The ‘frying pans’ of the Early Bronze Age Aegean: an experimental approach to their possible use as liquid mirrors

Abstract

The so-called ‘frying pans’ are peculiar vessels, most of them made of terracotta, flat and shallow, usually decorated on the outside part and dated to the Early Bronze Age. They were unearthed mostly in the Cyclades, in Crete and on the Helladic mainland. There are also a few artefacts made of stone and of bronze, from the Cyclades and Asia Minor, respectively. The intended purpose of these objects is disputed. Several interpretations exist for their function, the earliest one being that of liquid mirror vessels. We investigated the mirror hypothesis experimentally, by testing trays with attributes similar to those of the original ‘frying pans’, filled with a series of liquids familiar to the people of the time and the place where those vessels were made. The criterion employed was the contrast of mirror images. We conclude that, provided that some minimal prerequisites are met, the ‘frying pans’ are quite appropriate as liquid mirror vessels.

Full text

Archaeometry
51
, 4 (2009) 658– 671 doi: 10.1111/j.1475-4754.2008.00421.x
*Received 27 September 2007; accepted 8 January 2008
†Corresponding author: e-mail dpapatha@phys.uoa.gr
© University of Oxford, 2008
Blackwell Publishing Ltd
Oxford, UKARCHArchaeometry0003-813X1475-4754© University of Oxford, 2008XXX
ORIGINAL ARTICLES
The ‘frying pans’ of the Early Bronze Age AegeanD. A. Papathanassoglou and Ch. A. Georgouli
THE ‘FRYING PANS’ OF THE EARLY BRONZE AGE
AEGEAN: AN EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH TO THEIR
POSSIBLE USE AS LIQUID MIRRORS*
D. A. PAPATHANASSOGLOU† and CH. A. GEORGOULI
Department of Physics, Section of Astrophysics, Astronomy and Mechanics, University of Athens,
Panepistimiopolis, 15784 Athens, Greece
The so-called ‘frying pans’ are peculiar vessels, most of them made of terracotta, flat and
shallow, usually decorated on the outside part and dated to the Early Bronze Age. They were
unearthed mostly in the Cyclades, in Crete and on the Helladic mainland. There are also a
few artefacts made of stone and of bronze, from the Cyclades and Asia Minor, respectively.
The intended purpose of these objects is disputed. Several interpretations exist for their
function, the earliest one being that of liquid mirror vessels. We investigated the mirror
hypothesis experimentally, by testing trays with attributes similar to those of the original
‘frying pans’, filled with a series of liquids familiar to the people of the time and the place
where those vessels were made. The criterion employed was the contrast of mirror images.
We conclude that, provided that some minimal prerequisites are met, the ‘frying pans’ are
quite appropriate as liquid mirror vessels.
KEYWORDS:
‘FRYING PANS’, EARLY BRONZE AGE, CYCLADIC CIVILIZATION, ANCIENT
MIRRORS, LIQUID MIRRORS
*Received 00 Month 2007; accepted 00 Month 2008 [
Please add the dates
]© University of Oxford, 2008†Corresponding author: e-mail dpapatha@phys.uoa.gr
INTRODUCTION
The so-called ‘frying pans’ were first discovered by Christos Tsountas in the Cyclades, in
1898. He argued, at the time, that when filled with water they functioned as mirrors (Tsountas
1899). Since then, more of these vessels have been unearthed in prehistoric cemeteries and
settlements in the Aegean islands (Cyclades, Euboea and Crete), as well as on the Aegean part
of the Helladic mainland (Attica, Boeotia, Corinthia, Argolis, Arcadia, Lokris and Magnesia)
and in Asia Minor (Alaca Hüyük and Horoztepe). The ‘frying pans’ are dated to the EB I–II
transition and the EB II period, from 2800 to 2200
bc
(Broodbank 2000). Most commonly,
these vessels are round and shallow, with a projecting handle, often as an extension of their
bottom, while they may be decorated on their outer surface only (Fig. 1). They are usually
made of terracotta and sometimes of stone or bronze, and they range in rim diameter from
about 12 to 30 cm, while they are a few centimetres deep.
The function of the ‘frying pans’ has been uncertain for more than a century. More than 10
diverse practical or ritual functions have been proposed. However, their frequent unearthing at
several settlements (i.e., Agios Kosmas, Lithares, Manika and Agia Irini) suggests that they
had been basically practical (Coleman 1985; Sampson 1988; Doumas 1991).
It is essential to comment on the proposed practical uses of ‘frying pans’:
•First of all, they were not really frying pans, as might be suggested from their shape (Treuil
et al.
1989), since in that case the elaborate decoration on the back would have been destroyed by fire.

