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The efficacy of ingredients included in shrimp feeds to stimulate intake
Aquaculture Nutrition
Abstract
The inclusion in feed formulations of ingredients that act as attractants and feeding incitants or stimulants has been proposed as a means of increasing feed consumption, and hence growth, of farmed shrimp. Squid, crustacean and krill meals, fish and krill hydrolysates and a betaine product (Finnstim) were examined to assess their relative effectiveness in increasing the feed intake of black tiger shrimp Penaeus monodon. These presumed feeding effectors were added to a base feed at between 5 and 50 g kg−1. Given a choice between the base feed and one containing one of the test ingredients, P. monodon showed a significantly greater preference for the feeds containing crustacean or krill meal. Four of the presumed feeding effectors were further evaluated in a growth response experiment. There was no significant difference in the amount the shrimp consumed of any of the feeds. However, the growth rate of the shrimp was about 20% faster on the feeds containing crustacean meal or krill meal. Although ingredients such as crustacean meal or krill meal can improve feed intake, in practical feed formulations that contain significant amounts of terrestrial protein but relatively low levels of marine ingredients, there does not appear to be need for additional feeding effectors. However, crustacean meal and krill meal do provide a significant nutritional benefit, as seen by the improved growth rates in this study.
... Shrimp are chemosensory feeders, using systems of olfaction and chemoreception when acquiring and consuming food [7]. The inclusion of attractants that activate the Fishes 2024, 9,134 2 of 10 chemosensory systems is common to increase the attractiveness of diets with high plant protein content [8]. Natural chemoattractants for shrimp are often marine ingredients rich in free amino acids, nucleotides, nucleosides, quaternary ammonium compounds, phospholipids, and biogenic amines, which are recognized by the chemosensory system of aquatic animals when locating and ingesting feed materials [9,10]. ...
... Plant proteins are generally deficient in taurine, possibly explaining part of their lower attractiveness and palatability [34]. In addition to increased feed intake, supplementation of taurine in diets for juvenile whiteleg shrimp has been found to improve growth performance, metabolism, immunity, anti-oxidant capacity, and intestinal health [35][36][37][38][39]. Metabolomic fingerprinting of C. finmarchicus has also revealed that one of its major metabolites is betaine [40], which is a highly soluble glycine derivative with chemoattractive properties for both fish and shrimp [8][9][10][41][42][43]. Alkaline and neutral amino acids, such as glycine, proline, taurine, and valine, and derivatives, like betaine, are known to have chemoattractive properties for olfaction and/or ingestion in carnivorous species [9,10]. ...
... Plant proteins are generally deficient in taurine, possibly explaining part of their lower attractiveness and palatability [34]. In addition to increased feed intake, supplementation of taurine in diets for juvenile whiteleg shrimp has been found to improve growth performance, metabolism, immunity, anti-oxidant capacity, and intestinal health [35][36][37][38][39]. Metabolomic fingerprinting of C. finmarchicus has also revealed that one of its major metabolites is betaine [40], which is a highly soluble glycine derivative with chemoattractive properties for both fish and shrimp [8][9][10][41][42][43]. ...
Shrimp feed formulations have moved towards less fish meal and more of the readily available and cheaper plant proteins. To counteract the lower attractiveness and palatability of plant proteins, feeds are supplemented with ingredients known to have chemoattractive properties that will increase feed intake. This study investigated the putative chemoattractive effect of Calanus finmarchicus hydrolysate, when used as a dietary supplement in shrimp feeds. C. finmarchicus is a zooplankton species native to the northern Atlantic Ocean and is a novel and sustainable raw material for shrimp feed products. Diet attractiveness was evaluated in a 24-day feeding trial with whiteleg shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) by measuring the intake of 12 diets with various levels of fish meal, calanus hydrolysate, and krill (Euphausia superba) meal. Higher inclusion rates of both ingredients resulted in increased feed intakes, and supplementing the high fish meal diet with calanus hydrolysate gave a statistically significant higher feed intake. Low molecular weight peptides, chemoattractive amino acids, and the water-soluble nature of the hydrolysate could explain the chemoattractive properties observed in the study.
... It is possible that a strong feeding stimulant, an ingredient that imparts high palatability even at low inclusion levels, can overcome palatability issues, at least partially (Adron and Mackie 1978). Krill products are examples of feeding stimulants that have been used to improve acceptance of feeds that would otherwise be of low acceptance by fish because of inclusion of unpalatable ingredients (Smith et al. 2005). ...
... Marine protein sources have long been regarded as among the best of all the different ingredient classes for enhancing the palatability of aquaculture feeds (Smith et al. 2005). In many cases, this is arguably one of their more valuable features. ...
... Various studies have examined the inclusion of different ingredients and measured the feed intake (palatability) responses by different species in response (reviewed in Glencross et al. 2007). In some cases, the replacement of fishmeal using this approach has allowed the estimation of thresholds for marine ingredient inclusion to ensure diet palatability, with estimates ranging from 10% to 20% for fishmeals, with even lower inclusion levels effective for marine ingredients like hydrolysates (Smith et al. 2005;Glencross et al. 2011Glencross et al. , 2014. The variability in ranges highlights several things. ...
a iFFO-the Marine ingredients Organisation, london, uK; b institute of Aquaculture, university of stirling, stirling, uK; c iFFO-the Marine ingredients Organisation, Beijing, china; d texas Agriculture & Medicine university, college station, texas, usA; e universidad de las Palmas de Gran canaria, spain; f norwegian university of life sciences, Aas, norway; g ciiMAR and icBAs, university of Porto, Porto, Portugal ABSTRACT A variety of new feed ingredients are emerging in the aquaculture feed sector. While the technology readiness of these options varies across and within the new ingredient classes, it remains important to consider them in terms of the overall feed ingredient spectrum. In this review, the use of marine, grain, terrestrial animal by-product and a range of novel (e.g., bacterial and yeast) resources being considered as potential protein feedstuffs for use in aquafeeds is explored. In comparing the nutritional attributes of each of the ingredient classes, an assessment framework is applied based on understanding the critical knowledge required to be able to accommodate any ingredient in a formulation process. To further examine each of the different ingredient classes a Strength-Weakness-Opportunity-and-Threats (SWOT) analysis is applied, to enable some consideration of what future potential may exist across the spectrum and what risks and opportunities they may bring. It is noted that all ingredients have strengths and weaknesses, and that there is no such thing as the perfect ingredient. By better appreciating the positives and negatives of each ingredient, it becomes possible to increase adaptability in responding to the various opportunities for their use in feeds.
... Several ingredients can be used as feed effectors, including fishmeal, fish oil, squid meal, or synthetic feed effectors such as amino acids, nucleotides, and nucleosides (Tacon, 1987). Research suggests that shrimp chemoattraction towards the feed can be influenced by the nature of the attractant (natural or synthetic) as well as the inclusion level (Nunes et al., 2006;Smith et al., 2005). Additionally, certain attractants such as nucleotides enhance the immune system and increase stress tolerance (Hossain et al., 2020). ...
... It is possible that the ingredients used in the MF diets' formulation masked the feed effector's effect. Additionally, as with respect to the decrease in feed consumption of the aforementioned diets as compared with the respective reference diet (MF), Smith et al. (2005) suggests that supplementing low fishmeal shrimp diets with feed effectors does not likely increase feed consumption. A lot of research has successfully demonstrated the possibility of substituting fishmeal with poultry meal in L. vannamei diets (Amaya et al., 2007;Davis and Arnold, 2000). ...
... In production settings, shrimp are accustomed to the feed offered. It has been suggested that conditioning shrimp to experimental diets would improve the animals' response related to feed effectors (Smith et al., 2005;Peixoto et al., 2022), which was confirmed in the present study for non-naïve shrimp. We noticed that non-naïve shrimp offered poultry meal-based diet supplemented with 0.2% feed effector consumed as much feed as shrimp offered any of the fishmeal-based diets. ...
Pacific whiteleg shrimp is the topmost aquacultured produced in the world. However, shrimp feeding behavior results in unnecessary expenditures, as some of the feed offered is not entirely consumed. Nowadays, aquaculture has become more accepting of using animal by-products such as poultry meal as a protein source to replace fishmeal. Unfortunately, such by-products might affect shrimp acceptance of the offered feed. The present work evaluates the use of a chemosensory feed effector with attractive properties on the feeding behavior, growth performance, and salinity stress tolerance in juvenile Litopenaeus vannamei. Nine diets were formulated to contain either poultry meal (6%), or fishmeal (6% or 12%) as animal protein source, with feed effector supplemented at 0, 0.1, and 0.2%. The various diets were offered to naïve and non-naïve shrimp to evaluate feed consumption. Concurrently, shrimp feeding behavior was monitored using passive acoustic monitoring. Afterwards, a 42-days growth trial was performed followed by a salinity stress trial were performed to evaluate the effect of the feed effector in shrimp diets on animal growth, survival, and stress tolerance. Results of the present study indicate significant positive relationships between the number of clicks and feed consumed after 30 minutes (p <0.001, r=0.46 to 0.69). Additionally, shrimp offered the poultry meal-based diets produced significantly more "clicks" when the diets were supplemented with the feed effector, compared with the rest of the diets. However, the shrimp consumed poultry meal-based diets similarly to the fishmeal-based diets, only when supplemented with the feed effector. Interestingly, no significant differences were observed in terms of final biomass, final average individual weight, weight gain, FCR, or survival. However, salinity stress trial results indicate significantly better survival when offered diets supplemented with the feed effector, regardless of the level of inclusion. Results of the present work suggest that supplementing the feed effector to J o u r n a l P r e-p r o o f Journal Pre-proof shrimp diets improves palatability and shrimp acceptance of diets formulated with poultry meal as sole animal protein source, as well as improves shrimp tolerance to salinity fluctuations. In an era of limited resources, supplementation of poultry meal-based shrimp diets with feed effector improves overall profitability by obtaining good shrimp growth with less expensive diets, and despite of stressors.
... Crustacean meals were shown to be suitable feed ingredients for several penaeid species (e.g. Litopenaeus stylirostris, Penaeus monodon, Litopenaeus vannamei) (Amar et al., 2006;Ambasankar et al., 2022;Córdova-Murueta and Garcıá-Carreño, 2002;Sabry-Neto et al., 2017;Smith et al., 2005;Suresh et al., 2011;Villarreal et al., 2006;Williams et al., 2005). Tested meals were made from different taxa (e.g. ...
... DM loss (%) = 100 -dry weight recovered feed (g) ÷ dry weight feed input × 100 and the daily feed intake (DFI) as described by Smith et al. (2005): ...
... Therefore, attractiveness and scent of feeds are important assets. Different crustacean meals were shown to be effective feeding stimulants in shrimp feeds (Holland and Borski, 1993;Smith et al., 2005). We observed that shrimp approached and started to ingest BSPR containing feeds equally well as the fishmeal-based diets, regardless of the inclusion level. ...
... Despite positive results on growth performance, the use of this alternative protein sources at high dietary levels frequently raises concerns about poor attractability and palatability of these diets to shrimp (Tantikitti, 2014;Jannathulla et al., 2021). The inclusion of chemoattractants, especially those derived from marine aquatic animals, such as meals and hydrolysates of krill, squid and fish have been used to improve chemosensory characteristics and feed intake of low-fish meal diets (Lee and Meyers, 1996;Smith et al., 2005;Grey et al., 2009;Suresh et al., 2011;Derby et al., 2016;Yuan et al., 2020;Soares et al., 2021;Jannathulla et al., 2021). The chemoattractants promote fast feed detection and improve palatability, stimulating shrimp feeding behavior (Nunes et al., 2019;Jannathulla et al., 2021). ...
... However, the replacement of fishmeal by plant-based ingredients as a sole source of protein in shrimp diets have drawn serious attention to the role of chemoattractants in improving chemosensory characteristics (attractability and palatability) and stimulating feed intake of these diets (see for a review Jannathulla et al., 2021). Furthermore, reducing the time for shrimp to detect the feed, start and continue eating, ultimately enhances growth performance (Córdova-Murueta and García-Carreño, 2002;Smith et al., 2005;Suresh et al., 2011;Nunes et al., 2019). Understanding the interactions between formulated diets and shrimp feeding behavior is a starting point for the development of efficient feeding practices (Bardera et al., 2019b). ...
... Among the marine sources of chemoattractants, krill meal plays an important role in shrimp feeds, especially in fishmeal challenged diets. Smith et al. (2005) reported for Penaeus monodon that in basal diets with low levels of fishmeal (36 g/kg) and relatively high levels of plant proteins, the inclusion of krill meal (50 g/kg) resulted in significantly greater preference for the feed in comparison with other chemoattractants in different inclusion levels, including fish hydrolysate and squid meal. Accordingly, Suresh et al. (2011) comparing the effects of several chemoattractants with another penaeid species Litopenaeus stylirostris, found significant improvements in attractability and palatability with the addition of 30 g/kg of krill meal into plant-based diet. ...
