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Classical conditioning and celebrity endorsers: An examination of belongingness and resistance to extinction
Abstract
Three studies attempt to better explain how celebrities are used effectively as conditioned stimuli in the associative learning process. Study 1 establishes that direct affect transfer can occur using celebrities via conditioning. Study 2 suggests that celebrity conditioning will be more effective when there is an appropriate fit (belongingness) between the celebrity and the product endorsed—also known as the match-up hypothesis. Finally, Study 3 examines whether attitudes toward brands paired with celebrities are resistant to efforts to extinguish them using extinction procedures. The findings suggest that conditioning with celebrities yields brand attitudes that are robust and enduring. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
... In this way, SMIs present their credibility and attractiveness may help to build authentic self-image. However, prior literature mainly examined the two strategies independently (Till et al., 2008;Kamins, 1990), and lacked to explore the interplay between the two types of communication strategies. Due to the limited resources, SMIs, especially micro SMIs (e.g., fans count from 500 to 150,000 on TikTok; Web-siteBuilderExpert, 2023), may choose one from two strategies, and thus understanding the interplay of credibility and attractiveness needs to be considered. ...
... Research has indicated that such brand/product-endorsement congruence (Kim & Kim, 2021a), consumer-SMI similarity (Shan et al. 2020), consumer-brand congruity (Ong et al., 2022) have positive effects on content persuasion. Moreover, it also suggests that a high fit between influencers (and their post on social media) and the advertised product is more persuasive (Breves et al., 2019), such as the interaction effect of endorser's characteristics on endorser-product congruence, namely the match-up of endorser's credibility/attractiveness and credible/ attractable products separately (Till et al., 2008). ...
... Study 2 showed the negatively interaction of SMIs' credibility and attractiveness on authenticity perception, which suggested a substitution role of each strategy. Previous literature found the negative interaction of credibility and attractiveness on the endorser-product congruence (Till et al., 2008;Kamins, 1990), which revealed the need for fit between SMI and certain product categories by separating SMI as either credible or attractive. However, we extended the extant research by exploring the simultaneous effect of credibility and attractiveness on SMI evaluation. ...
Short video represents a novel form of social media with rich vividness and sociability, facilitating social media influencers’ (SMIs) self-presentations and endorsements. While SMIs become primary information sources through short videos, they also face challenges such as high return rates and consumer distrust. This research investigates how SMIs can effectively achieve authenticity through the design of self-presentation strategies, specifically focusing on credibility and attractiveness from a source-effect perspective. Across three studies, this research demonstrates that: (1) both credibility and attractiveness positively increase SMIs’ authenticity perception, mediated by para-social interaction; (2) credibility and attractiveness exhibit a negative interactive relationship; (3) the substitutability of credibility and attractiveness varies depending on the type of SMIs (informative vs. entertainment). This research contributes to the literature on short-video information processing and consumer attitudes toward SMIs based on authenticity building.
... Specifically, small sample sizes and p values close to a significance level of .05 may suggest the presence of p-hacking as observed effects under these two conditions may be false positives when the null hypothesis is true (Simonsohn et al., 2014b). In fact, some studies in the celebrity endorsement literature rely upon small sample sizes (e.g., Chen, Lin, & Hsiao, 2012;Till et al., 2008) and statistically significant p values close to .05 (e.g., Maronick, 2006;Pease & Brewer, 2008). ...
... Some studies manipulated celebrity endorsement through asking participants to view an advertisement that features a celebrity who is endorsing a product (e.g., Pease & Brewer, 2008). On the other hand, some other studies adopted the "forward conditioning procedure" to manipulate celebrity endorsement in which only the images of the focal product and the focal celebrity were shown to the participants instead of an advertisement (e.g., Miller & Allen, 2012;Till et al., 2008). Participants were instructed to view a slide show presenting multiple pairings of an image of the focal product followed by a picture of the focal celebrity (conditioning trial), along with randomized images of the fillers (i.e., filler celebrities/brands, abstract paintings). ...
... On the other hand, viewing too many images may cause fatigue among participants (Till et al., 2008). In the forward conditioning procedure, multiple conditioning trials plus several filler images often include dozens of pictures. ...
Celebrity endorsements have long been used as a promotional tool in marketing communication. However, literature has documented inconsistent findings on the effects of celebrity endorsements compared to no endorsement or noncelebrity endorsements, suggesting a close examination about the reliability and robustness of celebrity endorsements is needed. This study conducted a p-curve analysis among two sets of published studies based on different comparison groups (celebrity endorsements vs. no celebrity endorsement; celebrity endorsements vs. noncelebrity endorsements) to investigate if both sets of studies contain an evidential value. The significantly right-skewed p curve suggests that both sets of published studies have some integrity. However, the studies that compared celebrity endorsements with no celebrity endorsements showed low statistical power. Theoretical and methodological implications for celebrity endorsement research were discussed.
... Belongingness, similarity, and so forth, that can be used to describe the match-up hypothesis (Misra and Beatty 1990). Subsequent research focused more on overall matching; that is, the endorser being congruent with the product/brand and consumer perception of the congruence between the celebrity and product being endorsed at an overall level is more important (Till et al. 2008). Choi and Rifon (2012) proposed that endorser-product congruence positively affects consumer attitudes and behavior toward advertising and brands. ...
... Choi and Rifon (2012) proposed that endorser-product congruence positively affects consumer attitudes and behavior toward advertising and brands. Research on the match-up hypothesis has suggested that endorsements are more effective when the endorser's image is congruent with the endorsed product (Till and Busler 2000;Till et al. 2008). A good match between the endorser and product leads to more positive consumer perceptions of advertising and product than a poor match (McCormick 2016;Yang et al. 2022), Moreover, native celebrity endorsers are more appropriate spokespeople for a destination compared with non-native (van der Veen and Song 2014). ...
Although celebrity endorsements and promotional videos dominated by destination marketing organizations (DMOs) are critical in travel decision-making and destination marketing, as a new type of endorsement, the impact of internet celebrities’ short travel videos on social platforms remains not well understood. To bridge this gap, the current study applied source credibility theory and the match-up hypothesis to construct a conceptual model for examining the impact of internet celebrity endorsements on audiences’ visit intentions. FangQi Kiki, a typical producer of short travel videos on TikTok, was used as a case study. 649 valid samples were taken from respondents who were asked to complete a questionnaire after watching a short video. The results showed that internet celebrities’ trustworthiness and expertise significantly affect audiences’ visit intentions. However, attractiveness in terms of the physical characteristics of internet celebrities and internet celebrity–destination congruence had no significant effect on audiences’ visit intentions. The implications show that “Appearance Fallacy” exists in online influencers’ marketing, and physical appearance may affect the popularity of short travel videos online, but it has no significant effect on promoting destination marketing. Unlike the celebrity effect in conventional endorsements, internet celebrities’ short videos belong to content marketing, where popular content is more important than an internet celebrity’s personality. This research adds to the body of knowledge concerned with internet celebrity endorsements in tourism, providing valuable insights for DMOs to project short video marketing.
... Previously, a significant study by Friedman & Friedman (1979) revealed that brand and endorser pairings will be more easily accepted and powerful when there is a perception of congruence with each other. This is further supported by the Associative Learning Perspective, which concludes that endorsement programs succeed when brands and endorsers are paired [58]. Thus, when consumers see an endorser's figure, they automatically remember the product brand advertised by the endorser, or vice versa. ...
This study investigates the effectiveness of influencer marketing, focusing on Dr. Reisa's endorsement of Le Minerale mineral water in Indonesia. It examines how influencer attributes, such as physical attractiveness, familiarity, expertise, success appeal, and congruency, influence consumer attitudes and repurchase intentions. This study examined the impact of influencer marketing on brand perception and consumer behavior, particularly in the digital era. It challenges traditional marketing theories by analyzing the role of various influencer attributes in shaping consumer attitudes. The primary aim of this study is to assess the unique effects of influencer characteristics on brand attitudes and repurchase intentions, with a special focus on the role of gender as a moderating variable in influencer marketing. This study utilized a survey-based approach to evaluate the impact of influencer attributes—physical attractiveness, familiarity, expertise, success appeal, and congruency on consumer attitudes and repurchase intentions toward Le Minerale’s mineral water. Targeting consumers familiar with Dr. Reisa's endorsement, the survey collects quantitative data to analyze how these attributes, along with gender as a moderating variable, influence brand perception in the digital marketing context. This study reveals that Dr. Reisa's physical attractiveness does not significantly impact brand attitudes, challenging traditional marketing beliefs. However, gender has emerged as a key moderator influencing how attractiveness affects brand perception. Contrary to expectations, familiarity with the influencer has no significant effect on brand attitudes, suggesting a shift in digital audience engagement. Notably, expertise, success appeal, and congruency significantly influence brand attitudes, with gender enhancing the impact of congruency. These insights offer a new perspective on influencer marketing, emphasizing the importance of expertise, success appeal, congruency, and gender considerations, thereby providing marketers with strategic guidance in the digital landscape.
... Moreover, Swift's strategic brand partnerships, ranging from clothing lines to mobile apps, capitalize on her immense influence and credibility, driving sales and enhancing brand visibility for both parties. Many studies before have identified the effectiveness of celebrity endorsers in creating favorable customer attitudes and increasing the likelihood of purchase (Pöyry et al., 2019;Amos et al., 2008;Till et al., 2008). Additionally, Swift's embrace of streaming platforms, coupled with her advocacy for fair compensation for artists, reflects her forward-thinking approach to navigating the digital landscape while safeguarding the interests of creators. ...
This chapter explores Taylor Swift's branding strategy through the lens of authenticity, offering insights into the economics of branding in the entertainment industry. The analysis delves into Swift's approach, highlighting the economic significance of authenticity, genuine storytelling, and fan engagement. It discusses Swift's innovative revenue streams while maintaining artistic integrity. The chapter underscores authenticity's enduring relevance in fostering trust, loyalty, and emotional resonance among consumers. Swift's impact on branding economics and authenticity in entertainment is profound, setting new standards for artist-brand partnerships and fan engagement. Future research avenues include exploring authenticity's influence on consumer behavior and brand loyalty across cultural contexts. In conclusion, Swift's branding strategy serves as a compelling case study, offering lessons for building sustainable brands and meaningful consumer relationships in the digital age.
... With increasing awareness of environmental protection, consumers prefer to purchase low-carbon products (Ji et al., 2017). According to communication studies (Zhao, 2009), the publicization of low-carbon products by reputable celebrities increases not only consumers' low-carbon cognition and satisfies their low-carbon preferences but also their purchase intention (Till et al., 2008). Although streamers' low-carbon publicity affects consumers' purchase intentions, its effect on joint emission reduction must be further investigated. ...