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•The interpretation presenting ‘frying pans’ as lids or covers of other vessels (Treuil
et al.
1989) should be abandoned, because no suitable big vessels have ever been found near them.
•The exceptionally bold interpretation that they were astrolabes used in navigation (Faucounau
1978) is baseless for historical and practical reasons. The use of astrolabes for navigation
requires advanced knowledge of astronomy and trigonometry, which were not developed at
that time. In addition, an astrolabe of this kind would be so difficult to utilize, especially when
the sea was not calm, that it would not be of any use. Besides, the discovery of ‘frying pans’
in settlements far away from the sea (i.e., Lithares of Boeotia) argues against such a function.
•The interpretation considering them as moulds for forming salt cakes which, due to their
standard shape and size, could have been used as a primitive monetary unit in the wider
Aegean area (Doumas 1991), is doubtful, since, in fact, the dimensions of ‘frying pans’ were
not standard: the approximately 200 ‘frying pans’ known today present a distribution of rim
diameters from 12 to 30 cm and of rim heights from 1.6 to 5.2 cm.
•The suggestion by Holland (Varoucha 1925–6; Mylonas 1959) that ‘frying pans’ served as
small ritual music drums, their openings being covered by thin skin, presents some technical
problems: the sound of a drum with such a small acoustic resonator is too weak and, moreover,
such a ‘drum’ would be very fragile and thus unsuitable as a real drum.
•The interpretations according to which ‘frying pans’ were dishes—obviously for special
occasions (Mylonas 1959; Coleman 1985; Sapouna–Sakellarakis 1987)—or trays on which
cosmetics and other toilet articles were placed (Wolters 1903), although not reinforced with
enough evidence so far, should be taken into consideration.
•Finally, we deem that the proposed mirror function of ‘frying pans’ (Tsountas 1899; Mellink
1956) has more support from archaeological evidence and, also, as we shall show in this study,
it was feasible.
Figure 1 A ‘frying pan’ from Syros (Tsountas 1899).

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THE ‘FRYING PANS’ WITHIN THE FRAME OF THE CYCLADIC CIVILIZATION
In a small, infertile land, limited in raw materials, Early Cycladic Age people developed a
great civilization, which inspires admiration for the aesthetics, the inventiveness, the knowledge
and the dynamism of its creators. Cycladic figurines demonstrate a unique balance of plasticity
and subtraction. The triple oil lamp (Papathanasopoulos 1961–2), having holes connecting the
three oil vessels together so that the oil could feed its three flames equally, is more than a
wonderful work of art—it also declares knowledge of the principle of communicating vessels.
The teeth of the Naxian copper saw (Papathanasopoulos 1961–2) are slightly bent to the right
and to the left alternately, in order for the kerf width to be larger than that of the blade, so as
to allow for the saw blade to move freely in the kerf, exactly like modern-day saws. Various
beads, mostly made of hard materials, bear thin hollow perforations several centimetres long,
for which special equipment is required today. Finally, the famous long ships (Broodbank
1989), with lots of pairs of oars or paddles, often represented on ‘frying pans’ from Syros, are
associated with an impressively developed shipbuilding practice. Moreover, the discovery of
the lead ship models from Naxos, displayed in the Ashmolean Museum in Oxford, supported
Professor Marinatos’ theory that those ships had a keel, which was a revolutionary innovation
in the world history of naval architecture (Maragou 1990).
The ‘frying pans’ were in use in the Cyclades during the EC I–II and the EC II periods. In
that age of obvious prosperity, the Cycladic people paid a lot of attention to their appearance,
as suggested by ample findings: bone or metal pins, jewellery, cosmetic colours, obsidian
blades (razors) and metal tweezers. However, the absence of mirrors is noticeable. Mirrors are
essential not only for one’s personal toilet, but also for self-identification. The water surface
was the first mirror over which people leaned to look at themselves. Besides, the etymology of
the ancient Greek word for mirror, ‘
κατοπτρον
’ (
κατα
+
οψοµαι
), points to the use of liquid
mirrors, since the principal meaning of the preposition ‘
κατα
’ is ‘downwards’ and the verb
‘
οψοµαι
’ means ‘to see’. It is therefore probable that the creative Cycladic islanders, in trying
to improve the dim images of their faces reflected on the surface of water, ended up with liquid
mirrors for daily use.
MORPHOLOGICAL AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE SUPPORTING
THE INTERPRETATION OF ‘FRYING PANS’ AS MIRRORS
Every vessel with a wide opening, filled with water or some other liquid, can be used as a
liquid mirror, under specific conditions, which are discussed in the next part of our study;
however, it is obviously difficult to provide archaeological proof for such a type of use. The
only vessels that may have been used specifically as liquid mirror vessels are the ‘frying
pans’. Before proceeding to the experimental investigation of the mirror hypothesis, we
review the morphological and archaeological evidence in favour of the use of ‘frying pans’ as
mirrors:
(i) The rim diameters of ‘frying pans’, which range from 12 to 30 cm, are quite appropriate
for the observation of the entire face of a person looking downwards into it from a distance of
approximately 30 cm. The value of 12 cm is critical, because below that limit, part of the face
image is cut off, as one can easily verify with a modern mirror or by simple geometry, while
diameters over 30 cm would be inconvenient.
(ii) The walls of ‘frying pans’ are low in height (1.6–5.2 cm), as would be expected for the
purpose of image reflection, because the reflectance of a liquid surface is independent of the
depth of the liquid layer.