The inclusion of chemoattractants has been investigated to improve the attractability and palatability of plant-based shrimp diets. A more recent approach utilizes passive acoustic monitoring (PAM) to record the sounds (clicks) emitted by shrimp during feeding activity allowing the identification of behavioral responses related to the diets. In the present study we automatically identified click signals in PAM recordings at sampling frequency of 192 kHz. This methodology was applied to evaluate the efficiency of three chemoattractants (krill meal, squid meal and fish hydrolysate) added to a basal all-plant diet on the acoustic feeding behavior and food consumption of naive (without acclimation) and non-naive (acclimated to the diets) Litopenaeus vannamei. Five diets were used: basal all-plant diet (AP, negative control) and its modifications to contain 20 g/Kg of krill meal (AP+KM), 20 g/Kg of squid meal (AP+SM) and 40 g/Kg of fish hydrolysate (AP+FH); a diet with 120 g/Kg fishmeal (FM) was used as a positive control. Ten shrimp (6.8 ± 0.6 g; mean ± SD) were stocked per aquarium (70 L) in a clear water recirculation system (30 aquaria, five diets with six replicates). The food consumption and acoustic activity were evaluated simultaneously in each aquarium over a 30-min period during two consecutive days for each trial, naive and non-naive shrimp. Strong positive relationships (r = 0.78 to 0.81; P < 0.001) were found between food consumption and total number of clicks emitted by naive and non-naive shrimp. Overall, the inclusion of the chemoattractants to the plant-based diet had a positive effect improving acoustic feeding behavior and food consumption for naive and non-naive L. vannamei. In particular, the response of non-naive shrimp to chemoattractants was markedly increased, and the highest clicking activity was attained by using krill meal (AP+KM), followed by fish hydrolysate (AP+FH). The new analytical method proved to be a useful J o u r n a l P r e-p r o o f 3 alternative approach for studying shrimp feeding behavior, also indicating the potential of PAM to forecast feed intake and improve efficiency of feed management.
... Other than feed water stability, feed with feeding attractant is also essential during feed formulation particularly in shrimp, as they can detect food easily just by their chemo-attractant senses located all over their body (Smith et al., 2005). Feeding attractant varies from chemical to natural, such as dimethyl sulphone (DMS), trimethyl amine oxide (TMO), trimethyl amine (TMA) and fish meat paste, clam meat paste, squid meat paste, respectively (Ali et al., 2007). ...
... These performances are due to the presence of protein-rich peptides, nucleotides, and nucleosides which act as feeding effectors for shrimp. All these small protein molecules in the formulated pellets demonstrated a huge impact in stimulating shrimp chemoreceptors (Smith et al., 2005). A study conducted Mohamad et al. / JIPK,13(2):279-287 each day and water was replaced by new filtered seawater to avoid any errors. ...
... Despite the high-protein contents in squid meal, the increased amount of squid oil also improved feeding attractants in L. vannamei. Previously, the inclusion of squid meal in feed diet increased the growth of shrimps due to high consumption of nutritive feeds (Smith et al., 2005). However, high inclusion of squid oil in the feed is not always improved shrimp attractants (Smith et al., 2005;Cordova-Murueta and Garcia-Carreno, 2002). ...
Highlight ResearchEffects of carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) binder on pellet water stability in shrimp diet.Evaluation of squid oil attractant on feed palatability.The quality of water after inclusion of CMC binder and squid oil in pellet.CMC and squid oil improved dry matter retention and feeding responses in shrimp. AbstractPellet water stability and feeding attractant are the crucial factors to be considered in the formulation of shrimp feed to minimize nutrient leaching and improve food palatability, respectively. The aim of this study was to determine the binding effect of supplementation of carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) during pellet manufacturing, and feeding responses with the inclusion of squid oil in pellet. Both experiments were conducted separately in five feed formulations ranged from 0.00% to 3.00% of CMC and squid oil. All T0 was referred as control with no CMC or squid oil. Experiment was conducted using 30 shrimps/treatment with triplicates. The dry matter retention up to 120 min of immersion and the feeding response test were evaluated in pellet supplemented with CMC and squid oil, respectively. Results showed the percentage of dry matter retentions increased with the increase of CMC, over time. The CMC containing pellets at 2.00% and 3.00% had minimal disintegration in water and possessed high water stability after 120 min immersion. The addition of 3.00% squid oil in feed exhibited a significant result (p<0.05) in the time taken for shrimp to access the pellet, also increased the time starts for ingestion. No significant change was observed in water quality indicated no water contamination occurred throughout the study. Results demonstrated that the addition of CMC binder at 2.00% and 3.00% improved pellet water stability, whilst 3.00% squid oil was recommended to enhance feed palatability. However, future studies on the activity of enzymes in shrimp bodies after treatment would be an advantage.
... Decapod crustaceans are slow feeder. Delay in feed detection by the animal will lead to nutrient loss from the feed and contribute to high feed conversion ratio (Mendoza et al., 1997;Smith et al., 2005). On top of that, plant proteins are commonly used to replace fishmeal protein in the aquafeed for crustaceans (Malcorps et al., 2019;Mente, 2006;Nunes et al., 2019;Tantikitti, 2014). ...
... crabs, feeding behaviour, food location, ingestion, lobsters, Shrimps food for ingestion (Kamio & Derby, 2017;Smith et al., 2005), dietary inclusion of chemoattractant and feeding stimulant hence can be practised to solve these feeding problems in crustacean farming (Mendoza et al., 1997). ...
... Chemoattractant (CA) is the substance that can trigger responses of searching and locating food, while feeding stimulant (FS) is that which can stimulate food ingestion in crustaceans (both of them are also broadly known as the feeding effectors) (Smith et al., 2005). Previous studies have reported on the utilization of marineand terrestrial animal-based ingredients as an effective CA or/and FS in decapod crustaceans farming (e.g. ...
The aquaculture of decapod crustaceans is expanding continuously to supply protein source for human consumption. Therefore, intensive research is necessary to improve the quality of the feeds in decapod crustacean farming. Decapod crustaceans are slow feeders, and dietary inclusion of plant proteins reduces their intakes on the feeds. Dietary supplementation of chemoattractants (CA) (to reduce food searching duration) and feeding stimulants (FS) (to stimulate ingestion) is therefore necessary to solve these problems respectively. Amino acids are commonly used as the CA and FS in aquaculture, and the feeding response of aquatic animals to amino acids is species-specific. As the chemosensory systems of decapod crustaceans are complicated, and their feeding responses are different from fish, it is essential to understand which amino acids can function as the CA, FS or both to the targeted farmed species. This review provides an overview on the acceptance of some commercially farmed decapod crustaceans to amino acids. Topics related to the efficiency of amino acids being a CA and FS were discussed, and recommendations on how to present amino acids as a CA and FS efficiently in decapod crustacean farming were also made.
... Willams et al. (2005) reported that the growth rate of Penaeus monodon fed diets containing shrimp head meal and krill meal as a chemoattractant was 1.66 and 1.68% per day, respectively, while it was only 0.95% per day in the group fed a basal diet that did not contain any attractant. Similarly, about 20% faster growth was observed by Smith et al. (2005) when crustacean meal or krill meal was supplemented to same species compared to the control group. Suresh and Nates (2011) found increased attractability in Litopenaeus stylirostris reared with fishmeal challenged diet using 20% poultry-byproduct (w/w) with the supplementation of 3% squid liver meal and krill meal. ...
... This statement is in agreement with the findings of Hartati and Briggs (1993), who documented that betaine increased the attractiveness of casein-based, semi-purified diet of shrimp. The daily feed intake of shrimp reared with various chemoattractants is reported by Smith et al. (2005) (Table 4), who revealed that increasing the inclusion level of chemoattractants increased daily feed intake except squid meal, where the reverse trend was noticed. However, a positive response in feed intake was observed by Holland and Borski (1993) with squid meal in penaeid shrimp. ...
... But they become very effective when used with some other chemical stimulants particularly betaine, glycine and inosine. Polat (1999) reported that in addition to acting as a chemoattractant, these L-amino acids could be recognised as important energy source when supplemented Smith et al. (2005) with valine, serine, leucine and isoleucine in fish. Nunes et al. (2006) observed the superior effect of commercially available amino acid mix in attracting P. vannamei when compared with betaine, indicating that a blend of amino acids would be a better attractant than individual ones. ...
Aquaculture serves as a sustainable source of good quality wholesome food and major input is feed. In recent years, considerable quantities of plant sources have been attempted for inclusion in shrimp feed, due to high demand and high cost of fishmeal. Plant-based ingredients are in general poor in attractability and palatability to aquatic species compared to marine sources. It is desirable to develop an economical and nutritious feed that is attractive and palatable for ensuring reduction of feed wastage. Chemoattractants nowadays are unavoidable in commercial shrimp feeds and are included either individually or in combination. The present review revealed that the various marine sources, in particular krill meal would be more effective for aquatic species, compared to those derived from vegetable origin and chemical compounds. In addition to acting as a feed attractant, marine sources serve as a potential fishmeal substitute due to their rich nutritional composition. However, certain biogenic amines present in these marine-based ingredients need to be examined before their use, since these amines when present in high concentrations reduces feed intake by producing undesirable odour. Use of a combination of chemoattractants would give a better effect, rather than using them individually and compounds from plant origin have limited beneficial effects. The present review concludes that incorporation of chemoattractants would be beneficial in formulation of enriched and economical feeds with better attractability and palatability. The selection of suitable attractant and their supplementation at correct proportion is significantly more important to avoid undesirable effects in cultured shrimp. Further field-based research is needed to predict the actual effects of chemoattractants on farmed shrimp and to provide a sustainable base for the expansion of shrimp aquaculture sector, by reducing feed wastage.
... In recent years, substantial effort has been allocated to replace fish meal by plant protein sources in shrimp feeds, such as the widely available and cost-effective soybean meal (Samocha et al., 2004;Smith et al., 2005;Amaya et al., 2007ab;Roy et al., 2009;Sookying et al., 2013;Tantikitti, 2014;Galkanda-Arachchige et al., 2019;Guo et al., 2020). Soybean meal is considered an adequate ingredient in shrimp diets due to its high protein content, good digestibility and well-balanced amino acid profile, albeit it also has low methionine level (Davis and Arnold, 2000;Amaya et al., 2007aAmaya et al., , 2007bSookying et al., 2013;Tantikitti, 2014;Zhou et al., 2015;Guo et al., 2020;. ...
... The latest results of soybean-based diets on shrimp growth performance are promising both under in-laboratory Roy et al., 2009;Sookying and Davis, 2012;Zhou et al., 2015;Galkanda-Arachchige et al., 2019;Guo et al., 2020) and ponds systems (Roy et al., 2009;Sookying and Davis, 2012;Jescovitch et al., 2018;Ullman et al., 2019a;Ullman et al., 2019b;Reis et al., 2020). However, the addition of feeding effectors (chemoattractants, feeding incitants and stimulants) in diets with high percentage of plant material has been suggested to improve feed detection and consumption by stimulating shrimp chemosensory systems (Lee and Meyers, 1996;Sanchez et al., 2005;Smith et al., 2005;Nunes et al., 2006;Suresh et al., 2011;Derby et al., 2016). Such stimulation can also contribute to the minimalization of leaching of nutrients and feed waste caused by the intensive food manipulation and selective feeding behavior of shrimp (Lee and Meyers, 1996;Sanchez et al., 2005). ...
... The enhancement of desirable chemosensory characteristics of soybean-based shrimp diets has been attained by adding low percentages of ingredients (1 to 6% of meals, oils and hydrolysates) derived from aquatic animals, such as of krill, squid and fish (Lee and Meyers, 1996;Smith et al., 2005;Grey et al., 2009;Derby et al., 2016). These ingredients are rich in chemical signal compounds, particularly amino acids and nucleotides, that are readily detectable by the chemosensory systems of crustaceans (Derby and Sorensen, 2008;Suresh et al., 2011). ...
The inclusion of feeding effectors in plant-based diets is a strategy to accelerate feed detection and consumption by shrimp. This study evaluated the effect of krill meal (KM), krill oil (KO) and fish hydrolysate (FH) addition to a soybean-based diet on feeding behavior and growth of Litopenaeus vannamei. Ten diets (360 g/kg crude protein) were formulated including FH, KM and KO at 0, 10, 20 and 40 g/kg levels named as: Basal (0); FH10 (10 g/kg fish hydrolysate), FH20 (20 g/kg fish hydrolysate), FH40 (40 g/kg fish hydrolysate); KM1 (10 g/kg krill meal), KM20 (20 g/kg krill meal), KM40 (40 g/kg krill meal); KO10 (10 g/kg krill oil), KO20 (20 g/kg krill oil) and KO40 (40 g/kg krill oil). A growth trial was performed using twenty shrimp (0.15 ± 0.01 g) stocked per 100 L glass aquaria (four replicates/diet) in an indoor clear water recirculation system (4.2 ppt, 28 °C). Animals were fed the experimental diets four times a day for six weeks. At the end of the trial all animals were counted and weighted. Following, 300 animals (3.93 ± 0.35 g) were aleatory selected and transferred back to the system (10 shrimp/aquaria). Three replicates were used per treatment (ten diets) for feed intake and acoustic feeding behavior analysis. The food consumption and feeding activity sounds were recorded simultaneously in 30 min intervals during five consecutive days. All feeding effectors at the inclusion levels tested significantly increased L. vannamei food consumption and the passive acoustic monitoring indicated that shrimp ate faster and for longer periods of time. Food consumption was significantly higher in the treatments KM20, KM40 and KO40. The addition of feeding effectors also enhanced shrimp growth performance and significantly better values of biomass, final weight, and food conversion ratio were observed in the treatment KM40. Weight gain (%) was significantly improved only in shrimp offered KM40, KO20 and KO40 diets. It is concluded that KM, KO and FH can stimulate food consumption of soy-based diet by L. vannamei from 10 g/kg addition while the amount of food consumed and growth has been shown to be in general dose-related, although in a different way, for each type of feeding effector.