Publicizing manufacturers' emission reduction through a reputable streamer is a novel cooperation model among members of a live-streaming supply chain. The streamer offers three alternative incentive schemes to motivate manufacturers to reduce emissions: decentralized decisions, as well as cost- and revenue-sharing contracts. Under such incentive schemes, we develop a two-echelon live-streaming supply-chain game model comprising a streamer and a manufacturer that considers the manufacturer’s emission reduction, the streamer’s low-carbon publicity, and the streamer’s reputation. Two sensitivity coefficients are set in the demand function: consumer environmental awareness (CEA) and consumer sensitivity to the streamer's low-carbon publicity (CSSLP). We examine the impact of the three incentive schemes on emission reduction, members' equilibrium decisions, and profitability based on a Stackelberg game. The results show that (1) Cost- and revenue-sharing contracts improve the low-carbon publicity level, emission reduction, and profits of the live-streaming supply chain, and a revenue-sharing contract improves the three more than a cost-sharing contract. (2) CEA has a greater impact on the manufacturer’s emission reduction than CSSLP. However, a threshold value determines whether CEA or CSSLP has a greater impact on the streamer's low-carbon publicity level. (3) CEA positively affects the streamer's optimal cost- and revenue-sharing rates. (4) Emission reduction and low-carbon publicity increase with the streamer's reputation; however, the supply-chain profit first decreases and then increases with the streamer's reputation. (5) The coordination contract with the optimal emission reduction is the same as that with the optimal profit for the supply-chain members.
... Recently, this topic started getting attention from researchers from different perspectives (Tzoumaka, Tsiotsou, & Siomkos, 2016). For example, Till, Stanley, and Priluck (2008) found the association of celebrity endorsement with positive word of mouth, and positive attitude (Bush, Martin, & Bush, 2004) increased sales (Clutchfield, 2010), superior stock market worth (Fizel, McNeil, & Smaby, 2008), and brand equity (Spry, Pappu, & Cornwell, 2011). ...
The purpose of this study is to investigate the influence of endorser's credibility on consumer responses. It also explores the mediating role of attitude towards advertisement (ATA) and moderating role brand awareness (BA). Data was collected from two hundred and sixty-three educated consumers to test the proposed hypotheses. The results suggested that the endorser's credibility (attractiveness, expertise, and trustworthiness) positively impacts ATA and purchase intention (PI). Moreover, ATA mediates between endorser's credibility and PI. It was also found that brand awareness moderates the relationship between ATA and PI. The findings of this study imply that advertisers should carefully consider the endorser's credibility before the selection. In contrast, ignoring these factors could lead to adverse effects on consumer responses. Theoretical implications are also discussed, which are presented in the proceeding sections.
... Social factors are essential in encouraging adolescents' consumption behaviour [11]. The social factors can be divided into two parts: involvement and motivation. ...
This essay explores the impact of the pandemic on the Australian adolescent obesity issue and the vegan food industry. Due to the pandemic, the delivery business has thrived, and people have become more aware of the importance of health, leading to an increase in the number of consumers interested in vegan food. The essay investigates how vegan companies can improve their business in the post-pandemic era by understanding consumer behaviour and attitudes. The study will focus on consumer psychology and explore how vegan companies can better meet their needs to improve their business.
... Numerous marketing studies in the past have explored the concept of perceived fit, such as the fit between extension products and the parent brand (Aaker & Keller, 1990;Osorio et al., 2022), the fit between endorsers and brands positioning (Till, Stanley, & Priluck, 2008), (Schmidt & Steenkamp, 2022;Tang & Tsang, 2020). Thus, when a top-dog brand adopts a warm conversational style, its consumers perceive low fit and negatively evaluate the brand. ...
Although an underdog brand positioning can elicit positive consumer responses, maintaining a brand's positioning requires maintaining consistent brand associations. If the associations created by the company's service providers do not align with the brand's positioning, this discrepancy can lead to consumer confusion or to a decline in brand attitudes. Chatbots, as customer‐facing representatives, play a crucial role in how consumers perceive and evaluate a brand. However, the role of chatbots in shaping brand attitude has not been extensively studied. Therefore, this study investigates the effects of chatbot conversational styles on consumers' perceptions of the fit between a brand's positioning and its messaging, focusing on both “top‐dog” and “underdog” brands. This study demonstrates that underdog brands using chatbots with warm conversational styles and top‐dog brands using chatbots with competent (i.e., professional) conversational styles foster positive brand evaluations by consumers through perceived fit. Additionally, this study introduces the concept of power state—an individual's degree of perceived control over their surroundings—as a moderator in human–chatbot interactions, demonstrating that high‐power‐state consumers of top‐dog brands favor a competent conversational style, whereas low‐power‐state consumers favor a warm conversational style regardless of the brand's positioning.
... It's crucial to consider both the identities of commenters and the sentiment of their content. Consumerism research has shown that celebrity endorsements can significantly influence people's positive perceptions of a brand, e.g., [17]. When comments challenge the prevailing news framing, the high status of commenters becomes a noteworthy factor [18]. ...
Two studies were conducted to test the convergence of mass and interpersonal media processes and their effects on YouTube. The first study examined the influence of interpersonal interactions on video enjoyment. The results indicated that positive comment valence affected participants’ identification with the content creator, which then affected enjoyment of the video. To investigate the effects of convergence from a macro-level perspective, the second study tracked and recorded data from 32 YouTube videos for 34 days and recorded the following data for each video: number of views, likes, and comments/responses. The results indicated that the more content creators and users interact, the more likes the video receives. However, user-to-user interactions are associated with a decrease in the number of likes a video receives.
... According to MarketWatch (2011), celebrity endorsements resulted in sales growth by an average of 4 percent. Past research has revealed that celebrity endorsement can lead to positive attitude and purchasing behavior toward the product or service that is endorsed (Till, Stanley and Priluck, 2008). The source-credibility model can be used to predict message effectiveness or efficacy (Amos, Holmes, and Strutton,2008). ...
The aim of this paper was to examine the relationship between celebrity endorsement and buying behavior of fashion clothing by women in Lahore, Pakistan. Specifically, this study examined the influence of celebrity source attractiveness, source respect, source similarity, source trustworthiness and source expertise towards buying behavior. This research was a quantitative study that used a self-administered questionnaire. The target population were matured women in Lahore. Primary data was collected from 277 women using convenience sampling technique. Multiple regression analysis via Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) computer program version 19 was used to test the hypothesis developed for this study. The output of the multiple regression analysis revealed that source attractiveness had the strongest impact on buying behavior. The results further showed that buying behavior was influenced by source trustworthiness, source respect and source similarity. However, source expertise did not show a significant influence on buying behavior. This study has implications for marketers and advertising practitioners in Pakistan. The results showed that marketers should place higher importance on source attractiveness when using celebrities to endorse fashion clothing products. The results of this study will add to existing literature on the relationship between celebrity endorsement and buying behavior by Muslim women. To the best of the researcher's knowledge, this is the first study of its kind in Pakistan to examine the influence of celebrities' endorsement on Muslim women buying behavior of fashion clothing.
... Social media influencers are able to encourage consumers' positive attitudes towards products or services through the assumption that they truly believe in the product 's features and the benefits it offers [126]. When consumers have a favorable product attitude, it drives them to acquire that particular product item [127]. Therefore, if customers have a favorable opinion of the items, this should encourage them to buy them and educate other consumers about the products' features and advantages. ...
The primary objective of this study was to investigate the impact of social media influencers' credibility, knowledge, and attractiveness on customers' evaluations of products and services within the domain of social media. This investigation was conducted by utilizing the theoretical framework of source credibility theory. This study also investigates the impact of product appraisal on customers' views about the product and its subsequent influence on their intentions to make a purchase. This study identified three key qualities, including source credibility, product appraisal, and product-influencer fit, which were found to be significant. Additionally, this study also revealed the mediating impact of these characteristics. A web-based survey was administered, and the collected data was subjected to analysis via structural equation modeling (SEM). This study found that out of the three elements of source credibility, trustworthiness was the only one that had a statistically significant impact on product appraisal. The findings from the conducted tests indicate that there was no statistically significant impact of competence and attractiveness on the appraisal of the product. Furthermore, it is important to note that the concept of product-influencer fit played a role as a mediator solely in the association between trustworthiness and product appraisal. Also, a significant correlation was seen between product evaluation and product perception. More importantly, it was determined that the purchase intentions of customers were notably impacted by their perceptions and evaluations of the respective products. Therefore, given the influence of trustworthiness on customers' evaluations of items and their positive brand perceptions, social media influencers could be a reliable and effective medium for disseminating marketing communications to consumers.
... Although celebrity and/or brand related marketing activities do not guarantee company's profitability (Gitomer, 1998;Merkert and Pearson, 2015), celebrity endorsements contribute to the formation of favourable attitudes towards the endorsed brands (Till et al., 2008). Thus, companies spend billions of dollars annually on celebrity endorsements to promote their products because celebrities' symbolic meanings and aspirational associations are expected to transfer to the endorsed products (Escalas, 2004). ...
This thesis analyses the factors that influence the celebrity endorser’s perceived authenticity and its impact on the promoted brand in covert social media marketing. To examine consumer behaviour, the Persuasion Knowledge Model and Attribution Theory were integrated, and a theoretical framework was then developed. In total, 653 social media users were recruited to participate in the research, and structural equation modelling was conducted to test the proposed model. The results confirm that (1) activated persuasion knowledge negatively influences celebrity endorser’s perceived authenticity in covert social media marketing; (2) celebrity-brand congruity does not have a significant impact on the endorser’s perceived authenticity; (3) celebrity’s expertise positively influences the celebrity endorser’s perceived authenticity when endorsing products related to his or her area of expertise; (4) the celebrity’s perceived attractiveness has a positive impact on the celebrity’s perceived authenticity when endorsing attractiveness enhancing products covertly in social media; and (5) perceived authenticity of a celebrity endorser positively influences brand attitudes and, consequently, behavioural intentions. Both theoretical and managerial implications are drawn, suggesting directions for future studies.
... suggest that celebrities' personal qualities, such as attractiveness, likeability, reputation, and credibility, can positively affect consumers' attitudes and credibility towards the endorsed brand. Previous research by Till et al. (2008) shows that celebrity endorsement results in favorable attitudes toward the endorsed brand, while Spry et al. ...