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(iii) The colour of these vessels is generally dark, which is essential for a liquid mirror.
However, there are few light-coloured ‘frying pans’, the case of which we examined in our
experimental investigation in particular.
(iv) The decoration commonly present is never on the interior of the vessels, which would
defy their function as liquid mirrors. Would decoration exist on the inner surface of the
bottom, its patterns would be seen superimposed on the image of one’s face. On the other
hand, the elaborate decoration on the back and on the handle of ‘frying pans’ perfectly suits the
purpose of mirrors for beautification, in accordance with decoration seen on later ancient
metal mirrors.
(v) Their discovery in graves, often near the head of the dead, declares that they were favourite
objects of the dead (Doumas 1991). Moreover, considering the magic qualities attributed to
mirrors, if the ‘frying pans’ were indeed liquid mirrors, their presence among other grave relics
would be expected, in line with metal mirrors, which are regularly found in tombs.
(vi) The ‘frying pans’ have never been found alongside metal mirrors. Presumably, once
metal mirrors became widely available, they immediately displaced liquid mirrors, thanks to
their superior reflectivity and usability.
THE MIRROR PROPERTIES OF THE SURFACE OF LIQUIDS
As is commonly known, the free, calm surface of a liquid behaves as a flat, partially reflecting
mirror, called hereafter a liquid mirror. The images observed in a liquid mirror are defined by
two parameters, the luminance and the contrast. The luminance depends on the specular
reflectance,
R
, of the liquid surface:
R
=
I
/
I
0
,(1)
where
I
0
and
I
are the intensities of the incident and reflected light, respectively. The specular
reflectance, in turn, depends on the refractive index,
n
, of the liquid, and on the angle of
incidence of the light (Jenkins and White 1979). For small angles of incidence, which is the
case when observing one’s face, up to about 20
°
, the reflectance remains almost constant and
is calculated by the following relation:
R
0
= [(
n
−
1)/(
n
+ 1)]
2
.(2)
The graph of the above relation is exhibited in Figure 2, where it is shown that
R
0
increases
when
n
is increased.
The images reflected by a liquid mirror are geometrically perfect, because of the completely
flat surface of the liquid, but they are very dim, because of the very small reflectance of the
liquids for small angles of incidence, whereas for angles above 20
°
, the reflectance increases
rapidly. For instance, water has a refractive index of
n
= 1.333 and a reflectance
R
0
= 0.02, or
R
0
= 2%, while for olive oil
n
= 1.476 and
R
0
= 0.036, or
R
0
= 3.6%. The human eye can still
perceive images that dim, due to its remarkable ability to adapt to a very wide range of luminance.
Nonetheless, the stray background light may reduce the contrast of the image greatly, which,
therefore, becomes the decisive parameter of image visibility.
The contrast,
C
, of an image is defined by the following relation:
C
= (
L
max
−
L
min
)/(
L
max
+
L
min
), (3)
where
L
max
and
L
min
are the maximum and minimum luminance, respectively, encountered on
the image. The contrast varies between zero and one.