... Ingredients of animal origin, especially aquatic organisms, are feeding attractants in shrimp (Smith et al., 2005) because they are rich in small soluble chemical compounds such as certain amino acids, nucleotides and some organic acids. Each of these has been identified as a feeding stimulant and palatability enhancer. ...
... Each of these has been identified as a feeding stimulant and palatability enhancer. Many studies have reported that fish meal, fish protein hydrolysate, squid meal and casein serve as attractants and improve feed intake of shrimp when incorporated into the feed at optimal levels (Smith et al., 2005;Nunes et al., 2006;Grey et al., 2009;Bankefors et al., 2011;Tantikitti, 2014;Montoya-Martínez et al., 2018). Under the experimental conditions in our study, feed intake rate significantly increased when 3% of each test protein ingredients (FM, FPH, SqM or CN) was added to the bland control feed. ...
... Therefore, rapid and inexpensive testing of a wide range of potential protein ingredients, or other phagostimulants, is possible. Unlike feed tests incorporate an ingredient or stimuli into a complete feed composed of a number of other ingredients (Smith et al., 2005;Suresh et al., 2011), our assay incorporated ingredients into a bland feed, which minimized influences from other feed ingredients that may contain compounds that could potentially confound the feeding response. ...
A simple bioassay that quantifies feed intake as an estimation of relative attractability of feeds containing different ingredients in the Pacific white shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei is described. Fish meal (FM), fish protein hydrolysate (FPH), squid meal (SqM) and casein (CN) were assessed at the same dietary level for their relative influence on feed intake rates of Litopenaeus vannamei. A bland diet containing 92% whole wheat grain meal, 6% diatomaceous earth and 2% alginate with a known low attractability was used as the standard control or base diet. Ingredients were added to the bland base control diet at a level of 3% as fed. Shrimp were stocked into 80 L glass tanks (n = 20 per tank) in a recirculating aquaculture system. Tanks were randomly assigned to one of five diet treatments (3 tanks/treatment). Experiments measuring the attractability of each feed were conducted twice daily at 0900 h and 1330 h over a five day period. For each experiment, 40 feed pellets (ca. 1 g) corresponding to the assigned treatment were provided to each tank. To calculate the rate of feed intake, pellets remaining in each tank were counted at six minute intervals for a seventy-two minute period. Differences in rate of feed intake among diets were evaluated using Cox Regression Analysis. This attractability assay required only small amounts of ingredients and incorporated ingredients into a bland feed, which significantly reduces the influence from other ingredients or compound in the pellets. All of the test protein ingredients, especially SqM, in the feeds significantly increased the feed intake rate. The diet containing SqM was consumed at a significantly higher rate than those containing casein and FM but not FPH. FPH and CN containing diets were not significantly different but consumed at a higher rate than the diet containing FM. Results of these trials indicate that the presence of certain ingredients can increase feed intake, thereby increasing nutrient availability of the diets. This reported method to determine feed intake of diets containing certain ingredients may be considered as a valid method to estimate attractability for shrimp in culture.
... Crustaceans are primarily chemosensory feeders, therefore chemoattractants are important components of their prey and feed, and in increasing feed intake (Smith et al., 2005). A crustacean diet containing sufficient chemoattractants may be detected, located and ingested quickly, reducing losses of water-soluble components (Coman et al., 1996;Tolomei et al., 2003). ...
... The oil may emit a similar odour as some of the natural food items common to benthic, freshwater habitats. While ingredients of marine origin are considered important feed effectors for shrimp and other marine crustaceans (Smith et al., 2005), a large proportion of the diet of freshwater crayfish is made up of vegetation of terrestrial origin (O'Brien, 1995;Duffy et al., 2011). Anise oil, being derived from a terrestrial plant, may mimic the scent of either vegetation or detritus present on the floor of the pond, river or lake environment. ...
... Cruz- Suárez et al. (1989) found that squid extract had a positive impact on growth, feed utilization and nutrient availability in Kuruma prawn (Penaeus japonicus). Dietary squid meal enhanced the growth of giant tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon) (Smith et al., 2005). The growth performance and digestive enzyme activity of L. vannamei were increased when squid meal supplementation comprised 9% of crude protein in their diet but decreased when the supplementation exceeded 15% of crude protein (Córdova-Murueta, & García-Carreño, 2002). ...
... The growth performance and digestive enzyme activity of L. vannamei were increased when squid meal supplementation comprised 9% of crude protein in their diet but decreased when the supplementation exceeded 15% of crude protein (Córdova-Murueta, & García-Carreño, 2002). Similarly, high levels of dietary squid products were reported to suppress shrimp growth (Smith et al., 2005). ...
This study was conducted to examine the supplementary effects of tuna hydrolysate (TH) and shrimp hydrolysate (SH) as squid‐liver powder (SLP) replacers in a high soybean meal diet for Pacific white shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei). A diet containing 4.49% SLP was regarded as the control diet and two other diets were prepared by supplementing 1.14% tuna hydrolysate (TH) and 0.94% shrimp hydrolysate (SH) (designated as SLP, TH and SH, respectively). Five replicate groups of shrimp (initial mean body weight, 0.35 ± 0.002 g) were fed one of the experimental diets for 52 days. Final body weight and weight gain of shrimp fed SH and TH diets were significantly higher than those of shrimp fed SLP diet (p < 0.05). Feed conversion ratio was lower in SH group compared to that of shrimp fed other diets. Total antioxidant capacity and catalase activity were significantly higher in TH or SH group than SLP group (p < 0.05). Hemolymph glucose and triglyceride levels of shrimp fed SLP were significantly lower than those of shrimp fed TH and SH (p < 0.05). Shrimp‐fed TH or SH exhibited significantly higher carcass lipid composition than shrimp‐fed SLP (p < 0.05). Dry matter and protein digestibility were significantly higher in SH diet (p < 0.05). The findings in this study indicate that SH and TH can be used as beneficial feed supplements or ingredients that could replace SLP in L. vannamei diet. Optimum inclusion level of SH would be approximately 1% to completely replace SLP in L. vannamei diet containing high level of soybean meal.
... Suresh and Nates (2011) documented that the improved performance in shrimp due to the supplementation of additives was mainly attributed to higher attractability and palatability. Similar observation was described by various authors (Holland and Borski, 1993;Lee and Meyers, 1997;Samocha et al., 2004;Sanchez et al., 2005;Smith et al., 2005;Nunes et al., 2006), who stated that the components used as an additive can stimulate the appetitive phases, including arousal, search initiation and locating the feed and thus, resulted in higher feed intake. However, there are marine ingredients that not only provide high palatability and attractability, but also a combination of various nutritional benefits. ...
... This enhanced palatability nature of krill meal is considered to be another reason for obtaining higher growth with higher inclusion in our study. Our result is corroborated with the findings of Cordova-Murueta and Garcia-Carreno (2001) in P. vannamei andSmith et al. (2005) in P. monodon. However, contrasting results were reported with the fish hydrolysate being used, indicating that the inclusion of krill meal confers a greater nutritional value compared to this marine ingredient. ...
An eight-week feeding trial was conducted to investigate the effect of dietary krill meal inclusion in diets with moderate (12%) and low (6%) fishmeal concentrations for Penaeusvannamei.Inasmuch, eight iso‑nitrogenous and isolipidic diets were formulated to contain 36% crude protein and 5.5% crude lipid. In the moderate-fishmeal diets, krill meal was included at 0, 2, 4 and 6% (called FK12:0, FK12:2, FK12:4 and FK12:6, respectively), likewise in the low-fishmeal diets, krill meal was included at the same concentrations of 0–6% (called FK6:0, FK6:2, FK6:4 and FK6:6, respectively). Shrimp with a starting body weight of 0.55 ± 0.02 g were stocked at 22 animals per tank of 350 lcapacity and fed three times daily. Results revealed that dietary krill meal and fish meal inclusion levels significantly increased growth performance (P < 0.05)and there was no significant effect on interaction between fishmeal and krill meal levels. Shrimp fed 6% krill meal diet had the highest final body weight of 11.61 g, weight gain of 11.05 g, weight gain % of 1969.38%,specific growth rate of 5.41%/d and yield of 229.42 g/tank The weight gain % and SGR showed non significant difference between 4 and 6% krill meal containing groups.Dietary change did not affect feed conversion ratio, protein efficiency ratio and apparent protein utilization(P > 0.05). Survival was significantly increased in the groups containing 6 and 4% krill meal diets compared to 0% krill meal diet (P < 0.05). Inclusion levels of krill meal showed non-significant differences in post-fed body composition except for crude lipid and crude fibre content. Fishmeal inclusion levels showed significant (P < 0.05) variation in C14:0,C16:0,C18:0,C16:1, C18:1n-9,C18:2n-6,C22:6nn-3/n-6 ratio, whereas krill meal inclusion levels showed significant variation in the all n-3 fatty acids only. Immune-related gene expression was significantly (P < 0.05) upregulated in the shrimp fed high fishmeal diets (12%) for all the analyzed genes (ProPhenoloxidase (ProPO),ProPhenoloxidase activating enzyme (PPAE), Serine Protease (SP), β-1, 3-glucan-binding protein (BGBP), Superoxide dismutase (SOD), and Hemocyanin (HC)). The dietary change led to a significant difference in both histology and haematology parameters (P < 0.05). The results inferred that krill meal could be used as a potential functional feed ingredient in Penaeus vannamei.The present study suggested beneficial effects of krill meal in shrimp diets. The levels of fishmeal inclusion (12 and 6%) also showed significant (P < 0.05) variations in various growth performance parameters. It is plausible that an inclusion level of 4% is the minimum for a measurable difference in growth performance.
... Overall shrimp survival in this study was high, which can be explained by good adaptation of shrimp to pond conditions and the absence of stress and disease, as well as environmental variations that were within the optimal ranges for shrimp growth (Martinez-Cordova et al. 1998;Samocha 2019). The study showed that dietary inclusion of 3% HPK into shrimp feed significantly improved shrimp final BW by 0.9 g, survival by 3.4%, yield by 278 g/cage, and FCR by −0.14 compared to the control diet after 60 days of rearing. ...
... This will decrease the pressure on wild fish stocks and increase cost effectiveness and sustainability of commercial shrimp feed. Since alternative protein sources might have different organoleptic profiles that change attractability and palatability of feed than fish meal, krill meal can act as a feed attractant, overcoming low feed intake as described previously (Sá et al. 2013;Sabry-Neto et al. 2017;Smith et al. 2005;Suresh and Nates 2011;Williams et al. 2005). In particular for low-cost diets with varying feed quality, the dietary inclusion of krill meal might provide a safety net that ensures high feed intake and thereby optimal growth performance. ...
To investigate the potential of high-protein krill meal (HPK) to improve growth in low-cost diets for Pacific white shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei), a commercial control and a 3% HPK diet were compared. To simulate a semi-intensive culture system, a total of 4,500 shrimp with a body weight (BW) of 3.07 ± 0.01 g were stocked with 25 animals/m² in 20 cages in a 2.16-ha pond. After 60 days of rearing, the 3% HPK diet achieved a significantly higher yield (22,094.0 ± 130.35 g/cage) in comparison to the control diet (19,301.6 ± 272.28 g/cage) (P < 0.05). When the feed cost per kg shrimp produced was compared, it was significantly lower in the 3% HPK group (US1.11/kg shrimp). The results indicate that low feeding cost diets can profit from the partial replacement of fish meal by HPK to optimize shrimp growth performance without increasing formula cost.
... Furthermore, the physical properties of food, such as palatability, particularly attracts decapods, thus affecting their feeding activity. Animal proteins that release certain amino acids generally attract decapods [41,42], although, in decapods, visual cues tend to predominate. ...
... This involves the mechanism of leaching amino acids from the feed during pellet immersion, which can be identified by the decapod through chemoreceptors. Tests on the inclusion of squid, crustacean and krill meal, fish and krill hydrolysates, and betaine product as feed effectors in the diet of giant tiger prawns revealed that the prawns showed a significant preference for feeds containing crustacean meal or krill meal when more amino acid leachates were observed in the two attractants, which initiated the shrimp responses towards the feeds [42]. Similarly, experiments on whiteleg shrimp showed a higher affinity for a diet containing feed attractants with complex amino acids at a 1.0% inclusion level, particularly because of the presence of complex amino acids such as alanine, valine, glycine, proline, serine, histidine, glutamic acid, tyrosine, and betaine [69]. ...
The increasing market demand for decapods has led to a considerable interest in cultivating decapod species at a larger scale. Following the development of hatchery technologies, most research has focused on the development of formulated feeds for commercially farmed decapods once they enter the juvenile stages. The use of formulated feed for decapods at a commercial scale is still in the early stages. This is probably because of the unique feeding behavior that decapods possess: being robust, slow feeders and bottom dwellers, their feeding preferences change during the transition from pelagic larvae to benthic juveniles as their digestive systems develop and become more complex. The current practice of decapod aquaculture involves the provision of juveniles with food such as natural diet, live feed, and formulated feed. Knowledge of nutrient requirements enables diets to be better formulated. By manipulating the levels of proteins and lipids, a formulated feed can be expected to lead to optimal growth in decapods. At the same time, the pellet’s physical characteristics are important factors to be considered upon formulating commercially farmed decapod feeds, considering the unique feeding behavior of the decapod. However, most published studies on decapod nutrition lack data on the physical characteristics of the feed types. Thus, it is difficult to establish a standard feed formulation that focuses on the physical pellet properties. Moreover, careful consideration must be given to the feeding behavior of species, as decapods are known as bottom feeders and are robust in terms of handling feed. Information on the pellet forms, diet composition, and unique feeding behaviors in commercially farmed decapods is gathered to suggest potential better formulated diets that can optimize growth and reproduction. Thus, the purpose of this review is to summarize the information that has been published to date and to come up with suggestions on ways to improve the feed formulation in decapods that comply with their feeding behavior and nutrient requirements. Further research is needed to explore the potential of the pelleted feed at the adult stage so the decapod can take full advantage of the nutrients present in the pellets.