Online travel agencies (OTAs) in Indonesia, such as Traveloka, spend annually to endorse their brands through celebrities on TikTok to influence consumer perceptions of credibility and purchase intentions. This research explores the impact of celebrity endorsers’ expertise, trustworthiness, and attractiveness on brand attitude, brand credibility, and purchase intention within the context of online travel agencies (OTA). Recognizing the significance of celebrity endorsement for enhancing the purchasing behavior of consumers towards OTA brands, the findings of this study have important implications for how OTA companies can strategically adopt celebrity endorsement to sustain their customers' intention to purchase travel-related services. The study employs Partial Least Method-Structural Equation Modeling and includes 244 respondents, and data analysis was conducted using SEM analysis with WarpPLS 7.0 software. The results indicate a significant positive effect of celebrity endorser credibility on purchase intention through brand attitude and credibility. By using credible celebrities as endorsers, OTA companies, such as Traveloka in Indonesia, have been successful in influencing consumers' brand perception and building brand credibility, which in turn positively affects their purchase intention. The research findings highlight the importance of brand attitude as the most significant factor that impacts consumers' intention to purchase. Consequently, the study provides valuable insights for OTA companies, emphasizing the necessity of employing credible endorsers to build brand credibility and positively influence consumers' attitudes and purchase intention. Keywords— Brand attitude; Brand Credibility; Endorser Credibility; Purchase Intention; Online Travel Agencies
... Standard EC paradigms typically consist of pairing neutral conditioned stimuli, such as geometric figures or unfamiliar logos (CSs), with either positive unconditioned stimuli, such as photographs of kittens (positive USs), or negative unconditioned stimuli, such as photographs of snakes (negative USs). As a result of these repeated pairings, participants tend to rate more positively the CSs associated with positive USs and more negatively the CSs associated with negative USs. Occurrences of EC happen daily, such as through advertising (e.g., a popular celebrity (positive US) frequently praises a service or product (CS), resulting in improved evaluations of that product, Till et al., 2008). ...
Evaluative conditioning (EC) appears when a neutral conditioned stimulus (CS) is repeatedly paired with a positive or negative unconditioned stimulus (US). Most studies on EC have focused on the influence of procedural factors (e.g., number of presentations) and awareness, while emotional factors have been understudied. However, literature shows that emotional processes could be involved. In this paper, we assume that, upon appraisal, the US elicits a particular emotion that is then paired with the CS. In this perspective, the ability to regulate emotions could modulate how individuals pay attention to stimuli, appraise them, and, more generally, use them. For these reasons, emotion regulation could be an interindividual moderator of the EC. To test this assumption, we explore whether (i) emotional dysregulation and (ii) emotional regulation strategies moderate EC effects. We conducted an integrative analysis (n = 236) based on two studies using the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale and an observational study using the Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (n = 128). Higher levels of emotional dysregulation were associated with less positive conditioning. Furthermore, the reappraisal strategy was associated with higher positive conditioning. Therefore, people differ in how they are conditioned (partic-ularly positively conditioned), and part of it is because of emotion regulation differences. This contribution opens several new questions for the EC field to understand more precisely when and where these emotional processes are involved.
... That is, selecting influencers who are right on target and have good communication can attract consumers' attention so that they can generate an intention to buy. Till, Stanley, and Priluck (2008) said that brand promotion using the support of social media influencers such as celebrities can influence purchase intentions and behavior. This is in line with the opinion of Kotler and Armstrong (2018) that marketers rely on influencers to recommend their products before making a purchase decision. ...
This research focuses on the influence of social media influencers on purchase intention which is mediated by brand awareness. The use of an influencer has indeed been proven to be effective in creating consumer awareness and influencing their purchase intention towards a brand. The impact caused by using influencers to advertise on social media is to attract attention and create awareness among their fans, so that it is expected to increase purchase intention for the advertised product. To prove this, the researchers used a research sample with respondents who are active social media users who often see influencers advertising a product on social media. The number of participants in this study were 210 people. This study used several software for data processing and data testing, namely IBM SPSS Statistics version 15 to test validity and reliability, IBM AMOS version 22 for hypothesis testing, and Sobel test for mediation tests. Data collection started in August 2021 and continued with data processing. Based on the results obtained, of the four proposed hypotheses, all hypotheses are accepted. Social media influencers have proven to have a positive and significant effect on purchase intention, and the effect will be even stronger when mediated by brand awareness. This proves, the presence of an influencer who advertises a brand on social media has proven effective in attracting attention to creating awareness among social media users, especially among their followers. Further results, consumer awareness of a brand after being advertised by this influencer has proven effective in increasing the level of consumer purchase intention because the results have proven significant. That is, when a consumer is aware, he will most likely seek further information so as to enable him to have a purchase intention, either at that time or in the future.
... According to this model, there are four main stages of influence: (a) the influencer's attempts to influence; (b) the target's attitudinal response; (c) the target's desire to comply; and, finally, (d) the target's behavioral outcomes. Research in associative learning [43] has shown that the positive influence influencers have on their audiences is generated first and foremost on a personal level, starting with physical attractiveness and likability [44]. ...
Twitch.tv is a live video content website. As of 2022, Twitch users are generally ad-olescents and young adults, with estimates of the percentage of users aged 16-24 between 22.3% and 41%, predominantly males with estimates ranging from 65% to 78.36%. In recent years, “slotstream” content has become increasingly popular, where streamers gamble online while us-ers watch them. From July 2022 to November 2022, we researched articles related to Twitch, live streaming, gambling, casino, slot, gambling online, modeling, social media influenc-ers, conditioning, and celebrities, searching for relevant studies in the databases LexisNexis Ac-ademic, Business Source Complete, PubMed, Web of Science, Freedom Collection, Health & Med-ical Collection, Elsevier Journal, Springer, APA PsycARTICLES, Wiley, and other single journals. We took into consideration Gambling Disorder, Online Gambling Disorder, and In-ternet Gaming Disorder on the one hand, and consumer components such as persuasive commu-nication and influencer-audience relationship on the other; we then hypothesized that the presence of these variables within the slotstream format is positively correlated with the development of pathological gambling, especially in an adolescent audience. We assume that there is a positive correlation between watching slotstream content and the probability of developing both pathological and non-pathological gambling behavior.
... Celebrity endorsement literature confirms that celebrities play a relevant role in influencing receivers' attitudes toward the brands they endorse (e.g., Amos et al., 2008;Lafferty & Goldsmith, 1999;Till & Busler, 2000). Celebrities generate a meaning transfer process (McCracken, 1989) in which they influence consumers' attitudes towards products or brands (Silvera & Austad, 2004), which may lead to purchases (Till et al., 2008). ...
Despite the growing importance of influencers' word‐of‐mouth through audiovisual content, little is known about its effect on consumers' brand evaluation, purchase intentions, and decisions. Drawing on Ohanian's source credibility framework, we conducted two studies across different influencers, product categories, and respondents' gender and tested the hypotheses using covariance‐based and partial least square structural equation modeling. Study 1 focuses on a mega‐influencer of cosmetic and beauty brands and predominantly involves female respondents. The findings show that the influencer's attractiveness affects perceptions about source expertise and source trustworthiness but not brand attitude, while source expertise predicts source trustworthiness, and both mediate the effect of source attractiveness on brand attitude. In contrast, brand attitude predicts purchase intention and mediates the impact of source credibility dimensions. Study 2 focuses on various influencers of hedonic products (lifestyle, fashion, and beauty). The results confirm the influence of source attractiveness and expertise on source trustworthiness, which ultimately predicts consumer purchase decisions. This study reveals the interdependencies between different source constructs, contributing to source credibility theory. Furthermore, we show that the effect of source dimensions that are relevant in the celebrity endorsement literature, such as source attractiveness, do not directly influence consumers' intentions and decisions in the context of influencers' electronic word of mouth. Finally, the two studies confirm that only influencers perceived as honest and sincere can influence consumers' purchase decisions.
... In relation to this phenomenon, similarity-effect studies showed that individuals are usually attracted to more "similar" rather than "dissimilar" others in various interpersonal situations (Crosby et al., 1990;Fu et al., 2018). Further, past (Kamins, 1990;Till et al., 2008;Park and Inoue, 2018). Accordingly, it is probable that when customers are high in implicit mindset (i.e. ...
Purpose
Fitness service organizations often promote the personal training service by attributing competent features, qualifications, or/and service provision of fitness service providers to efforts or talents. This study aims to investigate whether and when the promotional attribution of fitness service providers' competent features, qualifications, or/and service provision contributes to customers' compliance with service instructions.
Design/methodology/approach
The authors developed the experimental stimuli of performance attribution promotion (i.e. effort attribution and talent attribution) and validated them via a pretest (N = 400). Utilizing the validated stimuli, the authors conducted an experiment (N = 400) employing a single-factor (performance attribution promotion: effort vs talent) between-subject design. The authors performed partial least squares structural modeling (PLS-SEM) to test our hypotheses.
Findings
The results revealed the interaction effect of performance attribution promotion and customers' implicit mindset on customer participation expectation. Specifically, when customers were high in implicit mindset (i.e. incremental-minded), attributing competent features, qualifications, or/and service provision of fitness service providers to effort (vs talent) increased customer participation expectation. Yet, when customers were low in implicit mindset (i.e. entity-minded), such an effect did not occur. Further, the authors identified customers' intention to comply with service instructions as a downstream consequence of the aforementioned interaction effect.
Originality/value
The contribution of this paper is twofold. It enriches the performance attribution literature by finding its new consequences and boundary condition. Moreover, the findings aid fitness service practitioners in developing strategies for eliciting customers' compliance with service instruction through performance attribution promotion.
... Brand endorsers possesses characteristics that can generate favorable attitudes towards luxury brand (Zakari et al., 2018). Extant literature have shown the impact of celebrity endorsers on brand recall and endorsed brand attitudes (Till et al., 2008;Kahle & Homer, 1985). Also, the economic advantage of celebrities have been assessed to measure its efficacy (Kang et al., 2019). ...
This investigation provide an empirical evaluation of the influence of celebrity characteristics on brand resonance outcomes in the luxury automobile market of Ghana. A survey of users or owners of luxury automobiles was done. One hundred and sixteen questionnaire were used for further analysis. A structural equation modelling was used. The completed questionnaires were cleaned and used for further analysis. The study found that out of the three constructs that define celebrity characteristics in the luxury automobile industry only celebrity attractiveness had a positively significant effect on brand resonance outcomes.
... Further, the theory of associative learning speaks of learning as the process of establishing connections between two phenomena. As Till et al. (2008) state, according to the results of the classical conditioning study-one common method of associative learning-using celebrities evoking positive feelings "as unconditioned stimuli in conditioning trials should lead to affectively favourable responses toward brands" (Till et al. 2008, p. 180). The endorsements of credible influencers should therefore evoke the reactions of followers that are desired from a marketing point of view. ...