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The perception of contrast by the human eye is a rather complicated issue (Ceisler and
Banks 1995). For the present study, we consider the value of
C
0
= 0.05 as the threshold of
useful contrast. This value corresponds to an eye pupil diameter of 3.5 mm and to a spatial
frequency of 23 cpdeg on the image (i.e., 23 lines per one degree of angle of vision), which
lies in the middle of the range of spatial frequencies to which the eye is sensitive (Campbell
and Green 1965). Values of
C
larger than
C
0
obviously account for better visibility.
As mentioned above, stray light is the main reason for the decrease in contrast of an image.
For perfectly flat liquid mirrors, the only reason for the decrease in contrast is the scattered
light from the mirror itself, which is added both to
L
max
and to
L
min
, and consequently reduces
the value of
C
. It is therefore obvious that the bottom of the vessel, which contains the liquid,
should be dark-coloured—or, preferably, black—in order to scatter as little light as possible.
A measure of the scattered light from a non-specular surface is the diffuse reflection:
R
* =
I
*/
I
0
,(4)
where
I
0
is the intensity of the incident light, and
I
* is the intensity of the diffuse reflected
light. However, even the most perfectly matte surface is not a flawless diffuser, but exhibits
some specular reflection. Moreover, both specular and diffuse reflection depend on the angle
of incidence, while diffuse reflection also depends on the angle of observation (Palmer 1995).
Therefore, the conditions under which the measurements of
R
* were made should always be
stated.
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION
Our experiments were based on experiences and materials that were certainly common to the
EC peoples. Undoubtedly, apart from water, they also used olive oil, wine and honey (Renfrew
1972), and they had indisputably observed mirror images on the surface of these liquids. It is
reasonable, then, to presume that they had noticed that one’s image was better when reflected
on olive oil than on water (the former being twice as bright as the latter), as well as that one’s
reflected image was much better when the interior of the vessel containing the liquid was
dark-coloured.
Figure 2 The reflectance, R0, of the surface of a liquid, as a function of its refractive index, n. A indicates the water,
B
the wine, C the olive oil and D the honey.

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Such observations would have been sufficient to inspire the people of that era to craft shallow,
dark-coloured vessels, which, when filled with a suitable liquid, could serve as mirrors. To
explore this hypothesis, we investigated the influence of both the refractive index of the liquid
and the colour of the interior of the vessel on the efficiency of the liquid mirror.
Measurement of the refractive index of specific liquids and calculation of the reflectance of
their surfaces
Using an Abbe refractometer, we measured the refractive indexes of several samples of olive
oil, wine and honey, originating from the Aegean islands and maritime locations. In particular,
the sampled olive oil was produced by compression of olives—and not by chemical means—
as, obviously, was done in antiquity. With regard to the wine, since its refractive index depends
mainly on its glucose content, we decided to sample only ‘medium dry’ wines. The results of
the above measurements and the corresponding specular reflectance of the surface of the
liquid, computed using equation (2), are summarized in Table 1.
As shown in Table 1, wine and water exhibit similar reflectances, while in the case of olive
oil and honey the reflectance is almost doubled, and they are therefore more suitable for liquid
mirrors. In addition, olive oil and honey are more suitable for liquid mirrors because they are
more viscous, and consequently their surface is much less susceptible to being rippled by air
currents and vibrations, compared to water or wine. Nonetheless, the disadvantages of honey
probably include its scarcity compared to olive oil, its considerable light diffusion and the fact that
it attracts insects. It was therefore reasonable to presume that the most prominent liquids for a
liquid mirror would have been water and olive oil, and our experiments focused on these liquids.
Determination of the diffuse reflectance of the ‘frying pans’
We examined closely ‘frying pans’ from 15 Hellenic archaeological museums; namely, the
National Archaeological Museum of Athens, the Goulandris Museum of Cycladic Art, the
Benaki Museum, the Museums of Syros, Mykonos, Paros, Naxos, Kea, Marathon, Chalkis, Thebes,
Hagios Nikolaos, Siteia, Heraklion and Chania, and also from the Badisches Landesmuseum,
in Karlsruhe, and we registered the colour of the inner smooth surface of the vessels, at the
parts that were best preserved, according to an extensive colour sampler collection.
We used the colours registered as above to coat the inner surface of aluminium trays, 23 cm
in diameter and 4 cm in depth. Subsequently, under the lighting conditions described in the
following section, we measured the diffuse reflectance of each colour, using a spot photo-
graphic photometer, aiming at an angle of 15
°
from the perpendicular, the same angle as the
Table 1 The refractive index and reflectance of the surface of
some liquids used in the EC era
Liquid Refractive index, n Reflectance, R0
Water 1.333 0.020
Wine 1.345 ± 0.005 0.022
Olive oil 1.467 ± 0.002 0.036
Honey 1.493 ± 0.006 0.039