... The rationale of unknown nutrients and bioactive compounds that promotes shrimp growth have been investigated for years. Some of the key ingredients and additives responsible for these "unknown growth factors" in shrimp nutrition include fishmeal, invertebrate meals, marine hydrolysates, algae, and microbial biomass products (Cruz-Ricque et al., 1987Guillaume et al., 1989;Cordova-Murueta and Garcia-Carreno, 2002;Smith et al., 2005;Williams et al., 2005;Glencross et al., 2014Glencross et al., , 2015Glencross et al., , 2020Simon et al., 2019). Although some advances have been made the entire mechanism behind this phenomenon remains unclear. ...
... Although some advances have been made the entire mechanism behind this phenomenon remains unclear. Attempts to explain it have focused on feed attraction and palatability, balance and bioavailability of nutrients, improvement in digestion and absorption, postpandrial nutrient balance, and gut microbiota (Cruz-Ricque et al., 1987Guillaume et al., 1989;Smith et al., 2005;Glencross et al., 2014Glencross et al., , 2015Glencross et al., , 2020Simon et al., 2019). The squid factor, as defined by Guillaume et al. (1989), is the enhanced growth in shrimp fed squid without a robust explanation of its functions. ...
Although Litopenaeus vannamei is the most produced and researched shrimp species worldwide, there are no published studies evaluating the use of the microbial biomass, Novacq™, in L. vannamei feeds. This study investigated the effects of supplementing Novacq™ at 100 g kg−1 in practical and commercial feeds in postlarvae 12 (PL 12) and juvenile white leg shrimp. Three experiments were carried out. In Experiment 1, PL12 were fed for 21 days with a Control, Novacq™ or Commercial feed. The Novacq feed was equal in PL12 performance to the Commercial diet and superior to the Control (final individual weight = 0.169, 0.167 and 0.087 g; percentage weight gain = 8014, 7956 and 4091% for Novacq™, Commercial and Control feeds, respectively). No statistical differences in survival, coefficient of variation and daily feed offered were observed across dietary treatments. In Experiments 2 and 3 the performance of juvenile shrimp fed practical and Commercial feeds supplemented with Novacq™ for 42 days, respectively. In Experiment 2, Novacq™ feed outperformed the Control feed by improving survival (89 vs. 51%), final individual weight (7.4 vs. 3.5 g), weight gain (7.1 vs. 3.2 g), and percentage weight gain (1997 vs. 898%). In Experiment 3 supplementing Novacq™ into the Commercial feed improved performance (final individual weight = 6.4 vs. 5.5 g, weight gain = 6.0 vs. 5.1 g, and percentage weight gain = 1712 vs 1443%) and reduced the coefficient of variation (19 vs 53%). Shrimp fed feeds containing Novacq™ also displayed numerically reduced daily feed offered and estimated feed conversion ratio values in comparison to the other dietary treatments. Whole-body composition was similar across dietary treatments. In summary, supplementation of Novacq™ in practical and Commercial feeds improved growth and efficiency of PL12 and juvenile shrimp suggesting its validity as a useful feed additive in the nutrition of white leg shrimp.
... Feeding management is one of the areas most directly benefitted by a better understanding of shrimp behaviour [5,12,13,107]. Ethological studies have significantly contributed to the current knowledge on different aspects of shrimp feeding behaviour, such as feeding frequencies [79,82], circadian rhythm [84,108,109], food restriction and moulting cycle [4], stocking density [98], pellet size [75,81] and, on a larger scale, the inclusion of additives in diets [59,77,78,80,83,85,[110][111][112][113][114][115][116]. Although most of these studies have been conducted with visual observations under laboratory conditions, new technologies such as computer vision and PAM have been successfully applied in shrimp behavioural studies, as also reviewed by De Tailly et al. [12], Reis et al. [14] and Li et al. [10]. ...
The use of passive acoustic monitoring (PAM) has recently been integrated with other noninvasive ethological methodologies to enhance the understanding of shrimp feeding behaviour, as their mandibles emit click sounds during food intake. This review aims to compile recent advances and various applications of PAM in assessing shrimp feeding behaviour under controlled laboratory and farm conditions. It includes a description of key concepts, terms and general methodologies in the field of bioacoustics to facilitate understanding of acoustic characterisation, specific methodologies and the main uses of PAM in shrimp research. Among the primary contributions of PAM in laboratory studies are acoustic characterisation of clicks and mandibular structures associated with their emission for different species; variations in acoustic click parameters related to animal size, feed texture and pellet size; and effects on feeding behaviour caused by shrimp size, stocking density and specific characteristics of artificial diets (texture, formulations, additives and pellet sizes). Finally, future perspectives and recommendations for laboratory studies using PAM are provided. The review highlights the contribution of PAM, which, allied with other ethological methodologies, emerges as a novel tool for researching shrimp behaviour and optimising feed management in aquaculture.
... Higher hydrolysis leads to an increase in the presence of negatively charged amino acids (Latorres et al. 2018). The typical composition of hydrolyzed shrimp is approximately 36.8% crude protein, 6.81% crude fat, and 34.30% total fat (Nunes et al. 2019;Smith et al. 2005). ...
Aquaculture is playing an important role in providing essential animal protein to an estimated several billion people worldwide by 2050 and is considered a rapidly expanding food industry. In the aquaculture sector, the cost of feed is a major component, often accounting for 40–70% of total operational costs. The nutritional composition required for different fish species varies, with crude protein typically constituting 20–50% of their diet. Traditionally, fishmeal has been a primary ingredient in fish feeds because it contains proper amounts of proteins, fatty acids, and amino acids. Fishmeal prices have surged significantly in recent times, often surpassing $1600 per ton. This increase is attributed to factors such as competition with livestock industries, global shortage of fishmeal, and higher demand. Additionally, environmental concerns and sustainability issues influence the supply and demand dynamics of fishmeal globally, particularly in Asia, which is a major consumer and producer. To mitigate these challenges, the aquaculture industry is currently researching alternative protein sources to replace fishmeal. These alternatives include other protein sources, such as plant proteins, insect meal, and single-cell proteins, each with distinct nutritional profiles and environmental impacts. Substituting fishmeal with these alternatives has shown promising results in terms of feed conversion ratios, growth variability, ultimate weight, and survival rates across various fish species and sizes. Moreover, technological advancements in feed formulation have enhanced the efficiency and sustainability of aquaculture practices. Although these developments offer significant advantages, alternative protein sources also have limitations that need to be addressed to ensure the long-term environmental sustainability of aquaculture as a global food source.
... A variety of feed ingredients, such as fish products including FM (Singh et al., 2006), fish soluble (Kader et al., 2012), mollusc meals including blue mussel meal (Nagel et al., 2014) and squid meal (Novriadi et al., 2017), crustacean meals including shrimp meal and krill meal (Smith et al., 2005), animal byproduct meals including blood meal (Tusche et al., 2011), plant byproducts (Liew et al., 2020), and the synthetic chemicals (Biswas et al., 2018) have been tested to evaluate their attractiveness to different aquatic animals. Especially, jack mackerel (Trachurus japonicus) meal (JMM) has been reported to be the prominent stimulants and attractants in various fish species, such as olive flounder (Jeong et al., 2020(Jeong et al., , 2022, rockfish (Sebastes schlegeli) Baek et al., 2021), and yellowtail (Seirola quinqueradiata) (Hosokawa et al., 2001). ...
The low fish meal (FM) diet commonly causes deteriorated palatability, and eventually leads to lowered feed consumption and growth performance of fish. This study was, therefore, designed to determine inclusion impact of the graded levels of jack mackerel meal (JMM) in olive flounder (P. olivaceus) diets replacing 50% FM with tuna by-product meal (TBM) on growth, feed availability, biochemical composition, blood chemistry, and economic efficiency. Six isonitrogenous (55.5%) and isolipidic (10.0%) diets were formulated. Sixty percent FM was incorporated in the control (Con) diet. In the Con diet, fifty percent of FM was replaced by TBM, and then 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50% JMM were included at the cost of FM, referred as the TJ10, TJ20, TJ30, TJ40, and TJ50 diets, respectively. Three hundred and sixty juvenile fish (18.0 ± 0.01g; mean ± SD) were delivered into 18, 50-L flow-through tanks. All diets were randomly assigned to triplicate groups of fish. Fish were hand-fed to apparent satiation twice daily for 56 days. Weight gain, specific growth rate, and feed consumption of fish fed the TJ30, TJ40, and TJ50 diets were significantly (P < 0.001, P < 0.001, and P < 0.002, respectively) greater than those of fish fed the Con and TJ10 diets, but not significantly (P > 0.05) different from those of fish fed the TJ20 diet. Feed utilization, proximate composition, amino acid profiles, and blood chemistry of fish were not significantly (P > 0.05) altered by dietary treatments. However, the TJ30 diet was the most recommendable to farmers in terms of economic profit index (EPI). Conclusively, 30% inclusion of JMM is the most recommendable in the olive flounder diet substituting 50% FM with TBM based on growth performance, feed availability, and EPI.
... Raw feed attractants made no difference on FBW, FI, FCR, WGR, or SGR. These results may be caused by the practical feed formulations that contain significant amounts of terrestrial protein and relatively low levels of marine ingredients; there does not appear to be a need for additional feeding effectors (Smith et al. 2005). ...
To assess the effects of dietary betaine supplementation on growth performance, feed intake, intestine histology, lipid metabolism, and immune response of Penaeus monodon fed diets containing low and high levels of attractants, four diets were designed: positive control with a high level of attractant (P), negative control with a low level of attractant (N), positive control with betaine (PB), and negative control with betaine (NB). Four replicates with 30 shrimp per replicate and an initial body weight of (0.23 ± 0.00) g proceeded to a 56-day feeding trial. Results showed that raw feed attractants significantly improved the survival rate, total protein of hemolymph, total superoxide dismutase activity, the expression level of imd in the hepatopancreas, and the expression level of pi3k and myd88 in the intestine. But the muscle thickness of the intestine and the expression level of ampk and fas were reduced by the raw feed attractants. Dietary betaine supplementation significantly promoted the expression levels of ampk and acs in the hepatopancreas, fold width and muscle thickness of the intestine, and the expression levels of pi3k, myd88, relish, ror, and imd in the intestine, while the crude lipid content of the whole body and muscle and the expression levels of fas and cpt in the hepatopancreas were reduced by betaine. Present findings revealed that raw feed attractant supplementation positively influenced the survival rate, the anti-oxidation ability, and immune-related gene expressions of the hepatopancreas and intestine. Dietary betaine supplementation positively influenced intestine histology, lipid metabolism, and immune gene expression in the intestine.
... The apparent better palatability and intake of feed coated with chicken oil represents an economic advantage in the formulation of a feed since it would not be necessary to add a high-cost oil such as krill oil to the diet of axolotls to obtain a good performance. According to Lee & Meyers (1996) and Nunes et al. (2006), the food ingredients obtained from aquatic animals (flours and soluble fractions) have low weight molecules that make them excellent attractants (Smith et al., 2005;Ali et al., 2007), while those obtained from terrestrial animals (oils and poultry meals) do not have this quality (Suresh et al., 2011). Although there are studies in other species that favor the use of krill as an attractant (Oikawa & March, 1997;Kolkovski et al., 2000) in the present work it was not demonstrated that it is an ingredient for axolotls in the present work it was not demonstrated that it is a more palatable ingredient of primary choice for axolotls since chicken oil obtained better results; which coincides with what was reported by Sureshnte more palatable of primary choice since chicken oil obtained better results; which coincides with what was reported by Suresh et al. (2011) in marine shrimp. ...
Objective: The growth, survival and condition factor of Ambystoma mexicanum juveniles fed with three commercial feed-based diets coated with different animal oils as potential palatability enhancers were evaluated. Methodology: Three diets were prepared using commercial feed coated with fish, chicken and krill oil. The experiment lasted 81 days, the food was provided to the axolotls (6 per experimental unit, in triplicate) every 48 h, at 4% of the total biomass. The total weight of each experimental unit was recorded every 15 days, at the end of the experiment individual weight and height and survival were recorded. The following variables were calculated: Fulton's K, specific growth rate, coefficient of variation of final weight and size heterogeneity. Results: All three treatments showed an increase in total biomass, with a trend towards better performance in chicken and fish oil treatments compared to krill oil. When performing the statistical analysis, it was found that there were no significant differences among the treatments for any of the variables recorded. Implications: The three oils used in the present study were good palatable agents in the food intake of A. mexicanum. Conclusions: It is recommended to use chicken oil as an attractant additive in the formulation of a specific diet due to its low cost.
... Protein is the key building block (FAO 2003) and the most expensive component of feeds (Shiau 1998). The commonly used source of protein in shrimp feeds is fishmeal (Smith et al. 2005). However, the decline in fish stocks (Akiyama et al. 1995), irregular availability, contribution to fisheries deterioration, the potential for adulteration, biological pathogens (Fox et al. 2004), high costs (Hardy 2006), and limited and unpredictable harvesting (Nagappan et al. 2021) have steered up research for its replacement. ...