Understanding influencer credibility and online advertising and explaining its implications
is the basis for analyzing customer purchase behavior. Novelties in digital marketing are visible in the growth of advertising through digital platforms using micro-influencers, compared to the former trend of using celebrities in creating brand awareness with the purpose to reach many cus�tomers and influence their buying decisions. The aim of this study is to examine how advertising disclosure (displayed/not displayed) affects influencer credibility, while analyzing influencer type (celebrity/micro-influencer) as a moderator variable underlying this relationship. Further, this paper investigates whether brand awareness mediates the relationship between influencer credibility and purchase intention. The questionnaire was designed and data were collected from 364 respondents
using the convenience sampling method on the student population from one Croatian university. Re�gression analysis was performed to test the set hypothesis in SPSS using the PROCESS approach and independent sample t-test. The findings show: (1) displayed advertising status increases influencers’ credibility, and (2) this relationship is not moderated by influencer type. Moreover, (3) influencer credibility has a positive and significant relationship with purchase intention, and (4) this relation�ship is mediated through brand awareness. Research results indicate the importance of advertising
disclosure and influencer credibility in influencer marketing, since brand awareness created through influencers’ credibility increased by displayed advertising disclosure significantly affects purchase intention of participants.
... What part can celebrities play in achieving these goals? Whilst their activism often attracts media coverage, the public doesn't show great interest in messages from such folks when they are politicized rather than commercial (Becker, 2013;Thrall et al., 2008;Till et al., 2008). For example, when celebrities urge boycotts of tourist spots for burdening donkeys with visitors, eating dogs, or hunting dolphins, the record is unimpressive (Shaheer et al., 2021). ...
... It occurs when a neutral conditioned stimulus (CS) is repeatedly associated with a positive or negative unconditioned stimulus (US;De Houwer, 2007). We are confronted with this on a daily basis, particularly through advertising (e.g., a popular celebrity (US) frequently praises a service or product (CS), resulting in improved evaluations of that product, Till et al., 2008). Most contemporary research on evaluative conditioning has focused on the cognitive constraints necessary for its occurrence (for example, see Swedens, ...
Dans ce travail, nous avons souhaité explorer la dimension émotionnelle du conditionnement évaluatif. Nous postulons que celui-ci provient d’un processus de double évaluation, d’une part émotionnelle et d’autre part cognitive. Nous nous sommes focalisés sur l’étude des processus émotionnels à travers la régulation émotionnelle. Pour cela nous avons réalisé trois séries d’études. Dans la première, nous avons mis en évidence que la dérégulation émotionnelle diminuait le conditionnement positif. Dans deux autres études visant à explorer les stratégies de régulation, nous avons observé qu’un mésusage des stratégies engendrait un conditionnement négatif plus fort et un conditionnement positif plus faible. Ces premiers résultats sont appuyés par deux études utilisant la variabilité de la fréquence cardiaque comme indicateur des capacités d’autorégulation. Le conditionnement évaluatif paraît associé à la dérégulation émotionnelle à travers des difficultés d’adaptation durant le stress et de récupération post-stress. Enfin, deux études ont essayé d’observer les effets d’un prédicteur de la régulation émotionnelle : la pleine conscience. Dans aucune des deux études nous n’avons trouvé de lien entre la pleine conscience et le conditionnement évaluatif. Nous avons donc pu observer à travers différentes méthodes un lien entre le conditionnement évaluatif et la régulation émotionnelle. Celui-ci est discuté et des pistes de recherches sont envisagées.
... Marketers often adopt this concept to promote their products and services by using particular stimuli to evoke consumers' responses (Wisker, Kadirov, and Bone 2019). Previous studies have utilised this claim for decades; consumers' attitudes formed through classical conditioning are enduring (Han and Ling 2016;Till, Stanley, and Priluck 2008;Wisker, Kadirov, and Bone 2019). In this study, the notion of advertising effectiveness comprises three stimuli; ...
Although mobile payment has long been introduced worldwide, adopting the system in the retailing industry among baby boomers has been slow. This study aims to examine the effects of emotional appeal, advertising creativity, and perceived value on the intention to use mobile payment among baby boomers during the COVID-19 pandemic. The study posits a conditional indirect moderated mediation model whereby trust acts as the mediator and perceived risk as the moderator. An experimental study 3 × 2 (emotional appeal-low versus high; advertising creativity-low versus high; perceived value-low versus high) between-subject design was conducted to test the posited hypotheses. Data was collected from baby boomers in New Zealand who were recruited via two sampling frames, SurveyMonkey Databases and Baby Boomer Community Facebook. The results confirm the proposed model, except for a conditional indirect effect of the emotional appeal on intention to use relationship. The findings extend the concept of socioemotional selectivity and hierarchy of effect theories. ARTICLE HISTORY
... With a few exceptions (e.g. Costanzo and Goodnight, 2005), prior studies have confirmed that celebrity endorsement has a positive effect on consumers responses such as ad attitude, brand attitude and purchase intention across different formats of advertising (Knoll and Matthes, 2017;Rundin and Colliander, 2021;Kusumasondjaja and Tjiptono, 2019;Till et al., 2008;Pornpitakpan, 2004;Till and Busler, 2000;Erdogan, 1999;Erdogan et al., 2001;Kamins and Gupta, 1994;Kamins, 1990;Lynch and Schuler, 1994;Misra and Beatty, 1990). These consumer responses have been the most widely used dependent variables in marketing communication research in general (Bergkvist and Langner, 2017) and celebrity endorsement research in particular (Choi and Rifon, 2012;Lee et al., 2014;Paul and Bhakar, 2017;Russell and Rasolofoarison, 2017). ...
Purpose
This study aims to examine the effectiveness (ad attitude, brand attitude and purchase intention) of celebrity endorsement in the form of explicit vs embedded advertising in the context of different new media (digital and social media).
Design/methodology/approach
An online experiment was conducted using a 2 (digital media vs social media) × 2 (explicit vs embedded celebrity endorsement) between-subjects design. Participants ( n = 137) were exposed to a fictitious piece of online branded content using celebrity endorsement. Four experimental treatments were generated as the authors manipulated the new media and the explicitness of the celebrity endorsement in the ad piece.
Findings
The main result highlights that using social media (vs digital media) enhances celebrity endorsement's indirect influence on purchase intention via the serial mediating role of ad attitude and brand attitude, regardless of the explicitness of the message. In terms of the message format, no differences were observed.
Research limitations/implications
The differential power of using celebrities across different new media to promote brands suggests the importance of interactivity in the context of celebrity endorsement. Additionally, the absence of differences in terms of message formats would show that the presence of the celebrity per se has a powerful effect.
Practical implications
Firms using new media to deliver their brand communication, including celebrity endorsements, can better understand the different capabilities of social media and digital media.
Originality/value
In the context in which empirical research equates new media with social media, this study provides an examination of celebrity endorsement assuming the complexity of the celebrity endorsement ion the current scenario: different types of new media and different types of message formats.
Purpose
This study aims to investigate the complex dynamics of sports sponsorship within the context of mixed martial arts (MMA). Specifically, it explores how audience attitudes toward MMA influence their perceptions of players and sponsors, and subsequently, how these attitudes affect brand perceptions and purchase intentions. Furthermore, this research examines the moderating effect of fans' attitudes toward MMA on the relationship between their attitudes toward sponsors and their purchase intentions. MMA was selected as the focus of this study due to its propensity to evoke more intense emotional responses than other sports, as evidenced by previous research.
Design/methodology/approach
Study 1 was conducted to systematically assess the emotional responses elicited by MMA. This preliminary study involved 277 participants. Building on the findings from Study 1, Study 2 employed an online survey to investigate the relationships among various constructs related to MMA. This survey was facilitated through an external portal and included a sample of 459 participants residing in the United States. The constructs measured in this survey were attitudes toward the player (ATP), attitudes toward the sponsor (ATS), perception of brand quality (PBQ), purchase intention (ITP) and attitudes toward mixed martial arts (ATM).
Findings
The study reveals that respondents rated MMA the most negatively among the analyzed sports, with the highest standard deviation, indicating that MMA evokes extreme emotional responses. The findings confirm that attitudes toward the player positively influence attitudes toward the sponsor, aligning with sponsorship-linked marketing theory. Moreover, positive attitudes toward the player were found to enhance perceptions of the sponsor’s brand quality. The research further demonstrated that attitudes toward the sponsor and perceptions of brand quality mediate the relationship between attitudes toward the player and purchase intentions, underscoring the complex nature of consumer decision-making in MMA sponsorship.
Originality/value
This research provides novel insights into the critical role of audience engagement and personal connection with sports in formulating effective sponsorship strategies. It emphasizes the need for marketers to tailor their approaches to align with the sport’s personal significance to the audience, employing narratives that resonate with their identities and values. Enhancing player-sponsor associations through co-branded campaigns and endorsements is essential. Furthermore, consistently maintaining high product quality and fostering emotional connections with the sport are key strategies to drive increased purchase intentions.
Along with the digital transformation of the administrative environment and the end of the COVID-19 pandemic, official endorsers have nurtured a new channel for tourism destination marketing, which is of great significance to local economic recovery. However, less attention has been paid to the different effects of endorsement between ordinary endorsers and official endorsers, mainly due to their contrasting social statuses. To bridge the research gap, the source credibility model and social identity theory are integrated to construct the distinctive attributes of officials, as well as structural equation model is utilized to explore the underlying mechanism of official endorsement. Findings indicate that trustworthiness, the sense of authority, expertise, and attractiveness have direct positive effects on official identification, while also indirectly influencing tourists’ attitudes toward the destination through official identification. These findings provide theoretical and managerial implications for the local government managers involved in tourism destination marketing.
Evaluative conditioning (EC) is a key effect in attitude formation, leading to changes in the liking of neutral attitude objects due to their pairing with positive or negative stimuli. Despite EC’s significance, current theories and most empirical findings are limited to stimulus pairings with a single affective stimulus at a time. In contrast, social environments often involve more complex combinations of affective stimuli. In this article, we introduce a novel framework grounded in information integration research to understand how conditioned attitudes develop in the presence of multiple affective stimuli. Through 10 experiments with different designs, measures, materials, and pairing procedures, we find that individuals’ conditioned attitudes follow the average valence of all affective stimuli present with a stronger weighting of negative stimuli. This weighted averaging rule bears two implications for EC in more complex stimulus combinations. First, EC effects are nonmonotonous, such that additional stimuli of the same valence do not produce incremental EC effects. Second, EC effects are interdependent, such that the impact of one stimulus is weakest when accompanied by another negative stimulus and strongest when no other affective stimulus is present. We examine different cognitive processes underlying this weighted averaging rule, including potential differences in pairing memory or changes in the affective stimuli’s valence when other stimuli are present. Our findings present a novel theoretical perspective on EC and offer valuable insights into attitude change from stimulus co-occurrences in stimulus-rich environments.
Purpose
The purpose of this study is to investigate the effects of celebrity endorsers on consumer advocacy, customization and entertainment intentions based on the notion of the stimulus–organism–response (SOR) framework. In addition, this study aims to examine the mediating and moderating role of customization and entertainment intentions on the proposed relationships. The authors also intend to highlight the comparative effects between male and female young social media consumers on those proposed associations.