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one used in the photography of the mirror images described below (we took into consideration
the fact that the reflectance of a smooth coated surface only depends on the coating colour, and
not on the substrate material—for example, either aluminium or terracotta). Since the values
originated by the photographic photometer are relative, a thick white sheet of paper was used
to acquire a reference value. The absolute value of the diffuse reflectance of the white paper
was measured by a luxmeter, with an accuracy of 2% (Table 2). We estimated that the obtained
values of the diffuse reflectance, , for the ‘frying pans’, had an accuracy of about 5%. Then,
we classified the ‘frying pans’ into five classes, according to the diffuse reflectance of their
inner surface (Table 3), in order to systematize the investigation to follow.
Based on the above classification, it can be concluded that the majority of the ‘frying pans’
that we examined (93%), belong to the first two classes (dark-coloured). Moreover, if we take
into account that the colour of the slip is generally expected to fade out with time, then even
more terracotta ‘frying pans’ should fall into the first two classes.
Lighting conditions
The lighting conditions for face observation in a liquid mirror are very important. Ideally, it
would be best to illuminate one’s face only, and not the inner surface of the liquid containing
vessel at all—which, however, would not be possible in a natural lighting setting. On the other
hand, good lighting can be achieved in many different ways—as, for instance, when direct
solar light, entering through a door or window, illuminates the floor of the room but not the
Table 2 The diffuse reflectance of some typical surfaces
Surface Diffuse reflectance, R*
Thick white paper 0.75
A white man’s forehead 0.30†
White marble 0.70
A thick layer of soot 0.016
†Considered as the maximum value on a white man’s face.
Table 3 The classification of the ‘frying pans’ according to the diffuse reflectance of their inner surface
Class Diffuse reflectance Description Number of ‘frying pans’
A ≤ 0.06 Dark-coloured 117
B0.06 < ≤ 0.12 Moderately dark-coloured 21
C0.12 < ≤ 0.18 Moderately light-coloured 7
D0.18 < ≤ 0.30 Light-coloured 1†
E0.30 < Bright 2†
Total 148
†The ‘frying pan’ of class D is the stone Naxian one displayed in the Badisches Landesmuseum in Karlsruhe and the ‘frying pans’
of class E are the two Naxian marble ones.
R
V
*
R
V
*
R
V
*
R
V
*
R
V
*
RV
*

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liquid mirror itself directly. If the floor is light-coloured, a considerable proportion of the solar
light will be scattered upwards, thus illuminating the face but not the bottom (inner surface) of
the liquid mirror. However, the bottom will receive a proportion of the multiply scattered light
within the room.
Using the above method, we succeeded in illuminating volunteer participants’ faces with
BF = 600 lux, while the illumination at the bottom of the vessel was BV = 210 lux. Because
of daylight changes during the day, we simulated the above favourable lighting conditions
by incandescent lamps in a darkened room.
Maximum image contrast, as a criterion for the suitability of a ‘frying pan’ as a liquid mirror
The maximum image contrast, Cmax, of one’s face, that can be obtained by a specific liquid
mirror, is given by equation (3), where Lmax = Lface + Lbackground and Lmin = Lbackground. Since
, where BF is the illumination of the face, is the
maximum diffuse reflectance of the face, BV is the illumination of the bottom of the vessel,
R0 is the reflectance of the liquid and is the diffuse reflectance of the vessel when it
contains the liquid. Therefore, equation (3) becomes:
(5)
We use Cmax, compared with the threshold contrast C0, as the criterion for the suitability of a
combination of a liquid and a vessel as a liquid mirror. The values of Cmax for some typical
combinations, computed using the illumination values stated in the previous section, the data
of Tables 1 and 2, and one value of for each class of Table 3, are presented in lines A1,
A2, B1, B2, C1 and C2 of Table 4 (for clear water or olive oil, ).
From Table 4, it can be concluded that subclasses A1, A2, B1 and B2 have values of Cmax
greater than the threshold C0 = 0.05 and, consequently, they are expected to be suitable for
liquid mirrors. It can also be gathered from Table 4 that dark-coloured vessels and olive oil are
expected to be superior to moderately dark-coloured vessels and water, respectively. On the
Table 4 Calculation of the maximum image contrast (Cmax) for some characteristic cases of ‘frying pans’, used as
liquid mirrors under favourable lighting conditions
‘Frying pan’
description
Liquid
mirror class
Liquid BF
(lux)
R0BV
(lux)
Cmax Figure
Dark-coloured A1 Water 600 0.30 0.020 210 0.052 0.052 0.14 4 (a)
A2 Olive oil 600 0.30 0.036 210 0.052 0.052 0.23 4 (b)
A3 ‘Black’ water 600 0.30 0.020 210 0.052 0.013 0.40 4 (c)
A4 ‘Black’ olive oil 600 0.30 0.036 210 0.052 0.016 0.49 4 (d)
Moderately
dark-coloured
B1 Water 600 0.30 0.020 210 0.097 0.097 0.08 –
B2 Olive oil 600 0.30 0.036 210 0.097 0.097 0.14 –
B3 ‘Black’ water 600 0.30 0.020 210 0.097 0.013 0.40 –
B4 ‘Black’ olive oil 600 0.30 0.036 210 0.097 0.016 0.49 –
Moderately
light-coloured
C1 Water 600 0.30 0.020 210 0.14 0.14 0.06 –
C2 Olive oil 600 0.30 0.036 210 0.14 0.14 0.10 –
C3 ‘Black’ water 600 0.30 0.020 210 0.14 0.013 0.40 –
C4 ‘Black’ olive oil 600 0.30 0.036 210 0.14 0.016 0.49 –
R
F
*R
V
*R
V
L
+
*
LBRR L BR
FF VVLface background
and *
*
==
+0RF
*
RV
L
+
*
CBRRBRRBR
FF FF VVLmax ( *)/( **
).=+
+00
2
RV
*
RR
VL
V
+≅
*