Shrimp are economically important candidates for aquaculture in Tanzania; however, their farming is constrained by reliance on costly feeds, attributed to the use of fishmeal as the main ingredient. This study determined the efficacy of green algae Chaetomorpha sp. on survival, feed utilization, biochemical composition, and fatty acids profile of the cultured Penaeus monodon as a potential candidate for replacing fishmeal. Four experimental feeds, F0, F1, F2, and F3, denoting fishmeal replacement levels of 0, 10, 20, and 30%, respectively, were made. Post-larvae weighing 0.49 ± 0.06 g were stocked at 15 individuals/m3 in 2 m3 hapa nets in three replicates and reared for 45 days. The F2 treatment showed a significantly higher (p < 0.05) survival rate than the other treatments. F2 and F3 improved growth significantly with F3 exhibiting the highest weight gain (8.02 ± 0.26 g) compared to the other treatments. The biochemical composition varied significantly (p<0.05) across treatment levels. The F2 treatment demonstrated the highest muscle somatic index (MSI) of 71.77 ± 2.32%. The F3 treatment exhibited significantly higher (p<0.05) crude protein (CP) than the other treatments. Crude fat (CF) in F0 and F2 treatments were significantly higher (p<0.05) than the other replacement levels. The F0 and F1 treatments exhibited higher proportions of saturated fatty acids (SFA) than the other treatments. In contrast, F2 and F3 treatments had high levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA). The replacement of Chaetomorpha algae at 20 to 30% levels in feeds improved feed utilization, biochemical composition, and fatty acids profile of the farmed Penaeus monodon. However, the replacement of Chaetomorpha algae at 30% resulted in high saturated fatty acids but lowest survival rates. Thus, at a 20% replacement level, Chaetomorpha algae are suitable for partial replacement of fishmeal in P. monodon feeds.
... This observation of the feed intake of shrimp in the present study could be due to the lower inclusion level or the type of hydrolysate used in the diets. An increased feed intake of a shrimp plant-based diet had been observed with the addition of 1% krill and 2% fish hydrolysate (Smith et al., 2005;Li et al., 2018). Moreover, the growth of shrimp given with a plant proteinbased diet incorporated with 1% squid by-product hydrolysate can be also attributed to the enhancement in its feed conversion ratio. ...
The poor growth of aquatic animals fed with diets containing high plant proteins has been attributed to low diet acceptability and feed value. Supplementation of protein hydrolysate, with high contents of free amino acids and soluble low molecular weight peptides, may increase the acceptability and feed value of a plant protein-based diet. In the present work, squid processing by-products were enzymatically hydrolyzed and used as a supplement in a plant protein-based diet, without fish meal, of Penaeus monodon to fully maximize the utilization of this marine resource. The hydrolysate was incorporated at 0, 0.5, and 1% levels in P. monodon diets containing 0 and 10% fish meal levels. Growth, digestive enzyme activities, muscle growth-, gut pro-inflammatory and immune-related gene expressions, and muscle morphometric measurements were evaluated as biological indices in an 8-week feeding trial. The squid by-product hydrolysate produced in the present study contains 90.25% protein, 5.84% lipid, and 3.91% ash, and has a molecular weight of 3.76 kDa. Supplementation at 1% hydrolysate in the experimental shrimp diet without fish meal resulted in the highest growth performance associated with increased feed intake, efficient feed and nutrient conversion and retention, enhanced digestive enzyme activities, upregulation of muscle growth- and immune-related genes, and suppression of the gut pro-inflammatory gene. The growth promotion is also linked with a significant increase in muscle mean fiber area, which suggests hypertrophic growth in shrimp. Generally, the supplementation of 1% squid by-product hydrolysate supported the growth of P. monodon fed on a plant protein-based diet without fish meal.
... Most of the feeding effectors identified for marine shrimp are found in protein-rich ingredients of marine origin including fish meal, fish solubles, fish hydrolysate, squid head offal meal, squid liver meal, shrimp head offal meal, krill meal, krill hydrolysate, and bivalve meals from clams, oysters and mussels Grey et al., 2009;Smith et al., 2005;Guillaume et al., 1989;Suarez et al., 1985;Cruz--Ricque et al., 1987;Suresh and Nates, 2011;Derby et al., 2016). Incorporation of these ingredients and/or compounds into shrimp diets have long been used to enhance shrimp feeding responses at levels ranging from 0.5 up to 5% of the diet (as-is basis) (Hartati and Briggs, 1993). ...
Feed formulations for marine shrimp have adapted to the stagnant fish meal supplies and increasing prices by progressively moving to alternative protein sources such as plant and rendered animal by-products. This review presents the current challenges on the use of conventional and non-conventional feed sources, with a focus on solving the economical, sustainability and performance challenges of low-fish meal diets. As a case study, this review shows that krill meal can be included to address some of these concerns, such as missing essential nutrients, lower attractability/palatability and antinutritional factors that suppress feeding stimulus, reduce nutrient bioavailability and hence increase production costs. The combination of protein, nutrients and feed attractants of krill meal is useful to address the disadvantages of alternative feed ingredients which range from being poorer feeding effectors to having lower bioavailability of nutrients. It can therefore be used as a formulation tool to decrease the reliance on fish meal, which opens the way for alternative ingredients that improve the cost efficiency and sustainability of feeds.
... Protein is the key building block for feed formulation systems (FAO, 2003), as well as a major and expensive component of feeds (Shiau, 1998). The commonly used source of protein in shrimp feeds is FM (Smith et al., 2005), however, the decline in sh stocks (Akiyama et al., 1995), irregular availability, contribution to sheries deterioration, potential for adulteration, biological pathogens (Fox et al., 2004), high costs (Hardy, 2006), and limited and unpredictable harvesting ( have been conducted to replace FM partially or completely as main protein source in sh feeds to reduce costs and improve feed utilization e ciency in farmed organisms. ...
Shrimp is an economic important shellfish species for aquaculture in Tanzania, however its farming is constrained by reliant to costly feeds, attributed by fishmeal (FM) as main ingredient, which is expensive and scarce. This study determined the efficacy of plant protein derived from Chaetomorpha algae (CA) on survival, feed utilization, biochemical composition and fatty acids profile of the cultured Penaeus monodon as potential candidate for replacing FM in feed formulation. Four experimental feeds; F0, F1, F2 and F3 were made, denoting FM replacement levels of 0, 10, 20 and 30%, respectively. Post-larvae weighing 0.49 ± 0.06 g were stocked at 15 individuals/m ³ in 2m ³ harpa nets in three replicates. F2 treatment showed significantly high survival rate. F2 and F3 improved growth significantly with F3 exhibiting the highest weight gain across treatments. Impacts of treatments on biochemical composition varied significantly across inclusion levels. The highest muscle somatic index (MSI) observed in F2 treatment. F3 treatment exhibited significantly high crude protein (CP) over the rest. Crude fat (CF) in F0 and F2 treatments were significantly high across inclusion levels. F0 and F1 treatments exhibited high proportion of saturated fatty acids (SFA) than the rest. In contrast, F2 and F3 treatments exhibited high levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) being superior to other treatments. Inclusion of CA at 20 to 30% levels in feed formulation improved feed utilization, biochemical composition and fatty acids profile of farmed Penaeus monodon . However, CA inclusion at 30% shown to impair survival rate and exhibited high saturated fatty acids. Thus, at 20% replacement level, CA is suitable for partial replacement of FM in P. monodon feeds formulation.
... However, the problem of using dried food for many crustaceans is palatability and thus their acceptance of artificial pellet food. Many aquaculture studies focus on the effect of the ingredients, texture and size of artificial food on the attractability and palatability in order to maximize consumption rates in crustaceans (Holland and Borski 1993;Lee and Meyers 1996;Smith et al. 2005;Nunes et al. 2006;Suresh et al. 2011). This acceptance of artificial food is coupled with the higher costs, and the ability to obtain the correct formulation is likely to preclude its widespread use in laboratory experiments. ...
Climate change and anthropological activities have led to an
expansion of hypoxia into the natural habitat of Cancer irroratus.
In this study, we examined the effects of hypoxia and food deprivation
state on food intake and subsequent gastric processing. Three
different techniques were used to measure food intake. The gravimetric
analysis of dry food pellets was the most accurate method. In
severe hypoxia (20% oxygen), rock crabs reduced food intake, and
more crabs refused to eat. Compared with fasted crabs, more
starved crabs tended to eat in severe hypoxia. Subsequently, prolonged
gastric emptying times paralleled the previously measured
postprandial oxygen consumption in hypoxia. Starved crabs also
exhibited slightly longer transit times for digesta compared with
fasted crabs. These results suggest that although a trade-off may
occur in starved rock crabs between the need to procure nutrients
and deal with hypoxic stress, impaired digestive processing may
still deleteriously affect these animals.
... In addition, enhancement of shrimp growth in terms of weight gain and SGR and efficient feed conversion was observed in P. vannamei fed diets supplemented with 5 % tuna by-product hydrolysate (Hernandez et al., 2011). Also, the efficacy of fish and krill hydrolysates to stimulate feed intake in P. monodon was reported to be similar to the response evoked during feeding with fishmeal-based diet (Smith et al. 2005). In the red sea bream Pagrus major (Temminck & Schlegel, 1843), Kondo et al. (2017) showed enhancement of feed intake and feed conversion efficiency as an effect of dietary supplementation with squid viscera hydrolysate. ...
The present study evaluated the potential of squid by-product hydrolysate as fishmeal replacement in the plant-based diet of juvenile black tiger shrimp, Penaeus monodon Fabricius, 1798. Five experimental plant protein-based diets were formulated containing squid by-product hydrolysate to replace fishmeal at 0, 25, 50, 75 and 100 %. These experimental diets were fed to triplicate groups of P. monodon for 8 weeks. Results revealed that 25 % fishmeal replacement with squid by-product hydrolysate resulted in growth enhancement, attributable to increased feed intake and gut lactic acid bacteria proliferation. The shrimp fed with 100 % replacement level exhibited a similar growth response with the control group. Protein retention was not affected by the fishmeal replacement levels, but lipid retention was found higher in all treatments with squid by-product hydrolysate than the control. Digestive protease activity decreased with increasing levels of hydrolysate while α-amylase and lipase activities were not affected. Hepatopancreas histology showed thatB-cells dominated the control group while R-cells proliferated with increasing inclusion of dietary squid by-product hydrolysate. These results collectively indicate that fishmeal could be totally replaced with squid by-product hydrolysate and 25 % fishmeal replacement could promote the growth of juvenile P. monodon.
... In this context, one option would be to include growth promoters in feed formulations. 'Unknown growth factors' from specific ingredients in shrimp diets, such as some marine invertebrate-derived meals and hydrolysates including squid, krill, other crustaceans, and also some from microbial origins, have been the subject of research in the last 30 years [135,[168][169][170][171][172][173][174][175][176][177][178][179][180][181]. Premium commercial shrimp diets often rely on a selection of these ingredients to maximize attractiveness, palatability, and growth performance. ...
Intensification of the shrimp sector, also referred to as vertical expansion, has been predominately driven by consecutive incidences of global disease outbreaks, which have caused enormous economic loss for the main producer countries. A growing segment of the shrimp farming industry has opted to use production systems with higher density, biosecurity, and operating control to mitigate the risks posed by disease. However, successful super-intensive shrimp production is reliant on an advanced understanding of many important biological and economic parameters in the farming system, coupled with effective monitoring, to maintain optimal production. Compared to traditional extensive or semi-intensive systems, super-intensive systems require higher inputs of feed, energy, labor, and supplements. These systems are highly sensitive to the interactions between these different inputs and require that the biological and economical parameters of farming are carefully balanced to ensure success. Advancing nutritional knowledge and tools to support consistent and efficient production of shrimp in these high-cost super-intensive systems is also necessary. Breeding programs developing breeding-lines selected for these challenging super-intensive environments are critical. Understanding synergies between the key areas of production systems, nutrition, and breeding are crucial for super-intensive farming as all three areas coalesce to influence the health of shrimp and commercial farming success. This article reviews current strategies and innovations being used for Litopenaeus vannamei in production systems, nutrition, and breeding, and discusses the synergies across these areas that can support the production of healthy and high-quality shrimp in super-intensive systems. Finally, we briefly discuss some key issues of social license pertinent to the super-intensive shrimp farming industry.
... Therefore, our results suggest that S. spallanzanii could have potential use as a natural attractant, with the potential to replace synthetic compounds, in line with the requirements of the modern trend for organic fish production [6]. Attractants are compounds or ingredients that, when added to the feed, boosts its taste and acceptableness by fish, and are widely used in several sectors of animal production, including aquaculture [6,69]. The price of attractants is higher than that of fish meal, and are already used in fish feeds, especially when fish meal is replaced by diets rich in plant-based protein [6]. ...
Sabella spallanzanii and Microcosmus squamiger were profiled for proximate composition, minerals, aminoacids, fatty acids (FA), carotenoids, radical scavenging activity on the 2,2-diphenyl-1- picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical, oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) and iron and copper chelating properties. Microcosmus squamiger had the highest level of moisture and crude protein, S. spallanzanii was enriched in crude fat and ash. Both species had similar levels of carbohydrates and energy. There was a prevalence of arginine and glycine in S. spallanzanii, and of taurine in M. squamiger. The most abundant minerals in both species were Na, Ca and K. The methanol extract of S. spallanzanii had metal chelating properties towards copper and iron, while the methanol extract of M. squamiger was capable to chelate copper. M. squamiger extracts had similar ORAC values. Fucoxanthinol and fucoxanthin were the major carotenoids in the M. squamiger dichloromethane extract. Saturated FA were more abundant than unsaturated ones in methanol extracts, and unsaturated FA prevailed in the dichloromethane extracts. Palmitic acid was the predominant FA in methanol extracts whereas eicosapentaenoic (EPA) and dihomo-γ-linolenic acids were the major compounds in dichloromethane extracts. Low n-6/n-3 ratios were obtained. Our results suggests that both species could be explored as sources of bioactive ingredients with multiple applications.