Design/methodology/approach
In the pursuit of comprehensive and rigorous data collection, this study adopted a quantitative methodology using a meticulously crafted questionnaire. The questionnaire survey was conducted in major cities of Malaysia using the convenience and snowball sampling techniques. A total of 576 responses were collected, even though 549 retorts were used for data analysis. In this investigation, the authors strategically used covariance-based structural equation modeling through the use of AMOS v. 24 as the primary data analysis tool. Augmenting the analytical depth, the authors also conducted a supplementary bootstrap analysis. The additional layers of examination were crucial for appraising the mediating and moderating effects inherent within the model, in which the PROCESS MACRO v.4.20 was used.
Findings
The results of this study revealed the significant direct positive effects of celebrity endorsers on consumer customization, entertainment and advocacy intentions. Consumer customization and entertainment intentions also found significant direct affirmative effects on consumer advocacy intention, along with the significant direct positive effects of consumer entertainment intention on consumer customization intention. The results further revealed that consumer customization and entertainment intentions cannot mediate the relationship between celebrity endorsers and advocacy intention. The entertainment intention also declined the mediating effects between celebrity endorsers and consumer customization intention. On the contrary, consumer customization intention significantly and positively, and entertainment intention also significantly but negatively, moderate the association between celebrity endorsers and consumer advocacy intention. This study also illustrates that the effects of those examined relationships differ between male and female young social media consumers.
Originality/value
This study investigates the impact of celebrity endorsers on consumer behavior, focusing on their customization, entertainment and advocacy intentions. It extends current SOR framework, enhances source credibility theory, fills gaps in the literature on social media brand engagement and underscores the significance of customization and entertainment intentions. The findings provide insights for managers aiming to harness consumer brand advocacy through celebrity endorsers effectively.
Dietitians are charged with implementing evidence-based practice, and in fields such as weight management, there are continually new emerging and conflicting approaches that have not been fully researched. Dietitians rely on their professional expertise and clinical judgment in determining how to use the best available evidence to address emerging issues in their daily practice.
This paper aims to study the impact of celebrity endorsements on purchase intention in Saudi Arabia. Questionnaire was developed using three independent variables Celebrity’s Attractiveness, Expertise Trustworthiness and one dependent variable i.e., customer’s Purchase Intensions. Data was collected using online questionnaire tool i.e., UDQuest. 117 respondents participated in the survey. Survey results shows that Celebrity’s attractiveness plays a pivotal role in shaping customer’s purchase intentions.
This study investigates young consumers’ reliance on social media influencers (SMIs) in the context of social commerce. With regard to the four streams of influencer endorsement – influencer credibility, influencer attractiveness, match-up, and meaning transfer – we propose that they can either lead to a direct consumer reliance on SMIs’ suggestions for their purchasing decisions, or that attitudes toward SMIs mediate the relationship. By integrating both directions of partial- and no-attitude mediation, the proposed model explores all associations in order to better understand connections and driving forces between endorsement streams, attitudes, and reliance. We introduce the concept of reliance on SMIs, understood here as the degree to which young individuals base their preferences, lifestyles, and purchasing decisions upon SMIs. A research model was validated by examining 809 young individuals. The results reveal that attitude formation is affected by all four endorsement streams, and fully mediates the relationship between these endorsement streams and young people’s reliance on SMIs. The differentiated reliance levels by gender and age confirm that females and teenagers tend to rely more on SMIs. The current study offers the first evidence for a relationship between the four endorsement streams and reliance on SMIs via attitude formation in the context of social media networking, as well as the association of reliance with sociodemographic characteristics.
Formula 1 is among the most environmentally destructive practices today, not least as a sign of the legitimacy of an unsustainable car culture. It also indexes the power of a lapsed, amateur hegemonic masculinity and its technocratic equivalent today. The greenwashing done by and for the industry must be systematically unmasked and criticized.KeywordsFormula 1EnvironmentMonopoly capitalHegemonic masculinityGreenwashing
Celebrity endorsement is one of the most popular marketing communication tools that have been used by beverage companies to influence consumers’ behaviour, but little is known about the extent this communication strategy can be impactful and benefit alcoholic beverages like beer and wine. In this context, this study examines whether and how social media celebrity endorsement influences consumers’ beer and wine purchase behaviour.
Further, this study examines what are the characteristics of the celebrities that exert greater influence on beer and wine purchase behaviour. Based on the source credibility, source attractiveness theoretical models, and on the match-up theory a model of consumer purchase behaviour was proposed. Online celebrity endorsement was categorized as promoting either beer and wine, as well as beer and wine brands. Then, this model is empirically analysed through multiple group Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) on two samples of consumers who read online celebrity’s
recommendations in Spain (beer=280; wine=277). Findings indicate that celebrity’s recommendations exert a different influence pattern on consumer purchase behaviour depending on the product category: congruence is the most relevant variable in beer endorsement; while expertise is the most influencing factor
in wine celebrity recommendations. Therefore, beer celebrity endorsers should be congruent with the product; whereas wine endorsers should be perceived as experts
Purpose
The purpose of this study is to examine how children and young adults form attitudes toward food products in unbranded gaming mobile applications and the degree to which product category attitudes can generate responses to brands in the category through the generalization process.
Design/methodology/approach
Two experiments exposed children and young adults to mobile games featuring food products in a between-subjects treatment versus control design to examine both affective responses and belief formation toward food brands within the category.
Findings
It was found that both children and young adults favored branded food items in the product category after playing with an unbranded mobile game assembling food products. Young adults also developed specific beliefs about nonrepresented brands in the category, which were found to be stronger under high involvement. Parents and public policymakers must be vigilant in controlling access to food-related games, even when they are not commercial in nature because of the attitudes and beliefs formed in unbranded games.
Originality/value
This research demonstrates that attitudes and beliefs around food brands can be formed through unbranded game play when children and young adults generalize attitudes. Because of the emphasis on “advergames,” no studies have examined the impact of unbranded games on children and young adults through the generalization process.
Dijital pazarlama ile birlikte pazarlamacılar tüketicileri etkilemenin en iyi yolunu bulmak için çeşitli stratejiler aramaktadırlar. Ürün yerleştirme, içerik pazarlaması, influencer pazarlaması bu stratejilerden bazılarıdır. Pazarlama uygulayıcıları arasında sosyal medya fenomeni pazarlamasının artan kullanımına paralel olarak, önemli bir pazarlama aracı olarak fenomenlerin yükselişi ve ortaya çıkması, giderek büyüyen bir literatürü ortaya koymaktadır. Sosyal medya fenomenleri kimlerdir ve tüketici davranışlarını nasıl etkilerler? Artık hem akademisyenler hem de uygulayıcılar için önemli ve kaçınılmaz bir konudur. Bu nedenle, akademik bilgi ve pazarlama pratiğinin faydası açısından bu fenomenin daha temelli ve kapsamlı bir şekilde anlaşılmasına ihtiyaç duyulmaktadır.
Evaluative Conditioning (EC) research investigates changes in the evaluation of a stimulus after co-occurrence with an affective stimulus. To explain the motivation behind this research, this review begins with an overview of the history of EC research, followed by a summary of the state of the art with respect to three key questions. First, how should EC procedures be used to influence evaluation? We provide a guide based on evidence concerning the functional properties of EC effects. Second, how does the EC effect occur? We discuss the possible mediating cognitive processes and their automaticity. Third, are EC effects ubiquitous outside the lab? We discuss the evidence for the external validity of EC research. We conclude that the most important open questions pertain to the relevance of EC to everyday life and to the level of control that characterizes the processes that mediate the EC effect after people notice the stimulus co-occurrence.
Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Psychology, Volume 74 is January 2023. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
This research explores the effect of celebrity components – entertainment, attractiveness, intense attachment, and celebrity-product congruence – on consumers’ value transfer and their purchase intention. Further, the research focuses on understanding the situation of multiple endorsements and ascertains the over-endorsement effects on consumer buying intention. Besides these, the study also evaluates the moderating effect of cognitive strength on shoppers’ purchase intentions. Highly recognized and lesser-recognized brands were used to demonstrate the presence of over-endorsement impact on shoppers’ purchase intentions. Data were collected using the survey instrument from 267 respondents. Two-step structural equation modeling was carried out for analyzing the data. The findings suggest that celebrity components play a vital role in influencing consumers’ buying intention and over-endorsement negatively influences shoppers’ purchase intentions. This research provides new knowledge about celebrity endorsement among consumers who have a different familiarity with these brands. The present study thus contributes to the existing literature by examining how the relationship between consumer and celebrity is influenced by various celebrity components along with the moderating effects of cognitive strength and over-endorsement.
Purpose
This study deployed a bibliometric analysis of 604 academic articles on celebrity endorsement collected from the Scopus database from January 1960 to August 2021 (the first published article dated back to 1976). This study integrated three bibliometric analyses: timeline visualization, co-citation cluster analysis, and historical direct citation analysis. This study conducted a qualitative review to further examine the obtained quantitative results.
Design/methodology/approach
This study reviewed the existing research on the celebrity endorsement domain. Based on a bibliometric review of existing literature, this study aimed to provide main theoretical roots and research trajectories and propose new research avenues concerning the theory, context, characteristics, and research methodologies adopted within the marketing discipline.
Findings
The findings revealed that the existing relevant research focused on celebrity endorsement in different periods. The main theoretical roots and research trajectories identified were developed under the influence of primary articles from co-citation analysis and historical direct citation.
Research limitations/implications
Based on the quantitative bibliometric analysis and a qualitative literature review, this study has provided a comprehensive overview of the current stage of this domain. The study also has underscored an abundance of celebrity endorsement literature and revealed the research topics that require further investigations to theoretically and empirically advance the understanding of celebrity endorsement.
Practical implications
Some topics were recommended for further research within the theory, context, characteristics, and methodology aspects. Some practical examples and suggestions are also given in the study.
Originality/value
This study proposed a bibliometric overview of celebrity endorsement in the marketing discipline, especially based on timeline visualization, co-citation cluster analysis, and historical direct citation analysis. Furthermore, this study offered a research agenda for further studies in the marketing discipline.
Anecdotal evidence suggests that a new trend in brand alliance advertising is to include an attention-grabbing cue such as a sex appeal or a celebrity endorsement in the same ad as a brand alliance cue. This trend has received scant attention in the literature. Integrating consumer learning theory and the brand information processing framework, we argue that the attention-grabbing cue competes with the brand alliance cue. Three studies demonstrate that the presence of strong cues such as sex appeals or celebrity endorsers reduces the effect of a brand alliance cue. Stronger cues increase ad liking but distract viewers’ attention from the brand alliance cue. The findings suggest that using sex appeals or celebrity endorsers can interfere with the brand ally assisting customers in evaluating the focal brand. Thus, in the case of brand alliance advertising, “the more, the better” is not always true.