666 D. A. Papathanassoglou and Ch. A. Georgouli
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contrary, subclasses C1 and C2 are expected to be just suitable, because their values of Cmax
are a little higher than C0. Finally, the next two classes, D and E (which are not included in
Table 4), are obviously unsuitable as liquid mirrors, unless they were filled with ‘black’ liquids
(see the next section).
The hypotheses of black paint and black liquids
The existence of the few ‘frying pans’ of classes D and E, which are light-coloured and thus
unsuitable for liquid mirrors, and even the ones of class C, seems to challenge the initial
hypothesis that ‘frying pans’ were liquid mirrors, unless one of the following hypotheses for
the light-coloured ‘frying pans’ is supported:
(i) The ‘frying pans’ had a black paint layer or a coating, probably of soot, on their inner
surface, which faded away, as in the case of many terracotta or marble figurines (Lambraki 1983).
(ii) The water or olive oil used was dyed black.
We think that both hypotheses are plausible and that they might apply at different stages of
the use of ‘frying pans’.
The blackening of the interior of a shallow vessel of classes C, D and E can be achieved
easily with soot, by holding the vessel over flame, which would subsequently shift the
corresponding ‘frying pan’ to class A.
A light-coloured vessel could also be employed as a liquid mirror, if the liquid in it was
dark-coloured. People of that era should have been able to notice that images on the surface
of liquids are better when the liquids are dark—while, on the contrary, milk, which is white,
does not present any image on its surface.
Water or olive oil can easily be darkened. We coloured water to a dark reddish-brown hue
by boiling small pieces of pine-tree bark. Alternatively, one could use dark red wine.
Olive oil may be darkened by dispersing some soot in it. To do this, we blackened the inner
surface of a tray over a candle flame, and then we poured a small amount of olive oil into the
tray. Through rubbing with the fingertips, the soot was quickly dispersed in the olive oil. The
amount of soot needed to render a 3 mm thick layer of olive oil completely opaque is about
30 mg per 100 cm3.
The refractive index of the ‘blackened’ water was the same as that of the clear water, but it
was not possible to measure the refractive index of the ‘blackened’ olive oil using the
refractometer, despite the good reflectance of its surface, obviously because of the soot
particles. To overcome this difficulty, we calculated the refractive index from equation (2). The
required value of the reflectance, R, was derived from equation (1) by measuring the powers
of both incident (I0) and reflected (I) laser beams (λ = 612 nm) on the surface of the ‘blackened’
olive oil. The refractive index derived by means of the above calculations was the same as that
of the clear olive oil. As we found out by microphotography through a horizontal microscope,
this seemingly strange behaviour of olive oil is due to a thin layer (≈ 0.6 mm) of clear olive
oil, which is formed on top of the ‘blackened’ olive oil, practically immediately after mixing
the soot, and which remains almost unchanged for many days.
Subsequently, we completed Table 4 by adding the cases of ‘blackened’ water and
‘blackened’ olive oil. Since the bottom of the trays was no longer visible, we replaced
. When the vessels were filled with ‘black’ liquids, they had, as expected, a very
small effective diffuse reflectance ( ), much smaller than that of the dark-coloured ‘frying
pans’, which was independent of the colour of the vessel and was dependent only on the liquid
itself.
RR
VVL
* *
by +RV
L
+
*