... In crustaceans (Litopenaeus stylirostris), Suresh et al. (2011) found that poultry by-product meals showed the highest attractability, but the highest palatability was obtained by krill meal. Smith et al. (2005) reported that the inclusion of krill increased feed consumption in Penaeus monodon and improved growth (Williams et al., 2005), with similar results obtained in Penaeus vannamei (Córdova-Murueta & García-Carreño, 2002). ...
Objective: To determinate the attractability of four oils, fish, chicken, krill, and red crab (Pleuroncodes planipes) for Ambystoma mexicanum juveniles, evaluating their feeding behavior using a Y aquarium. Design/Methodology/Approach: Ten axolotls were used per test, fasted for 48 h. Gels with oils were prepared using gelatin and poured into petri dishes and refrigerated until gelation. A recording of the test was made using two video cameras. In the feed chamber the gelled oil was placed and allowed to stand for 15 min. On the other chamber a gelled disk with no other ingredient than gelatin and water was placed. The video recording began once the 15 min of gel permanence had finished, removing the barrier so that the axolotls could move through the rest of the aquarium. All tests were carried out with a recording time of 30 min. Results: Fish oil demonstrated a lower attraction effect compared to krill, red crab and chicken oils (P0.05), while chicken oil (30.001.73) doubled the attractive effect of krill oil (16.001.00). Limitations of the study/implications: It was necessary to condition a room with controlled environmental temperature for A. mexicanum (181 °C). Findings/Conclusions: Krill and chicken oil are good feeding effectors for A. mexicanum causing positive feeding behavior. The use of chicken oil is desirable because of its low cost compared to krill.
... Attractants are mainly used to enhance feed intake, growth and nutrient utilization in farmed aquatic animals. The feed attractants are specific compounds or ingredients added to the feed to enhance the diet palatability and consequently, its acceptability by fish (Smith et al. 2005). Further, protein and energy metabolism can be enhanced by nutrients that are contributed by attractants (Papatryphon and Soares 2001). ...
An experiment was conducted to evaluate the efficacy of different natural and artificial attractants in the diet of stripped snakeheads Channa striata. The experiment was conducted into two phases- Nursery and Grow-out. There were four treatments TC (Control), TG (Glycine), TA (Alanine) and TN (Nappi) for each phase with three replicates. In phase-1, the fry/fingerling were fed three times daily for four months; in phase-2, the fish were fed twice daily in the morning and afternoon for six months where the effects of formulated diets were compared with control (TC) which is locally available as commercial feed. In phase-1, significantly (p<0.05) lower FCR (1.58±0.13), higher individual weight gain (91.90 g), higher SGR (2.47±1.79 %/day), higher survival (90%), and higher feeding efficiency (57.60±5.54%) were found in the control (TC) compared to all other treatments. On the other hand, in phase-2, significantly (p<0.05) lower FCR (1.63±0.06), higher individual weight gain (299 g), and higher feeding efficiency (45.96±1.63%) were found in Nappi (TN) supplemented diet whereas significantly (p<0.05) higher survival (93.33%) and higher SGR (0.90±0.17 %/day) were found in Glycine (TG) supplement diet compared to the control (TC). Therefore, domestication and then the addition of natural and artificial attractants in formulated feeds may enhance the efficacy of formulated feeds for better growth and survival of the carnivorous fish like stripped snakeheads especially in grow-out phase. Hence, this finding will help to culture C. striata using protein-rich formulated feed adding attractants rather than depending on any live feed or formulated feed which is not commercially feasible.
... Squid meal is currently added in shrimp diets to enhance palatability [16], and contains up to 1% to 3% free amino acids on a dry matter basis [3,17]. Krill oil is often used in shrimp diets to enhance palatability in combination with marine proteins [18]. ...
Marine feed ingredients derived from cephalopods (e.g., squid) and crustaceans (e.g., krill) are commercially used to improve the palatability of shrimp diets. Increase in global demand for shrimps has resulted in overfishing of these marine organisms and is a matter of concern. Insect protein hydrolysate could be a sustainable alternative for the possible replacement of these marine feed ingredients. During this study, four formulations: diet A (control: not containing any palatability enhancer), diet B (containing squid meal and krill oil), diet C (containing 1% insect protein hydrolysate), and diet D (containing 2% insect protein hydrolysate) were tested for (1) time required by first subject to begin feeding (time to strike) and (2) palatability in Litopenaeus vannamei. Additionally, the chemical composition of all four diet formulations was also analyzed. Results indicate that all diets had similar crude composition. The major essential amino acids in all diets were leucine and lysine, whereas eicosapentaenoic acid was the major omega-3 fatty acid in all diets. There were no significant differences between the mean time to strike for all the tested formulations. Palatability of tested formulations was found in the following order: diet D > diet C > diet B = diet A (p < 0.05), indicating that addition of squid meal and krill oil has no effect on palatability in comparison to control, whereas inclusion of insect protein hydrolysates significantly improves the palatability of formulations. Palatability enhancement potential of insect protein hydrolysate could be attributed to the high free amino acid content and water solubility in comparison to squid meal.
... Derby et al., (2016) observed an increase in the feed consumption of L. vannamei by increasing the inclusion levels of krill meal from 1% to 6%. Similar results were found by adding 1% to 5% of krill meal in Penaeus monodon diets, but the opposite was observed for squid meal (Smith et al., 2005). In order to evaluate if palatability may be affecting shrimp performance when fish oil is reduced, the poultry meal diet containing 75% MCO was also supplemented with a salmon by-product which is a dry hydrolysate, which would be expected to improve palatability of the diets. ...
Current study was conducted to evaluate the efficacy of modified canola oil (MCO) with enhanced levels of omega 3 fatty acids, to replace menhaden fish oil (MFO) in practical diets (36% protein and 8% lipid) of Litopenaeus vannamei. In first two trials, the basal diet containing 100% MFO was incrementally replaced by 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% MCO, which clearly demonstrated the potential of using MCO as a replacement for up to 75% of the supplemented MFO in poultry meal‐based diets. In the third trial, two series of diets were evaluated including fishmeal‐based diets replacing MFO by 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% MCO and three poultry meal‐based diets with 100% MFO, 75% MCO and 75% MCO supplemented with 4% hydrolysed salmon by‐product meal (HSM) as an attractant. In conclusion, no significant differences in performances of shrimp between diets were noted indicating no palatability issue in poultry meal‐based MCO diet and confirmed the efficacy of replacing 100% MFO by MCO in a low fishmeal diets and up to 75% in poultrymeal‐based diets without compromising the growth of shrimp.
... It has been reported that the quantities of leaching observed to be high in acetate, exhibiting 100% in 30 min (da Silva et al. 2013). The attractability of diet stimulates shrimp to initiate feeding and continue feeding (Lee and Meyers, 1996;Nunes et al. 2006;Derby et al. 2016) and ultimately leads to enhanced growth performance (Smith et al. 2005;Suresh et al. 2011). ...
This study aimed to investigate the effect of acidifying the diet of black tiger shrimp Penaeus monodon on its growth and feed efficiency by supplementing coconut sap vinegar CSV) or sugar cane vinegar (SCV) or their 1:1 combination. Three hundred and sixty post larva shrimps (average initial weight of 0.01g) were randomly distributed into 12 50-L plastic containers. Four experimental diets, namely, control diet, 2% CSV, 2% SCV and 2% CSV+SCV were fed to groups of shrimps. After 90 days, all shrimps fed with diets containing vinegar exhibited significantly higher final average body weight (FABW), weight gain (WG), feed intake, specific growth rate (SGR), and better feed conversion ratio (FCR) than those fed the control diet. Attractability tests showed that the CSV and CSV+SCV diets attracted significantly the highest percentage of shrimps after 10 min of feed placement. Survival rate was not significantly different among the treatments. In conclusion, the results demonstrated that the vinegars tested could be used as growth enhancers in shrimp and that the combination of coconut sap and sugar cane vinegars supplemented to the diet resulted in the best growth and feed efficiency as well as attracted the most percentage of shrimps. Produced by the AquacultureHub non-profit Foundation the IJA is an open-access, scientific journal, published on http://www.aquaculturehub.org/group/israelijournalofaq uaculturebamidgehija To read papers free of charge, please register online at the above website. Sale of IJA papers is strictly forbidden. 2 dela Calzada et al.
... Such variations are mainly due to the water chemical composition, but also to the location of minerals in the crustacean exoskeleton (Raabe et al. 2005;Bosselmann et al. 2007). Therefore, L. dubia shells represent an interesting source of mineral elements (especially CaCO 3 ) in aquaculture (Smith et al. 2005). For instance, Toppe et al. (2006) showed that a high ash dietary based on Cancer pagurus shells, could increase feed intake and promote growth of Gadus morhua Linnaeus, 1758 without affecting feed efficiency. ...
Feeding habits of the invasive spider crab Libinia dubia from the Mediterranean Sea were studied in the Gulf of Gabès (Tunisia) using the frequency of occurrence and points methods. The population was sampled at least monthly between November 2015 and October 2016. Stomach contents of 384 specimens were analysed. Results indicate that L. dubia is an herbivorous species exhibiting clear preferences for algae (ALG) and Magnoliophyta (MAG) (62.03%, 7.13 points and 59.36%, 5.3 points respectively) although Echinodermata (ECH), Porifera (POR), Cnidaria (CNI), Mollusca (MOL), Polychaeta (POL), Crustacea (CRU) and fish (FIS) were accidentally consumed along with Bryozoa (BRY), sediment (SED), and unidentifiable materials (UNM). The diversity of ALG ingested was studied in detail: Chlorophyceae were found in 87.93% of stomachs containing ALG and contributed most of points to the stomach contents (4.18 points) followed respectively by Phaeophyceae (81.03%, 2.27 points) and Rhodophyceae (40.95%, 0.68 points).Very low Vacuity Index was recorded (VI = 2.6%). Ingested items varied significantly with regard to the season (Chi-square test, χ2calculated = 87.86 > χ2theoretical = 7.81, df = 3, p < 0.05) and crab size (χ2calculated = 14.25 > χ2theoretical = 5.99, df = 2, p = 0.026). Insignificant differences were registered by studying Carapace Width-Stomach Weight (CW-SW) relationships (T-test, tcalculated < ttheoretical, p > 0.05). Kruskal-Wallis test was applied so that the composition of crab diet among groups could be compared (H = 1.1, df = 3, p = 0.77).
The current study evaluates the nutritional and feed value of mysid meal (MM) as a substitute for fishmeal (FM) in the Pacific white shrimp (Penaeus vannamei) postlarvae diet. Five experimental diets were formulated by replacing 0 (MM0), 25 (MM25), 50 (MM50), 75 (MM75), and 100 % (MM100) of dietary FM with MM. These experimental feeds were fed to P. vannamei postlarvae in a 60-day feeding trial. Results revealed that MM could entirely substitute 100 % FM in the white shrimp diet. Furthermore, results showed that 75 % FM replacement with MM elicited a growth-enhancing effect and improved feed nutrient utilization. No significant treatment effects were detected in the survival, total feed intake, and biochemical body composition of P. vannamei. The observed improvement in shrimp growth in terms of weight gain (WG), specific growth rate (SGR), and nutrient retention were positively correlated with the substitution level of FM by MM. The feed conversion ratio (FCR) was negatively correlated with the substitution of MM and with the growth indices including WG and SGR. In conclusion, 100% of the FM (40% in the control diet) can be substituted by dietary MM without affecting the survival, growth, feed utilization, and biochemical carcass composition of P. vannamei. Polynomial regression analysis of SGR indicates that 65.50% of MM is optimum to replace FM in the diet of P. vannamei to attain maximum growth.
Intensive research on the effectiveness of chemoattractants has been widely explored to improve the feed qualities in expanding crustacean farming. Taste preferences in slipper lobster remained unknown despite their significant contribution to the lobster fisheries. Chemoattractants allow better performance in aquaculture species by increasing food attractiveness and palatability. Amino acids (AA) have been leading in previous research on crustacean feeding behavior. Given that slipper lobster possesses chemoreceptors to detect and orient towards food, this study investigated an approach to identify the AA with the most potent chemoattractant in eliciting a response from slipper lobster. Behavioral assays were performed to evaluate the responses of slipper lobster Thenus orientalis (carapace length, 52.34 ± 1.52 mm) on 15 crystalline AA and three derivatives of AA (DAA) at three concentrations between 10 ⁻¹ and 10 ⁻³ M as test substances (TS). Meretrix sp. extract was used as a positive control and clean filtered seawater as a negative control. The behavioral responses of 14 T. orientalis were evaluated based on their antennular flicking rate, third maxillipeds activity, and substrate probing by the pereiopods. T. orientalis responded to the solutions of single AA down to a concentration of 10 ⁻³ M, excluding histidine and serine. The behavioral activity displayed by T. orientalis increased with the TS concentrations. L-glutamic acid monosodium salt monohydrate, betaine, and glycine solutions elicited the most behavioral responses, whereas histidine exhibited the lowest behavioral responses. Conclusively, L-glutamic acid monosodium salt monohydrate, betaine, and glycine can be potential chemoattractants for T. orientalis .