Background
Along with the rapid development of the Internet, the form of destination marketing is becoming increasingly innovative and diverse. Celebrity endorsement via social media, as an effective marketing strategy, has been widely used by various tourism companies to attract and engage with their customers. Previous studies have investigated the various aspects of such endorsement (e.g. the effect of endorser’s attributes) in different contexts (e.g. Hotel, Restaurant, Airline). However, little research has focused on the influence of the tourists’ parasocial relationship with endorsers on destination marketing. Accordingly, the current study aims to explore the role of parasocial relationships on tourists’ destination attitude and visit intention.
Method
This study adopted quantitative method and conducted Partial Least Square-Structural Equation Modelling (PLS-SEM) for data analysis. 498 valid questionnaires were collected from Weibo (One of China’s most popuar social media platforms).
Results
Results suggested that endorser’s credibility positively influenced follower’s parasocial relationship (p<0.001), which in turn positively influenced destination attitude and visit intention (p<0.001). Additionally, the parasocial relationship significantly mediated the relationship between credibility and destination attitude as well as visit intention (p<0.001).
Conclusion
The emerging trend of celerbity endorsement via live-streaming makes tourism destination marketing more diverse and even effective. Through exploring the underlying mechanism of celebrity endorsement, this study can provide destination marketers with insights about how to build and strengthen the tourist’s attitude and visit intention towards destiantion by developing their parasocial relationships with endorsers. This study also adds to the literature of using Partial Least Square-Structural Equation Modelling (PLS-SEM) in tourism and hospiatlity research.
Multimodal theories informed by Systemic Functional Linguistics involve postulations on users’ interactions with multimodal artifacts which need to be tested with behavioral data. Studies empirically testing the postulations are of great theoretical and methodological significance for multimodal research but have so far remained nascent. To open up new avenues of research in this area, findings from an eye-tracking experiment designed to test social semiotic postulations are reported and discussed. Specifically, the experiment adopted a between-group matched design and involved 44 viewers and 10 trials in each of which a print advertisement was randomly presented to the viewers who were instructed to perform a group-specific ad viewing task. Eye movement metrics obtained from the experiment were analyzed by descriptive statistics based on Areas of Interest and the Scanpath Trending Algorithm to link fixation metrics to semantic components of the ads and to calculate the common viewing path per group and trial, respectively. Data analysis results revealed, among others, a concentration of visual attention on human faces placed at various regions of the ads. The findings are then channeled into discussions on information value theory in the grammar of visual design to explicate its implications for theorizing multimodal communication.
Fazio, Sanbonmatsu, Powell, and Kardes (1986) demonstrated that Ss were able to evaluate adjectives more quickly when these adjectives were immediately preceded (primed) by attitude objects of similar valence, compared with when these adjectives were primed by attitude objects of opposite valence. Moreover, this effect obtained primarily for attitude objects toward which Ss were presumed to hold highly accessible attitudes, as indexed by evaluation latency. The present research explored the generality of these findings across attitude objects and across procedural variations. The results of 3 experiments indicated that the automatic activation effect is a pervasive and relatively unconditional phenomenon. It appears that most evaluations stored in memory, for social and nonsocial objects alike, become active automatically on the mere presence or mention of the object in the environment.
Celebrity endorsement has become a prevalent form of advertising in the United States. Despite extensive literature on the effects of celebrity endorsements on consumers’ brand attitudes and purchase intentions, little is known about the economic value of these endorsements. Research on this topic has typically focused on theories explaining how celebrity endorsements influence consumers’ attitudes and intentions. The authors assess the impact of celebrity endorsement contracts on the expected profitability of a firm by using event study methodology. Their approach assumes that the announcement of a celebrity endorsement contract, usually widely publicized in the business press, is used as information by market analysts to evaluate the potential profitability of endorsement expenditures, thereby affecting the firm's expected return. Announcements of 110 celebrity endorsement contracts were analyzed. Results indicate that, on average, the impact of these announcements on stock returns is positive and suggest that celebrity endorsement contracts are generally viewed as a worthwhile investment in advertising.
It was hypothesized that the extent to which individuals' attitudes guide their subsequent perceptions of and behavior toward the attitude object is a function of the accessibility of those attitudes from memory. A field investigation concerning the 1984 presidential election was conducted as a test of these hypotheses. Attitudes toward each of the two candidates, Reagan and Mondale, and the accessibility of those attitudes, as indicated by the latency of response to the attitudinal inquiry, were measured for a large sample of townspeople months before the election. Judgments of the performance of the candidates during the televised debates served as the measure of subsequent perceptions, and voting served as the measure of subsequent behavior. As predicted, both the attitude-perception and the attitude-behavior relations were moderated by attitude accessibility. The implications of these findings for theoretical models of the processes by which attitudes guide behavior, along with their practical implications for survey research, are discussed.
The authors examine the two principal mechanisms that have been proposed as possible explanations for the effects of classical conditioning procedures in attitude-shaping applications. They report two experiments that test conditioning procedures for prompting inferential beliefs, versus transferring affect, as means to influencing brand attitudes. Both studies use an established empirical paradigm for shaping brand attitudes with pictures or visual images as the unconditioned stimuli. The results indicate that brand attitudes can be conditioned using both attractive images that promote direct affect transfer and descriptive visual images that promote inferential belief formation. These data suggest that conditioning procedures can produce multiple benefits when they are applied in selecting and arranging the nonverbal cues to be featured in an advertising campaign.
Two studies are presented that examine the role of attractiveness and expertise in the “match-up hypothesis.” Much “match-up hypothesis” research has focused on physical attractiveness. Study One examined physical attractiveness as a match-up factor and its impact on brand attitude, purchase intent and key brand beliefs. In a 2 × 2 experiment, endorser attractiveness and product type are manipulated. Results indicated a general “attractiveness effect” on brand attitude and purchase intent but not the match-up predicted in previous literature. Study Two considered expertise as the match-up dimension. The second experiment manipulated product and endorser type. A match-up effect was found as the athlete was most effective as an endorser for the energy bar in increasing brand attitude, but not purchase intent. The variable “fit,” or “belongingness,” was shown to play an important role in match-up effects.
The purpose of this study was to develop a scale for measuring celebrity endorsers' perceived expertise, trustworthiness, and attractiveness. Accepted psychometric scale-development procedures were followed which rigorously tested a large pool of items for their reliability and validity. Using two exploratory and two confirmatory samples, the current research developed a 15-item semantic differential scale to measure perceived expertise, trustworthiness, and attractiveness. The scale was validated using respondents' self-reported measures of intention to purchase and perception of quality for the products being tested. The resulting scale demonstrated high reliability and validity.
This study investigates the role of affect in attitude formation. Two experiments, using established conditioning procedures,
assessed the impact of affect on attitude formation. The results of Experiment 1 indicate that affect can influence attitudes
even in the absence of product beliefs. The results of Experiment 2 suggest that affect plays as important or more important
a role than the belief mechanism in attitude formation, depending on the number of repetitions. Implications of the results
for understanding the role of affect in advertising are discussed.
Argues that people use systematic rules for assessing cause, both in science and everyday inference. By explicating the processes that underlie the judgment of causation, the authors review and integrate various theories of causality proposed by psychologists, philosophers, statisticians, and others. Because causal judgment involves inference and uncertainty, the literature on judgment under uncertainty is also considered. It is suggested that the idea of a "causal field" is central for determining causal relevance, differentiating causes from conditions, determining the salience of alternative explanations, and affecting molar versus molecular explanations. Various "cues-to-causality" such as covariation, temporal order, contiguity in time and space, and similarity of cause and effect are discussed, and it is shown how these cues can conflict with probabilistic ideas. A model for combining the cues and the causal field is outlined that explicates methodological issues such as spurious correlation, "causalation," and causal inference in case studies. The discounting of an explanation by specific alternatives is discussed as a special case of the sequential updating of beliefs. Conjunctive explanations in multiple causation are also considered. (120 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Reports 3 studies that used a total of 195 male and female undergraduates. Exp I showed that shifts in attitude were accompanied by shifts in the recall of the more qualitative rather than quantitative aspects of past behaviors. Exps II and III assessed the effects of recall on Ss' commitment to newly formed attitudes. On the premise that behavior recall is biased so as to be consistent with salient attitudes, it was hypothesized that recall would serve to increase Ss' commitment to their attitudes. In Exp II it was assumed that degree of commitment to an attitude would be reflected in the persistence of the attitude, behavioral intention, and actual behavior. As anticipated, Ss' intentions were more consistent with their attitudes when they had been prompted to recall attitudinally relevant behaviors. However, recall did not affect attitude persistence or actual behavior. In Exp III, commitment was measured by resistance to an attack on an attitude. Ss were more likely to maintain an attitude in the face of an attack if they had been induced to recall attitudinally relevant behaviors. The data support the hypothesis that attitudes can affect recall, which in turn affects commitment to the attitudes. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Examined the distinction between (a) classical views of attitudes as stable dispositions based on beliefs and prior experiences accessed from memory and (b) the self-perception analysis of attitudes as relatively transitory responses dependent on current contextual cues. The access of 159 undergraduates to relevant information in memory was assessed by the number of issue-related beliefs and prior experiences they could retrieve. In Exp I, Ss read a counter-attitudinal message. As expected, Ss with little access to beliefs and prior experiences, in comparison to those with greater access, changed their opinions to be more consistent with the message position. In Exp II, Ss agreed to advocate a pro-attitudinal position for a reward or no reward. As expected, Ss with access to little relevant information in memory inferred their attitudes from their decision to proselytize: Rewarded Ss explained their decision less in terms of their own belief in the position than did Ss who had greater access to information in favor of the position, who tended to attribute their decision to a belief in the topic, regardless of the presence or absence of the reward. (34 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
[offer] a working definition of attitude strength and [outline] a series of attributes of attitudes related to strength / review evidence linking these attributes to the defining features of strength, and . . . consider the relations among these attributes
strength-related dimensions of attitudes [aspects of attitudes, aspects of attitude structure, subjective beliefs about attitudes and attitude objects, processes] (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Celebrity endorsement has become a prevalent form of advertising in the United States. Despite extensive litera- ture on the effects of celebrity endorsements on consumers' brand attitudes and purchase intentions, little is known about the economic value of these endorsements. Research on this topic has typically focused on theories ex- plaining how celebrity endorsements influence consumers' attitudes and intentions. The authors assess the impact of celebrity endorsement contracts on the expected profitability of a firm by using event study methodology. Their approach assumes that the announcement of a celebrity endorsement contract, usually widely publicized in the business press, is used as information by market analysts to evaluate the potential profitability of endorsement ex- penditures, thereby affecting the firm's expected return. Announcements of 110 celebrity endorsement contracts were analyzed. Results indicate that, on average, the impact of these announcements on stock returns is positive and suggest that celebrity endorsement contracts are generally viewed as a worthwhile investment in advertising.