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Observation and photography of mirror images of one’s face in liquid mirrors, simulating the
hypothesized use of ‘frying pans’
In order to verify the conclusions of the previous sections, we observed mirror images in
liquid mirrors that simulated all classes of ‘frying pans’ (Table 3). As liquid mirrors we used
the coloured aluminium trays described previously, filled with clear or ‘blackened’ water or
olive oil, and under the lighting conditions described. In several typical cases, we also
photographed mirror images of a woman’s face using a digital SLR camera, aiming the image
at an angle of ~15° to the normal on the liquid surface (Fig. 3). In each case, a series of
photographs was taken with small exposure differences (1/3 stop). Finally, the image most
closely approximating the visual representation of a mirror image was selected. The selected
image was processed further for the same purpose.
By visual observation, as well as by photography, we confirmed that Cmax, when employed
as a criterion for the quality of liquid mirror images, was in good agreement with one’s visual
perception for the quality of reflected images. In particular, the liquid mirror of subclass A1
(Table 4, dark-coloured vessel with water), which has Cmax = 0.14, higher than the threshold
C0 = 0.05, renders visible images (Fig. 4 (a)) and it is fairly usable. The same vessel when
filled with olive oil (subclass A2, Cmax = 0.23) renders better images (Fig. 4 (b)) and the
corresponding liquid mirror can be characterized as usable. When the same vessel contains
‘blackened’ water (A3, Cmax = 0.40), the image is much better (Fig. 4 (c)) and the corresponding
liquid mirror may be deemed satisfactory. Finally, if the above vessel is filled with ‘blackened’
olive oil (A4, Cmax = 0.49), the image is yet further improved (Fig. 4 (d)) and the liquid mirror
can certainly be characterized as of high quality, since image contrast values in the range
Figure 3 A schematic of the set-up used for face photographs.

668 D. A. Papathanassoglou and Ch. A. Georgouli
© University of Oxford, 2008, Archaeometry 51, 4 (2009) 658 –671
between 0.5 and 0.6 are considered as the most suitable for photographic portraits (Todd and
Zakia 1969).
The subclass B1, having Cmax = 0.08, renders images just visible and can be characterized
as moderately suitable for a liquid mirror, while subclass B2, having Cmax = 0.14, is similar to
subclass A1. Subclasses B3 and B4 with ‘blackened’ liquids, exhibit, as expected, the same
behaviour as subclasses A3 and A4, respectively, despite the moderately dark colour of their
vessels.
The subclass C1, having Cmax = 0.06, is hardly suitable for a liquid mirror, while C2, having
Cmax = 0.10 is rather suitable. On the contrary, subclasses C3 and C4 are as good as subclasses
A3 and A4, respectively, due to the ‘blackened’ liquids.
Vessels of classes D and E (not included in Table 4), when filled with clear liquids, are
obviously unsuitable, because of their high diffuse reflectance. On the contrary, when filled
Figure 4 Photographs of the reflected image of a face in four liquid mirrors, under the same lighting conditions.
The colour of the vessel is the same (dark brown) in all cases, while in (a) the liquid is water, in (b) olive oil,
in (c) ‘black’ water and in (d) ‘black’ olive oil. The exposures were adjusted to obtain photographs resembling,
as much as possible, the visual impression.