Microbial-based ingredients are gaining in popularity due to their nutritional value and functional properties. The microbial biomass Novacq™ (CA) and commercially produced NovaqPro™ produced in Australia (RA) and Thailand (RT) were assessed at various inclusion rates (2.5–15%) in a basal practical formulation as part of a dose-response study in P. vannamei. The aims were to understand their effect on feed intake and growth performance, their contribution to dietary minerals, their capacity to improve macronutrient retention efficiency, their possible impact on body composition, and ultimately their optimum inclusion rates. Nineteen iso‑nitrogenous and isocalorific diets were fed over 42 days to apparent satiation to 78 tanks each containing 15
juvenile P. vannamei (0.69 g). Shrimp performed well with high survival >91% and weight gain achieved on the basal diet (0.21 g d− 1) improved on all treatments (except 2.5% CA) up to 30% higher for CA and 60% higher for
RA and RT. The growth responses were curvilinear and a plateau in growth performance was determined at 8.9 ± 0.6% and 12.8 ± 1.2% NovaqPro™ inclusion rates for broken-line and quadratic models, respectively. The response plateaued earlier at circa 7.5% inclusion for the original Novacq™. FCR (1.33 average) and nutrient
retention efficiency (RE average of 33%, 21% and 23% for crude protein, total lipid and gross energy respectively), were largely unaffected by inclusion rates up to 10%. The highest energy retention efficiency was achieved in feeds containing 7% NovaqPro™. Feed intake stimulation was the major mode of action of the microbial
biomass in this study, with feed intake, from as early as day 5, mirroring the growth trends. The graded inclusions of NovaqPro™ in diets also resulted in increases in dietary mineral composition which correlated to culture performance. However, further comparative analyses between the response against CA and RA/RT demonstrated that the supply of biologically relevant macro and micro minerals from the microbial biomass was unlikely on its own to be the primary driver of the dose-response observed. Inclusions between 7% and 9% of NovaqPro™ in practical diets to achieve the highest performance and nutritional benefits are recommended.
Raw materials or bioactive ingredients trigger mechanisms to assimilate nutrients and activate metabolic pathways that promote growth, immune function, or energy storage. Our understanding of these processes at a molecular level remains limited in aquaculture, especially in shrimp. Here, hepatopancreas proteomics and haemolymph metabolomics were used to investigate the post-prandial response of black tiger shrimps (Penaeus monodon) fed a conventional fishmeal diet (FM); a diet supplemented with the microbial biomass Novacq™ (NV); krill meal (KM); or, fasted (FS). Using FM as a control, a 2-fold change in abundance threshold was implemented to determine the significance of proteins and metabolites. NV fed shrimp showed preference for energy derived from carbohydrates indicated by a strong signature of glycoconjugate metabolism and activation of the amino- and nucleotide sugar metabolic pathway. KM activated the glyoxylate and dicarboxylate pathway that denoted shrimp preference for lipidic energy. KM also influenced energy generation by the TCA cycle inferred from higher abundance of the metabolites succinic semialdehyde, citric acid, isocitrate, alpha ketoglutarate and ATP and downregulation of the enzyme isocitrate dehydrogenase that catalyses oxidative decarboxylation of isocitrate. FS shrimp displayed down-regulation of oxidative phosphorylation and resorted to internal lipid reserves for energy homeostasis displaying a strong signature of autophagy. Pyrimidine metabolism was the preferred energy strategy in this group. Our study also provided evidence that during fasting or consumption of specific ingredients, shrimp share common pathways to meet their energy requirements, however, the intensity at which these pathways were impacted was diet dependent.
Due to the precarious status of global fisheries the aquaculture sector has come under pressure to move away from its addiction to fishmeal (FM) and fish oil (FO) as feed ingredients, towards more sustainable alternatives. This chapter provides a brief overview of animal, microbial and plant-based feedstuffs that have been examined as FM/FO substitutes. Other than classic rendered meat products, attention is given to insect meals and issues surrounding their safety. Single celled products, including fungi and yeasts, bacteria, and microalgae are examined as sources of protein, lipid, pigments and enzymes. Plant-based proteins and lipid sources are also examined. Feed additives such as exogenous enzymes (phytases, lipases, proteases and carbohydrases) are evaluated as potential aquafeed ingredients as too are pigments, chemoattractants and palatants. Discussion is provided on pre-, pro- and synbiotics. Examples of the application of these various ingredients are considered with reference to over 50 species of cultivated organism.
Aquaculture, particularly protein-rich food for the world’s increasing human population, is the most reliable food supply in the future. On the other hand, poor practices and feed issues lead to illness susceptibility and, as a result, infections and disease outbreaks. A diet specially designed for their nutritional needs. This chapter provides information on animal feeds used in the aquaculture sector, primarily for finfishes and crustaceans. It mainly included the general importance and requirements of the nutritional compounds and common diet supplements of fish feed. Overview of the most common feeds, their role in aquaculture, the animal feeds used in hatcheries, and the nutritional quality of feeds in aquaculture, with particular attention to the most suitable and common feeds used in freshwater and marine aquaculture, is provided.
Organisms use chemical cues in their environment to extract relevant information to perform a variety of tasks, including foraging, finding shelter, and locating mates, and must locate and assess the quality of food sources based on these chemical cues. Crayfishes use chemical cues in the form of amino acids to locate food and to regulate consumption when determining the quality of food sources. It is currently unknown, however, whether crayfish foraging and feeding behavior in experimental flow-through systems are altered by differing amino acid concentrations. We collected individuals of the rusty crayfish, Faxonius rusticus (Girard, 1852), from two different watershed locations in Michigan, USA and exposed them to fish gelatin containing increasing concentrations of the amino acids β-alanine (excitatory amino acid) and L-tyrosine (inhibitory amino acid). The gelatin was weighed before and after each 24-hour trial to determine consumption. The addition of an excitatory amino acid (β-alanine) caused a significant drop in consumption but only for crayfish collected from one of the locations (P = 0.04). The addition of an inhibitory amino acid (L-tyrosine) had no effect on consumption from either location. This study demonstrates that feeding behaviors of F. rusticus are influenced by the presence of amino acids (β-alanine) in food sources.
An indoor experiment was carried out to assess the effect of various fresh foods and formulated diets on oxygen consumption in relation to nitrogen metabolism in Penaeus monodon. Seven iso-nitrogenous diets were formulated by substituting fishmeal (w/w) at 0 (control), 2.5 and 5% using groundnut oil cake (GNC-1 and GNC-2, respectively), rapeseed meal (RSM-1and RSM-2) and sesame oil cake (SOC-1 and SOC-2). Simultaneously, five different fresh foods (clam, crustaceans, fish, polychaete and squid) were also tested. Results revealed that nitrogen intake increased (p < 0.05) by 10.5%–86.6% in shrimp fed fresh food compared with control. Among the fresh food, fish meat showed the highest (p < 0.05) oxygen consumption and ammonia-N efflux. The O:N ratio decreased by 4.22–6.62 in shrimp fed on fresh food, whereas it increased by 0.91–3.28 in formulated diets. Regression analysis revealed a higher coefficient of determination for oxygen consumption (R2 = 0.9272) as well as ammonia-N excretion (R2 = 0.8778) in fresh food compared with the formulated feeds (0.3818 and 0.2187), whereas it was found to be low for O:N ratio for both the fresh food (R2 = 0.1789) and formulated feeds (R2 = 0.3260). The results confirmed that the measurement of O:N ratio can be an additional tool for assessing the nutritional quality of feed along with growth and digestibility and was more significant with the nutritional quality of formulated diets in P. monodon over fresh foods, in relation to nitrogen metabolism.
The attractiveness of crude feed ingredients to olive flounder and effects of including feed ingredients showing strong feeding attractiveness in extruded pellet (EP) on performance of fish were determined. Four types of experimental EP were prepared to evaluate the effects of feed ingredient manipulation on performance of fish. Five per cent anchovy meal component of the control diet was substituted with an equal amount of jack mackerel meal, sardine meal and hydrolysed fish meal to create the JM, SM and HFM diets respectively. The diets were prepared in commercial form as EP. Jack mackerel meal produced the strongest feeding attractant responses of olive flounder, followed by sardine meal and hydrolysed fish meal. The greatest weight gain, feed consumption and condition factor (CF) were observed in fish fed the JM diet, followed by fish fed the SM, HFM and control diets, in that order in the 8‐week feeding trial. The dietary manipulation of feed ingredients performed in this study showed that the inclusion of ingredients with strong feeding attractiveness improved feed consumption and eventually accelerated the growth performance and CF of the fish.
In the present study, we isolated the lactic acid bacterium strain SC-01 from Pacific white shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) intestine. Using conventional and molecular methods, we identified the bacterium as Enterococcus faecium, and found it had the function of feeding attractant and could inhibit the development of Vibrioparahaemolyticus (zone of inhibition: 14mm). The attractant effect of its fermentation broth is significantly better than that of the chemical attractant trimethylamine oxide (TMAO) (P <0.05), and is equivalent to that of dimethyl-beta-propiothetin (DMPT) based on the feeding behavior of shrimp. High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis suggested that inosine-5’-monophosphate (IMP) may be a component of the attractant. A biosecurity evaluation revealed a negative result in hemolytic assays, and no shrimp mortality was resulted from SC-01 fermentation broth challenge. Feeding trials (60 days) indicated that the SC-01 fermentation broth (viable counts: 5.7×109 cfumL−1) could improve feed intake, weight gain rate (WGR) and specific growth rate (SGR), and decrease the count of Vibrio sp. in the intestine of shrimp.
In shrimp farming, there has been a considerable focus on the development of novel additives that might reduce costs associated with the time taken by shrimp to locate and ingest feed. However, within these trials there has been little consideration of the role that feeding behaviour of individuals can play in assessing the attractability of additives. As such, the use of tracking technologies in the development of automated protocols is beginning to gain attention as an important tool for monitoring associated behaviours. Therefore the objective of the present study was to validate an automated tracking software (EthoVision) for assessing feed attractability in Pacific white shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei). Twenty-seven juvenile shrimp (5.54 ± 1.37 g) were used to test three experimental diets with different theoretical levels of attraction; negative (0.07 M Quinine-HCl), control, and positive diet (3% attractant). Shrimp were individually video recorded in test arenas for 20 min with each one of the diets. Recordings were also carried out at two times of day (morning and afternoon) to evaluate the effect of time of day on shrimp feeding behaviour. The behaviour of each individual was recorded three times per diet to determine levels of individual variation. Comparison between manual and automated observations validated the reliability of EthoVision in analysing L. vannamei feeding behaviour and the software detected clear differences in feeding behaviour according to diet. Shrimp provided with the positive diet (i.e. 3% attractant) arrived faster and spent longer on the feeding area. In contrast, with the negative diet (i.e. 0.07 M Quinine-HCl), shrimp spent more time moving around the test arena and less time interacting with the feed. Time of day also had an effect on several behaviours, but not on the time spent on the feeding tray. Less individual variation in feeding behaviours was found when shrimp were fed the positive diet, suggesting attractive diets can decrease variability in feeding behaviour with potential applications to commercial ponds. Distribution heatmaps provided by EthoVision offered a quick and reliable assessment of feed attractability. The results of this study highlight the use of tracking technologies to assess feed attractability in L. vannamei and the feasibility of automated protocols for the industry.
P. monodon juveniles were fed krill meal (KM), krill hydrolysate (KH), whole squid (SQ), and the microbial biomass, Novacq™ (NQ), at 10% inclusion, in practical fishmeal and soybean meal based diets. Diets were fed to apparent satiation as well as restrictively pair-fed (~60% of control diet satiation) for 6 weeks to examine the effects of the test ingredients and feed restriction on shrimp growth, feed efficiency, digestive enzyme activity, nutritional condition, and gut microbiota.
All diets when fed to satiety significantly outperformed the control diet, with shrimp fed NQ 87%, SQ 73%, KH 41% and KM 38% larger than shrimp fed the control diet. NQ fed shrimp had the best feed conversion ratio (FCR) and significantly improved retention efficiency (RE) of dietary lipid (RETL), protein (RECP) and gross energy (REGE). SQ significantly promoted feed intake over control and KM fed shrimp, but neither KM, KH nor SQ improved RETL, RECP or REGE. While there was little change in the apparent digestibility (AD) of each diet, the apparent biological value (ABV) of lipid (ABVTL), protein (ABVCP) and gross energy (ABVGE) were significantly improved by inclusion of NQ; and ABVTL and ABVGE were significantly improved by addition of SQ. Feed restriction had a stronger effect on hepatopancreas digestive enzymes and gut microbiota than addition of any feed ingredient. Total protease activity was positively correlated with feed efficiency, including FCR, RETL and REGE. Shrimp fed to satiety tended to have high levels of Vibrio whereas those on the restricted ration tended to have higher levels of bacteria in Rhodobacteracaea, Flavobacteriales and Bacteroidales.
We conclude that shrimp are more efficient in using digested dietary macronutrients for growth when whole squid and Novacq™ are provided, due to improvements in feed intake and post-absorptive processes. Feeding restriction was shown to be a useful strategy to improve P. monodon feeding efficiency, digestive capacity and modulate gut microbiota, however it reduced the scope for shrimp growth especially on high performing diets. Novacq™ was more effective than some of the known invertebrate meals and a more environmentally sustainable growth and nutrient utilisation promoter for shrimp.
