid monetary incentive to a randomly selected group of employees from among a sample of 7,268 employees increased response rates from 31.7% to 43.5%. A second study based on 4,925 employees from another company replicated this finding and tested for effects of novelty and incentive size. Although response rates in the second study were significantly higher for employees who received an incentive (24.9%) compared with those who did not receive an incentive (20.8%), no significant effects were found for novelty or incentive size. The implications for using incentives to increase response rates in company-based surveys are discussed.
In the literature on the foot-in-the-door technique it is usually assumed that the
first of the two sequentially posed requests should not be extremely easy
(trivial). An uncomplicated request would not activate self-perception mechanisms
which, as it is commonly understood, lie behind the effectiveness of the
technique. This article proposes that when the initial request is exceptional or
odd, then even if it is easy and is fulfilled by nearly everyone it will still enhance
people’s inclination to fulfill the subsequent, much more complicated request.
This assumption was verified in three experiments.
As has already been indicated in numerous studies, touching or holding
someone by the arm while asking for something increases our chances of having our
request fulfilled. However, the three experiments presented in this article which were
conducted in Poland, indicate that in the conditions when a man requests something from
another man, touch actually negatively affects the chances for request fulfillment. This
effect seems to be linked to the strong male homophobia characteristic of the society
within which the experiments were carried out.
Two experiments were conducted in a door-to-door charity drive context with 165 Ss to examine the effectiveness of a technique for solving the dilemma of small requests. In this predicament it has been observed that minimal requests, while serving to make a target person's compliance highly likely, also tend to produce low-level payoffs for the requester. A procedure was developed to avoid the dilemma by legitimizing, rather than requesting, the delivery of a minimal favor. It was predicted that a solicitor who implied that a very small favor was acceptable, but not necessarily desirable, would make it difficult for a target to decline to help and, at the same time, make it unlikely that the target would actually offer a low grade of assistance. In confirmation of this prediction, a door-to-door solicitor for charity was able to increase significantly the frequency of donations while leaving unaffected the size of the donations by adding the sentence, "Even a penny will help," to a standard request for funds. Exp II replicated this result and provided evidence for the legitimization-of-small-favors explanation of the effect. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Conducted 3 field experiments to test the hypothesis that complex social behavior that appears to be enacted mindfully instead may be performed without conscious attention to relevant semantics. 200 Ss in compliance paradigms received communications that either were or were not semantically sensible, were or were not structurally consistent with their previous experience, and did or did not request an effortful response. It was hypothesized that unless the communication occasioned an effortful response or was structurally (rather than semantically) novel, responding that suggests ignorance of relevant information would occur. The predictions were confirmed for both oral (Exp I) and written communications (Exps II and III). Social psychological theories that rely on humans actively processing incoming information are questioned. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This chapter presents implications for creations and reduction of intergroup bias. It presents the observation that persons organize their social environment by categorizing themselves and others into groups. Categorization serves two functions, enables to simplify the present social environment and to predict future social behavior. Although reliance on categories is efficient, there is a risk error when using a category based on phenotypic similarities to infer genotypic properties. (Thus, members of a group may share similar opinions on matters relevant to the group but that similarity may not reflect an underlying similarity of motives or dispositions.) Categorizing others into ingroups and outgroups produces a set of consistent and quite logical effects, including assumptions of similarity within and dissimilarity between groups, assumed homogeneity of the outgroup, and overreliance on information that supports these assumptions. Further, categorization leads to intergroup comparisons and ingroup favoritism over outgroups even when no obvious justifications are present for bias.
It is a common assumption that the effectiveness of a persuasive communication is, at least in part, a function of the extent to which its content is learned and retained by its audience. This assumed learning-persuasion relation is based on a reasonable analogy be-tween the persuasive communication and an informational com-munication such as a classroom lecture. In the lecture, it is by defi-nition of the educational situation that retention of content is taken as a measure of effectiveness. In the persuasion situation, however, the essential criterion of effectiveness is acceptance of content. It remains an empirical question to determine whether acceptance of a persua-sive communication is related to retention of its content. The hypothesis that acceptance of a communication is, in some part, a function of learning or retention of its content has received explicit endorsement by a number of attitude researchers and theorists
While psychologists "were demonstrating in the laboratory the remarkably fine degree of control which man had at his disposal, all hell was breaking loose outside in the real world." Recent evidence regarding self-destruction, the destruction of others, riots, mob violence, the diminution in the value of life, and the loss of control of behavior is presented. Research evidence relating anonymity to aggression, car smashing, vandalism, and other violent acts is also presented. The "releaser cues" required to initiate destructive vandalism in various cities such as New York and Palo Alto are compared. Anonymity, deindividuation, dehumanization, and control (or the lack of it) are the key words. "In the eternal struggle between order and chaos, we openly hope for individuation to triumph, but secretly plot mutiny with the forces within, drawn by the irresistible lure of deindividuation." (26 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Tested advertising methods
- J Caples
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Influence: How and why people agree to things
- R B Cialdini
Cialdini, R. B. (1984). Influence: How and why people agree to things. New York, NY: William Morrow.
Age ofpropaganda: The everyday use and abuse ofpersuasion
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- E Aronson
Pratkanis, A. R., & Aronson, E. (1992). Age ofpropaganda: The everyday use and abuse ofpersuasion. New York, NY: W. H. Freeman.