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with ‘blackened’ liquids, they are as good as the other classes when they contain the same
‘blackened’ liquids.
THE BRONZE ‘FRYING PANS’ OF CENTRAL ANATOLIA
In Table 3, we did not include the two bronze ‘frying pans’ from the royal tombs of Alaca
Hüyük and the one from Horoztepe, dated to the late third millennium bc (Mellink 1956;
Yakar and Taffet 2007), despite their shape, which is very similar to that of the Aegean ‘frying
pans’, since they differ greatly in terms of materials and the sites where they were discovered.
However, this important case does merit some comments.
On the basis of the remarkable similarities between some metal artefacts of Alaca Hüyük
and those of the Aegean, Mellink (1956) states that occasional contacts should have occurred
between the Early Aegeans and the people of inland Anatolia. The aim of the islanders could
have been to acquire metals from central Anatolia, which was both rich in minerals and
advanced in metallurgy.
Extrapolating the above thoughts, one may presume that the Aegeans sailed their admirable
Cycladic ships and entered the Black Sea from the Aegean, through the narrows that connect
the two seas. Then, presumably, sailing up the great and navigable rivers Halys (the con-
temporary Kizilirmak) and Iris (Yesilirmak), they reached Alaca Hüyük and Horoztepe,
respectively, as well as other places in the metalliferous land of Anatolia. It is worth noting
that the name ‘Halys’ may indicate the navigability of the river, since it derives from the
Homeric word ‘hals’, which means ‘sea’. These epic expeditions may have constituted part of
the historical root of the Greek myth of the Argonaut heroes, who sailed to Colchis, on the
eastern coast of the Black Sea, amidst many adventures, in order to secure the Golden
Fleece—in other words, something metallic. Moreover, during their travels, they also sailed
up many rivers that flow out into the Black Sea (Drakonakis-Kazantzakis 1986; Kakridis
1986).
Mellink (1956) undoubtedly supports the view that the bronze ‘frying pans’ of Alaca Hüyük
are metal mirrors and, consequently, the similar terracotta Cycladic ‘frying pans’ should also
have been (liquid) mirrors. However, the raised rim of the bronze ‘frying pans’ would have
made the process needed to craft a metal mirror—that is, the grinding flat and polishing of the
inner part of the pan—very difficult. If we hypothesize that the Anatolians at that time had
already mastered the art of making metal mirrors, it is not reasonable to presume that they
would have shaped their metal craft items in such a way that it would hinder their work. It is
difficult to imagine any reason to create a raised rim on the front surface of a metal mirror. It
is therefore possible that the bronze ‘frying pans’ of Alaca Hüyük and Horoztepe were indeed
liquid mirrors, metallic counterparts or copies of the Cycladic ones (which in all probability
were used as liquid mirrors), and they therefore should be dated earlier than the metal mirrors.
CONCLUSIONS
In our study, we investigated the hypothesis that the Cycladic ‘frying pans’ could have been
used as liquid mirrors by the Early Bronze Aegean people, considering their knowledge and
experience, the materials and technical means that were at their disposal and their intellect,
which was not inferior to that of modern-day people. Our results are as follows:
(i) The dimensions and geometrical shape of ‘frying pans’ render them quite suitable for use
as liquid mirror vessels.

670 D. A. Papathanassoglou and Ch. A. Georgouli
© University of Oxford, 2008, Archaeometry 51, 4 (2009) 658 –671
(ii) The interior of liquid mirror vessels must be dark-coloured and without decoration.
Although the lack of internal decoration is evident, the ‘frying pans’ are not always dark-coloured.
(iii) Olive oil is the most suitable liquid that was available at the time, since its surface reflectance
is about double that of water and, furthermore, its surface is less easily disturbed by vibrations
or air currents.
(iv) In the event that the inner surface of a ‘frying pan’ was light-coloured, either black paint
might have been applied to it or a dark liquid might have been used.
Although certain aspects of this issue may need further archaeological investigation, we
consider that the ‘frying pans’ could have been used as liquid mirror vessels.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank N. Kaltsas, director of the National Archaeological Museum
of Athens, as well as A. Christopoulou and H. Tsivilika, head archaeologists of the Prehistoric
Section, who granted us permission to examine the ‘frying pans’ of the Museum; and also
C. Paschalides, archaeologist, and E. Velalopoulou, conservator, who helped us with precious
information about the ‘frying pans’. We also thank D. Pandelis, chemist, M. Michopoulou,
ceramist, C. Pantazis, expert in the conservation of ‘frying pans’ in the Museums of Athens
and Syros, and C. Alexiou, conservator in the Cykladic Museums, for their explanations on
important technical matters. M. Katri, F. Pateraki, X. Hardaloupas, M. Demenega and E.
Promponas, from the Museums of Syros, Mykonos, Kea and Naxos, respectively, are also
thanked. C. Papanicolaou is thanked for her remarks on the changes in the original colours of
the ‘frying pans’. We also acknowledge the archaeologists A. Papadaki, P. Sotirakopoulou,
M. Marthari, E. Sapouna–Sakellarakis, S. Markoulaki and H. Banou, for helpful information.
The archaeologist E. Pritsi is thanked for providing us with necessary bibliographical
elements, and we also thank M. Rota, from the Museum of Syros, for valuable information.
We also owe many thanks to C. Boukaras and K. Psaraki, archaeologists, who helped us in the
Museum of Chalkis, and to Dr C. Lichter, from the Badisches Landesmuseum in Karlsruhe,
for his kind help.
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