Dry peas of mixed Canadian prairie varieties which were commercially obtained and processed to provide a variety of meals were evaluated in practical shrimp feeds. Whole and de-hulled peas were pin milled to produce raw flours. A portion of these meals were processed to produce whole extruded and de-hulled extruded meals. Additionally, a portion of the whole pea meal was processed by infrared cooking to produce a micronized meal. The five meals were evaluated in practical diets for Litopenaeus vannamei under controlled laboratory conditions. The first experiment was designed to estimate apparent protein and energy availability of the various meals. Using a practical reference diet, the meals were substituted using a 70:30 ratio to produce the test diets. Based on contrasts, both extruding and micronizing the pea meals resulted in significant improvements in both apparent protein digestibility and apparent energy digestibility values. Apparent energy digestibility values for the various ingredients expressed as percentage ± SD were: whole raw, 72.3 ± 8.1; whole extruded, 86.0 ± 8.9; de-hulled raw, 88.4 ± 4.4; de-hulled extruded, 94.4 ± 10.0; whole micronized, 94.1 ± 10.2. To evaluate the response of shrimp to the diets containing pea meal, two 7-week growth trials were conducted in the laboratory using a practical diet formulated to contain 360 g kg−1 protein and 90 g kg−1 lipid. In the first growth trial the shrimp had a mean initial weight of 0.66 g and six test diets were evaluated that included the basal diet and five diets for which the pea meals were included in the diet at 250 g kg−1 dry weight replacing whole wheat. In the second growth trial the shrimp had a mean initial weight of 1.1 g and only the whole raw and whole extruded meals were evaluated at 50, 100 and 200 g kg−1 inclusion in the diet. At the conclusion of the first growth trial weight gain ranged from 718 to 862% and at the conclusion of the second growth trial weight gain ranged from 394 to 502%, with no significant differences or discernible trends observed as a result of the various dietary treatments. Based on the observed results, the continued evaluation of feed peas as a potential ingredient of shrimp feeds is warranted. Additionally, if feed peas are suitably priced, commercial producers are encouraged to evaluate feed peas as an alternative protein and energy source.
Diets low in animal but high in plant protein were enhanced with a chemoattractant FinnStim (FS), a betaine/amino additive. These were fed to juvenile shrimp, Penaeus monodon, in three tank experiments. All diets were formulated to be isonitrogenous (35% protein) and isocaloric. In run 1, where soybean meal was used as the plant protein source (33%), graded levels of FS (0 to 2.0%) were added to the basic mix (B). Shrimp fed the diet with 1% FS had a significantly (α=0.05) higher weight gain than the other treatments and a feed conversion ratio (FCR) which was higher than B and B+2% FS but not significantly different from the other FS levels. However, survival, specific growth rate (SGR) and feed intake were similar. In run 2 diet palatability, which may be affected by plant protein, was considered. Diets with a lower soybean meal content (18%) and 16% papaya leaf meal, with and without 1% FS, were tested. A higher weight gain and SGR were obtained for shrimp fed FS but survival, feed intake and FCR were not significantly different from those without FS. In run 3, where leaf meal was increased to 25%, shrimp fed 1% FS yielded a significantly better weight gain, SGR, feed intake and FCR, but survival rates were not significantly different. FS did not increase feed intake but may have caused faster feed consumption, resulting in less feed disintegration and nutrient loss. It could also have acted as a stimulant and counteracted the palatability problem of the 25% leaf meal diet. However, much of the response was evidently caused by the physiological role of betaine as methyl donor and osmoprotectant.
Several pelletized feeds containing 30–35% total protein were tested on two penaeid species, Penaeus stylirostris and P. setiferus. Alginate bound test diets varied in protein composition but all diets contained about 30% sun-dried shrimp meal. Following initial testing with diets containing up to 13% squid meal, further test diets varied in percentage of squid meal between 0 and 12.7, and in α-soy flour between 0 and 12.4. One test diet replaced these components with 12.5% brewer's yeast.
Conversion rates, survival, and growth were determined during a 3-week period, both in the two species and in two sizes of P. stylirostris.
Comparisons of the various diets between the two species suggest that the presence of 5–6% squid meal is advantageous in feeds of about 30–35% total protein.
This study aimed at determining the optimal lipid:carbohydrate and protein:energy ratios for growth and survival of juvenile Penaeus monodon Fabricius. Two experiments were performed using completely randomized designs in semi-closed recirculating water systems. Juveniles of 0.4–0.8 g in weight and 4.0–5.5 cm in length stocked at a density of 80 individuals m− 2 were fed semi-purified diets. The first experiment determined optimal lipid:carbohydrate using isonitrogenous (35%) and isocaloric (330 kcal 100 g− 1) diets with five lipid:carbohydrate ratios: 4:39, 7:32, 9:25, 14:18 and 16:12 (% wt/wt). The lipid:carbohydrate ratio of 7:32 gave the highest growth rate (P < 0.05), while survival rates of shrimp in all other diet groups were similar but less. Thus, optimal lipid:carbohydrate ratio for the juvenile tiger shrimp was ≈ 1:4.6. In the second experiment, optimal protein:energy (P:E) ratio was studied using five protein levels (25%, 30%, 35%, 40% and 45%) with a fixed lipid:carbohydrate ratio of 1:4.6. Nine diets containing energy content (203–459 kcal 100 g− 1) with protein:energy ratio (63–171 mg protein kcal− 1) were formulated. Shrimp fed the diet containing 33–44% protein and an energy content of 223–371 kcal 100 g− 1 had a significantly higher growth rate than those fed the other diets (P < 0.05). A regression analysis indicated that an optimal P:E ratio for optimal growth and survival of juvenile tiger shrimp was 150 and 146 mg protein kcal− 1 respectively. This diet contained 33–44% protein and had optimal energy of 263–331 kcal 100 g− 1.
A study was conducted to obtain a measure of the potency of some potential and commercially used feeding attractants for Penaeus monodon Fabricius. Behavioural trials monitoring the feeding response of the shrimp were used to gauge the attractant qualities of the substances. A growth trial recording the feed intake, feed assimilation, growth, food conversion and survival rates of the shrimp was used to assess further the feeding stimulant properties of the substances.
Replicate groups of juvenile shrimp were fed semi-purified diets containing 1·5% by weight of a range of potential feeding attractants.
In the behavioural trial, diets containing taurine and a yeast extract were found to be significantly preferred to the control and all other diets. However, none of the substances appeared to act as potent feeding stimulants, producing statistically similar feed intake and assimilation rates to the control diet. However, taurine and an amino acid mixture designed to mimic a clam extract promoted the best performance of the attractants tested in terms of growth rate and feeding efficiency.
Overall, the behavioural response of the shrimp to the feeding attractants was found to show similarities to the effects of attractant supplementation of feed on subsequent ongrowing performance, but not significantly so.
A feeding bioassay which uses agar discs was developed for evaluating chemosensory stimuli influencing ingestive behavior in Penaeus vannamei. Agar disc hardness and preventing the shrimp from placing their mouthparts directly onto the stimulus discs were important aspects of the bioassay design. The palatability assay required only small amounts of stimuli, was suitable for rapid screening of a wide variety of compounds, and was independent of factors such as texture or size of feed pellets. The most effective stimulus tested was shrimp-head offal extract, indicating the best use of this material may be as a flavorant rather than as a source of nutrients. Greatest biological activity was in the < 1000 M.W. fractions of the extracts.
Crustaceans utilize water-borne‘chemical signals’to identify and orient toward potential prey. These chemical signals are recognized in spite of the chemical complexity of aquatic environments. Because feeds are a significant expense in all aquaculture operations, the need to maximize feeding rates and reduce wasted feed, thereby lowering production costs, is paramount to economic success. Confusion concerning the function and utility of chemoattractants versus feeding stimulants in aquatic feeds necessitates updated terminology. Simply put, detection does not equal attraction. To accurately describe and predict responses to feeding stimuli, it is necessary first to classify all possible stimulus types and then to categorize behavioural responses to each specific stimulus. The proposed hierarchical behavioural model classifies an animal's response to chemical stimuli into five phases: (1) detection; (2) orientation; (3) locomotion or displacement; (4) initiation of feeding; (5) continuation or termination of feeding. The second step in description of the behavioural model is the association of specific behaviours with these five phases of response. Crustaceans exhibit four major categories of chemotactic behaviour: antennule flicking, which appears to be the most sensitive; probing movements made by the pereiopods that precede locomotion; locomotion by the crustacean, indicating true attraction or repulsion; and movements by the mouthparts that indicate generalized feeding stimulation. Finally, feed and environmental quality have direct effects on the effectiveness of feed attractants/stimulants; food detection and feeding stimulation ultimately determine the commercial value of an aquatic feed.
Though some protein sources like squid and protein hydrolysates are assumed as growth enhancers for shrimp, little is known about the biochemical basis of this phenomenon. Low, heat-dried squid (Dosidicus gigas) (SQ) and two commercial protein hydrolysates from fish (FH) and krill (Euphasia sp.) (KH) were assayed in feeding trials with Penaeus vannamei. Feeds were prepared with the tested proteins at 3%, 9%, and 15% of the total crude protein. A total of nine experimental feeds plus a commercial one as control (C32) were tried. Additionally, digestibility in vivo and in vitro was evaluated. Survival was not different among groups. Weight gain of shrimp and total and specific proteolytic activity for trypsin and chymotrypsin were affected by type and quantity of supplemented protein. In vivo and in vitro digestibilities were also influenced by the source and quantity of the protein supplement. Shrimp fed feed with FH at 3% protein supplementation grew more than those fed with higher supplementations. Groups fed SQ had similar results as those fed FH, and gained more weight when fed the lowest SQ quantity. SDS-PAGE showed a large concentration of small peptides in SQ, which may explain results similar to FH. KH enhanced shrimp growth at all supplementations and had a lower degree of hydrolysis (DH) than FH. SQ also demonstrated good growth performance, but better at the lower supplementation, probably because of the presence of small peptides and possibly free amino acids from protein hydrolyzed by endogenous enzymes in the squid mantle. We conclude that hydrolyzed protein is a good supplement for shrimp feeds, but it must meet specific requirements for adequate assimilation.
The feeding strategy used in the commercial culture of shrimp can have a significant impact on pond water quality and hence growth, health and survival of the shrimp, as well as the efficiency of feed utilization. These factors contribute to the profitability of production and to the environmental impact of shrimp farming. The effect of four different feeding frequencies (3, 4, 5 and 6 feedings day−1) on the growth and survival of the black tiger shrimp, Penaeus monodon, and water quality was studied in an 8-week growth trial. The shrimp were held in 20×2500-l outdoor tanks containing water and sediment from a shrimp pond. The water management and aeration strategies were designed to simulate a shrimp pond system. The shrimp (initial weight of 5.6 g) were stocked at a density of 25 animals m−2 and fed a widely used, commercial pelleted feed, with all the feed being placed on feeding trays. The uneaten feed on the feeding trays was removed at specific time intervals so that in all treatments, the shrimp had access to the feed for 12 h day−1. There were no significant (P>0.05) differences due to feeding frequency on growth rate (1.4±0.08 g week−1), feed conversion ratio (FCR) (2.0±0.27) or survival (84±7.6%) of shrimp. Similarly, the water quality parameters (total N, ammonium, nitrate/nitrite, dissolved organic nitrogen, total phosphorus, phosphate, chlorophyll a, oxygen, pH, temperature, salinity, turbidity) were not different among treatments. The results suggest that there is no benefit from feeding P. monodon more frequently than 3 times day−1 when using a feed that is nutritionally adequate and has high water stability. Therefore, it may be possible to reduce feeding frequency in commercial shrimp ponds without adversely affecting water quality, shrimp growth rate and survival, thereby improving farm profitability.
Typescript (photocopy). Thesis (Ph. D.)--Texas A & M University, 1986. Vita. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 67-75). "Major subject: Nutrition."
Feed attractants and stimulants in practical feeds for blue shrimp L. stylirostris and freshwater prawn M. rosenbergii Supplement of various attractants to a practical feed for juvenile Penaeus monodon Fabricius
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The nutri-tional response of two penaeid species to various levels of squid 271 Efficacy of ingredients to stimulate shrimp feed intake
- J L Fenucci
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Fenucci, J.L., Zein-Eldin, Z.P. & Lawrence, A.L. (1980) The nutri-tional response of two penaeid species to various levels of squid 271 Efficacy of ingredients to stimulate shrimp feed intake............................................................................................. Ó 2005 Blackwell Publishing Ltd Aquaculture Nutrition 11; 263–272 meal in a prepared feed. Proc. World Mariculture Soc., 11, 403– 409.
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Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, USA.
Feed attractants and stimulants in practical feeds for blue shrimp L. stylirostris and freshwater prawn M. rosenbergii
- R Mendoza
- J Montemayor
- C Aguilera
- J Verde
- G Rodriguez
Mendoza, R., Montemayor, J., Aguilera, C., Verde, J. & Rodriguez, G.
(2001) Feed attractants and stimulants in practical feeds for blue
shrimp L. stylirostris and freshwater prawn M. rosenbergii. In:
Aquaculture 2001: Book of Abstracts (Devor, R. ed), p. 433. World
Aquaculture Society, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA,
USA.
Supplement of various attractants to a practical feed for juvenile Penaeus monodon Fabricius
- T Murai
- A Sumalangcay
- F Piedad-Pascual
Murai, T., Sumalangcay, A. & Piedad-Pascual, F. (1983) Supplement
of various attractants to a practical feed for juvenile Penaeus
monodon Fabricius. Fish. Res. J. Philipp., 8, 61-67.