This study experimentally examines some situational influences on the formation and consequences of two brand image/personality beliefs, pertaining to fun and sophistication (classiness). It experimentally tests McCracken's (1986) meaning transfer mechanisms and establishes that non-verbalized personality associations of celebrity endorsers on these dimensions do indeed reinforce equivalent consumer beliefs about a brand's fun and classiness benefits, but only if a social consumption context is evoked, and only if the brand image beliefs are appropriate to the consumer schema for the product category involved. Moreover, under these facilitating conditions, such ad-created brand image beliefs have an impact only on brand purchase intentions, and not on brand attitudes. Results have implications for the growing literature on different types of brand imagery associations, as well as for future research on the processing of nonverbal stimuli, the measurement of non-functional brand beliefs, and consumer inference processes.
Studied processes by which an attitude is polarized via social interaction in Exp. I. Ss (n = 104 female undergraduates) were led to expect interaction with the same partner or a different partner in 3 future sessions (high or low commitment to future interaction, respectively). All Ss received a communication from the partner which advocated either a less extreme or more extreme position than the S's. Commitment to future interaction facilitated attitude change toward the partner's position regardless of extremity. In Exp. II, with 102 Ss and 38 controls, commitment to a consonant act, manipulated via public or private identification of Ss consonant essay, also facilitated change toward on extreme consonant communication but increased resistance to a discrepant communication. Results suggest that processes related to commitment may provide 1 explanation for the polarization of attitudes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)
Twenty-one experiments regarding the strength of attitudinal conditioning for various brands of cola were performed. The conditioned stimulus, brand familiarity (various unknown, moderately known, and well-known cola brands), and the embedding context In which conditioning trials occurred (other known or unknown brands) were manipulated. Effects are strongest for unknown and moderately known brands and for colas conditioned In a context of known versus unknown brands. Evidence is also provided showing that attitudes are conditioned only when subjects are aware of the contingency between conditioned and unconditioned stimuli. Copyright 1991 by the University of Chicago.
This article offers a new approach to celebrity endorsement. Previous explanations, especially the source credibility and source attractiveness models are criticized, and an alternative meaning transfer model is proposed. According to this model, celebrities' effectiveness as endorsers stems from the cultural meanings with which they are endowed. The model shows how meanings pass from celebrity to product and from product to consumer. The implications of this model for our understanding of the consumer society are considered. Research avenues suggested by the model are also discussed. Copyright 1989 by the University of Chicago.
We conducted four experiments to test various properties of classical conditioning in an advertising/consumer behavior context. Experiment 1 demonstrates attitude conditioning at each of four levels of conditioned stimulus-unconditioned stimulus pairing. In Experiment 2, latent inhibition due to subject preexposure to the conditioned stimulus is shown to retard conditioning for both 10-trial and 1-trial pairings of conditioned and unconditioned stimuli. Experiment 3 reveals that forward conditioning of attitudes is superior to backward conditioning. Experiment 4 extends the findings from the first three experiments and serves to counter some of their potential methodological problems. Collectively, these experiments provide an initial response to McSweeney and Bierley's (1984) call for more sophisticated classical conditioning research in consumer behavior.
Cultural meaning in a consumer society moves ceaselessly from one location to another. In the usual trajectory, cultural meaning moves first from the culturally constituted world to consumer goods and then from these goods to the individual consumer. Several instruments are responsible for this movement: advertising, the fashion system, and four consumption rituals. This article analyzes the movement of cultural meaning theoretically, showing both where cultural meaning is resident in the contemporary North American consumer system and the means by which this meaning is transferred from one location in this system to another.
Classical conditioning has become a focus of growing interest as a basic framework for interpreting advertising effects. This article argues that a more precisely specified, affective-conditioning hypothesis merits close attention from consumer researchers, in part because little unequivocal evidence is available to uphold its viability. A study that extends Gorn's (1982) recent investigation of affective conditioning is reported. The new data furnish little support for the affective-conditioning hypothesis and implicate an alternative theoretical explanation.
Three factors were manipulated in an advertisement for disposable razors: celebrity-source physical attractiveness, celebrity-source likability, and participant product involvement. Attitudes and purchase intentions changed due to celebrity-source attractiveness, and the results were interpreted as supporting social adaptation theory.
The present paper examines the implications of recent developments in classical conditioning for consumer research. It discusses the finding that the conditioned response need not resemble the unconditioned response, and that the conditioned stimulus must predict but not necessarily precede the unconditioned stimulus for conditioning to occur. The paper also considers the implications of several situations in which classical conditioning may unexpectedly fail to occur, several of the characteristics of classically conditioned behavior, and the role of awareness in conditioning.
Fazio, Sanbonmatsu, Powell, and Kardes (1986) demonstrated that Ss were able to evaluate adjectives more quickly when these adjectives were immediately preceded (primed) by attitude objects of similar valence, compared with when these adjectives were primed by attitude objects of opposite valence. Moreover, this effect obtained primarily for attitude objects toward which Ss were presumed to hold highly accessible attitudes, as indexed by evaluation latency. The present research explored the generality of these findings across attitude objects and across procedural variations. The results of 3 experiments indicated that the automatic activation effect is a pervasive and relatively unconditional phenomenon. It appears that most evaluations stored in memory, for social and nonsocial objects alike, become active automatically on the mere presence or mention of the object in the environment.
The authors investigate a basic mechanism for shaping attitudes that has largely been ignored by empirical researchers in the marketing discipline. Two experiments are reported in which traditional Pavlovian procedures are merged with a view of conditioning that encourages theorizing about attendant cognitive processes. The data indicate that contingency learning or awareness may be a requirement for successful attitudinal conditioning. Contingency awareness entails conscious recognition of the relational pattern between the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli used in a conditioning procedure. In experiment 1, the conditioning procedure affected the evaluative judgments of subjects who were classified (post hoc) as contingency aware. In experiment 2, instructions that promoted contingency learning as part of the procedure again influenced participants’ attitude judgments. Implications are offered for theory development and for constructing advertisements to foster attitudinal conditioning. Specific suggestions for further research on how one might structure television commercials to foster contingency learning also are presented.
The authors examine the two principal mechanisms that have been proposed as possible explanations for the effects of classical conditioning procedures in attitude-shaping applications. They report two experiments that test conditioning procedures for prompting inferential beliefs, versus transferring affect, as means to influencing brand attitudes. Both studies use an established empirical paradigm for shaping brand attitudes with pictures or visual images as the unconditioned stimuli. The results indicate that brand attitudes can be conditioned using both attractive images that promote direct affect transfer and descriptive visual images that promote inferential belief formation. These data suggest that conditioning procedures can produce multiple benefits when they are applied in selecting and arranging the nonverbal cues to be featured in an advertising campaign.
The researchers investigated the long-term effects of classically conditioned attitudes toward a brand, in two experiments, subjects were exposed to classical conditioning procedures in which favorable images were paired with a fictitious brand of mouthwash. Study 1, a within-subjects design, examined attitudes of a single subject pool immediately after exposure, after a one-week delay, and after a three-week, delay. In study 2, the same methods and procedures were used to condition favorable responses to the test brand, but a between-subjects design was used to control for possible measurement effects. Measurements were taken immediately after exposure to conditioning trials for one group of subjects and three weeks after exposure to the trials for a second group. Results from both studies support the hypothesis that attitudes formulated through classical conditioning are enduring.
The authors investigate a basic mechanism for shaping attitudes that has largely been ignored by empirical researchers in the marketing discipline. Two experiments are reported in which traditional Pavlovian procedures are merged with a view of conditioning that encourages theorizing about attendant cognitive processes. The data indicate that contingency learning or awareness may be a requirement for successful attitudinal conditioning. Contingency awareness entails conscious recognition of the relational pattern between the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli used in a conditioning procedure. In experiment 1, the conditioning procedure affected the evaluative judgments of subjects who were classified (post hoc) as contingency aware. In experiment 2, instructions that promoted contingency learning as part of the procedure again influenced participants' attitude judgments. Implications are offered for theory development and for constructing advertisements to foster attitudinal conditioning. Specific suggestions for further research on how one might structure television commercials to foster contingency learning also are presented.
Recent growth in the U.S. economy has been in the service sectors, and increased understanding of the marketing and advertising of services is critical to sustaining this growth. This paper investigates issues related to the advertising of common retail services. Results from an empirical study into the relative effectiveness of four types of spokespersons for a hedonic and a utilitarian retail service indicate that a created character fits well with the hedonic service but not with the utilitarian service. The celebrity spokesperson performed well for both types of services, but effects varied across service type. The hypothesized contingency relationship between spokesperson type and service type was supported.
This study represents a supportive test of the attractiveness aspect of the “match-up” hypothesis of celebrity/product congruence discussed in depth by Kahle and Homer (1985). The hypothesis implies that the physical attractiveness of a celebrity endorser may only enhance both product- and ad-based evaluations if the product's characteristics “match-up” with the image conveyed by the celebrity. Empirically, it was found that for an attractiveness-related product, use of a physically attractive celebrity (Tom Selleck) was observed to significantly enhance measures of spokesperson credibility and attitude toward an ad, relative to use of a physically unattractive celebrity (Telly Savalas). Alternatively, the physically attractive celebrity was found to have no effect on various spokesperson-, product-and ad-based dependent measures relative to the physically unattractive celebrity for an attractiveness-unrelated product. Implications of these findings for advertising strategy are discussed, and directions for future research are outlined.
The use of celebrity endorsers is a popular executional device, but it is not without risk. The authors report three studies examining how negative information about a celebrity can affect the brand the celebrity endorses. Using an associative network model of memory as a theoretical framework, they considered four moderating variables: the size of the association set for the brand, the size of the association set for the celebrity, the timing of the negative celebrity information, and the strength of the associative link between the brand and the celebrity. In the first two studies, they used a fictitious but realistic celebrity endorser and in the third they used an actual celebrity. Negative information about a celebrity resulted in a decline in attitude toward the endorsed brand only for the fictitious celebrity. That general relationship was moderated in varying degrees by association set size, timing of the negative information, and the strength of the link between brand and celebrity.
The researchers investigated the long-term effects of classically conditioned attitudes toward a brand. In two experiments, subjects were exposed to classical conditioning procedures in which favorable images were paired with a fictitious brand of mouthwash. Study 1, a within-subjects design, examined attitudes of a single subject pool immediately after exposure, after a one-week delay, and after a three-week delay. In study 2, the same methods and procedures were used to condition favorable responses to the test brand, but a between-subjects design was used to control for possible measurement effects. Measurements were taken immediately after exposure to conditioning trials for one group of subjects and three weeks after exposure to the trials for a second group. Results from both studies support the hypothesis that attitudes formulated through classical conditioning are enduring.
Remmers' Attitude Toward Any Practice scale was used to measure 133 undergraduates' attitudes toward three practices. Response scales were modified to permit the expression of both agreement and disagreement with each statement. Thus ambivalence scores in addition to traditional attitude scores were provided. Respondents' attitude scores toward each practice were correlated with criterion measures. The obtained coefficients of concurrent validity were considerably higher when they were computed only for respondents low in ambivalence than when computed for the entire sample or for respondents high in ambivalance.
Subjects with initially extreme or moderate positions (based on a median split) recorded a consonant speech under public, private, or no commitment and later received a strong, mild, or no attack on their position. Extremes were more ego-involved in terms of wider latitudes of rejection, narrower latitudes of non-commitment, and greater resistance to attack, relative to moderates. Commitment had no effect for extremes, suggesting a ceiling effect on changes in the latitudes and resistance to attack for initially high levels of ego-involvement. For moderates, commitment resulted in narrower latitudes of noncommitment, wider latitudes of rejection (greater rejection of discrepant positions), and greater resistance to attack, suggesting that commitment may elevate ego-involvement with the issue. Commitment and ego-involvement may increase the salience of one's attitude position in later situations, thereby increasing the probability of attitudeconsistent behavior.
This research investigates the role of involvement and need for cognition in influencing contingency awareness in attitude
formation. Two experiments examine the nature of favorable attitudes formulated through established classical conditioning
procedures. The results of Experiment 1 indicate that awareness influences attitudes toward a conditioned stimulus, particularly
under conditions of high involvement and high need for cognition. Experiment 2 suggests that contingency awareness mediates
the relationship between inferential belief formation and attitudes and that this effect is stronger under high involvement
and high need for cognition. Implications for understanding the role of classical conditioning procedures in advertising are
discussed.
Many advertising campaigns use celebrities to endorse a product but
how successful is this approach? Examines the results of recent
celebrity endorser studies and explores the implications for managers.
Uses Madonna and Christie Brinkley to endorse bath towels, jeans and
video cassette recorders; so as to assess the impact of combining
endorser and product images. Concludes that the celebrity image, when
combined with particular products, tends to be passed on to the product.
Shows that a product which lacks a well-defined image can have one
created for it through use of an endorser whose image reflects the image
which an advertiser wants for that product. Conversely, using a
celebrity with the wrong image or “match” will be
detrimental to the image of the product.
Businesses will spend millions of dollars associating their products with athletes through product endorsements. Finding the “best” athlete to make the endorsement is a crucial decision. Several theoretical perspectives suggest that the sport from which the athlete comes may be an important factor in producing a favorable consumer response. In a study conducted to investigate the effects of the type of sport on endorsement evaluations, results indicated that the image of the sport, independent of the athlete, can contribute significantly to the consumer’s response to an endorsement. The image of the sport can enhance, or detract from, the effects of the personality and appearance of the athlete making the endorsement. These findings suggest the managers should consider the sport, as well as the athlete carefully, when picking a product spokesperson.
An interesting issue little explored in the celebrity endorsement literature is whether or not the activities of a celebrity endorser affect company performance. We examine the impact of Tiger Woods’s tournament performance on the endorsing firm’s value subsequent to the contract signing. We do not find a relationship between Tiger’ss tournament placement and the excess returns of Fortune Brands (parent of Titleist). This is likely due to Titleist being a very small contributor to the total market value of Fortune Brands. We also fail to find a significant relationship for American Express suggesting the market does not view a golfer endorsing financial services as credible. We do, however, find a positive and significant impact of Tiger’s performance on Nike’s excess returns suggesting that the market values the additional publicity that Nike receives when Tiger is in contention to win.
The use of celebrity endorsers in advertising is wide-spread – as much as 20 percent of all advertising use some type of celebrity endorser. Marketers invest significant dollars in securing the promotional support of well-known individuals. Associative learning principles are presented as a useful framework for understanding how celebrity endorsers can be used more effectively. Principles such as repetition, overshadowing, blocking, belongingness, CS pre-exposure, association set size, and extinction are introduced and linked to specific managerial suggestions for improving the use of celebrity endorsers.
Reports on a study designed to analyse the effectiveness of real
and created spokespersons in advertisements. Compares male and female
spokespersons' effectiveness by audience gender. Concludes that
celebrities can be used to gain attention and maintain sales, while
created spokespersons' effectiveness is in establishing a lifelong link
with the product.
Examines the use of celebrity endorsement in advertising. Reviews
the results of a recent study looking at the effect of a celebrity's
attractiveness, trustworthiness and expertise on product purchase
intentions, and of one examining the relevance of physical
attractiveness and other symbolic attributes of the endorser in relation
to product meaning. Considers implications for marketing managers and
concludes that further research is necessary.
Examined the use of celebrity spokespeople in advertising, focusing on 3 dimensions of source credibility: attractiveness, trustworthiness, and expertise. Two pilot studies were conducted with 78 college students to compile a list of 4 celebrities and products that would be appropriate for them to endorse. From this information, 4 questionnaires were developed. 542 respondents (aged 18–73 yrs) completed 1 questionnaire. In each case, Ss evaluated celebrities to be significantly different from each other with respect to the 3 dimensions studied. Ss' gender and age had no significant effect on their intention to purchase or on how they evaluated celebrities' credibility. Only the perceived expertise of celebrities significantly explained Ss' intentions to purchase, regardless of whether the product was for personal use or for gift-giving. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Examined the impact of celebrity endorsers on alcohol advertising and young audiences. Results obtained with 196 Ss, aged 13–77 yrs, show that the use of famous persons to endorse alcohol products was highly effective with teenagers, while the impact on older Ss was limited. For all age groups, the celebrity figure was perceived as more competent and trustworthy. The image of the product tends to be more favorable when a famous endorser is shown; readers are especially likely to rate the alcohol brand as enjoyable and pleasant. (9 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
summarize research showing that attitudes relatively high in evaluative-cognitive consistency behave the way attitude theorists and researchers expect strong attitudes to behave / discuss evidence suggesting that such attitudes are strong because they are accompanied by a well-organized set of supporting cognitions that mutes the change impact of new counterattitudinal information and that also enables their possessors to actively refute such information / summarize data indicating that evaluative-cognitive consistency is not reducible to other common indicators of attitude strength
[addresses] evaluative-affective consistency / it refers to the degree of consistency that exists between people's overall evaluations of attitude objects and the evaluative meaning of the emotions, feelings, moods, and sympathetic nervous system activity they experience in relation to these objects / suggest that simultaneous consideration of evaluative-cognitive and evaluative-affective consistency provides a means of diagnosing the cognitive vs affective basis of people's attitudes, and that knowledge of an attitude's structural basis is crucial to understanding the concept of attitude strength / charts the theoretical and empirical road that led to these ideas (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This aricle examines the matchup hypothesis or the notion that the congruence in advertisements between spokesperson characteristics and product attributes is related to observed variations in source credibility, product evaluations, perceived product gender, and other measures of advertising and communication effectiveness. Schema theory is used to interpret the results of previous inquiries into the matchup hypothesis, and the results of two experiments that provide additional insight into how schema might be changed by a spokesperson/product match are reported. Areas of future research into the matchup hypothesis on schema theory implications are discussed. © 1994 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
This research examines brand alliances, a specific marketing strategy designed to transfer the positive brand equity of two or more partner brands to the newly created joint brand. The study explores how customer-based brand equity (that is, brand equity as seen from the customer's perspective) of partner brands affects consumer evaluations of an alliance brand; how the brand equity of one partner brand affects the other; how customer-based brand equity of the partner brands affects consumers' evaluations of the search, experience, and credence attribute performance of the alliance brand; and how product trial influences such evaluations. Results suggest that merely the act of pairing with another brand elevates consumers' evaluations of the partner brands' customer-based brand equity, and high-equity partners enhance pretrial evaluation of experience and credence attributes that are relevant to the high-equity partner. As hypothesized, product trial moderates the equity value of the alliance partner for experience attributes, and brand equity of the partner brands influences consumer perceptions of the alliance brand's equity. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
This study tested the matchup hypothesis regarding choice of celebrity spokesperson by examining the fit or congruence between image type and the product advertised from an Identification and Internalization viewpoint (Kelman, 1961). Spokesperson type (celebrity versus noncelebrity) was varied, aong with congruence between spokesperson image and product (higher versus lower congruence) in a 2x2 factorial design. Results showed that increased congruence for the spokesperson/product combination resulted in the perception of higher believability and attractiveness of the spokesperson and a more favorable product attitude. The implications of these and other findings for advertising and marketing strategy are discussed. © 1994 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
The present study aimed at obtaining some further support for the hypothesis of a distinction between two basically different kinds of learning in a Pavlovian conditioning preparation: signal-learning and affective-evaluative learning ( and ; and ). In this respect, we conducted an experiment to verify the , and hypothesis that, unlike signal-learning, evaluative conditioning should be resistant to extinction. Mere contingent presentation of neutral with (dis)liked stimuli was sufficient to change the affective—evaluative tone of the originally neutral stimuli in a (negative) positive direction (p<0.0001). A subsequent extinction procedure did not have any influence on the acquired evaluative value of the originally neutral stimuli (p<0.0001). A follow-up study demonstrated that the evaluative discriminations were still present two months after the acquisition and extinction manipulations (p<0.0001). These findings provide full support for the resistance to extinction hypothesis. At a theoretical level, this is considered to be further evidence for the hypothesis that evaluative conditioning is not mediated by the acquisition of propositional—declarative knowledge about stimulus contingencies. Finally, we suggest an intriguing analogy between the evaluative conditioning phenomenon and the ‘laws of sympathetic magic’ (Rozin et al., 1986).
This paper reports a procedure, like classical conditioning, that produces enhancement of liking for flavors by humans. The procedure is “pairing” of a relatively neutral flavor with sugar (a hedonically positive taste). Specifically, subjects drank 24 small samples of flavor A sweetened and 24 small samples of flavor B unsweetened. They were then tested for their liking for flavors A and B, both sweetened and unsweetened. In three different studies, varying in a number of aspects of stimulus presentations and context, a relative enhancement in liking for flavor A appeared both on the day of exposure and 1 week later. An absolute enhancement in liking of flavor B (a “mere exposure” effect) also occurred in two of the three experiments.
Three experiments are used to investigate the influence of conditioning procedures on attention to a conditioned stimulus. In experiment 1, scenes presented in a sequence that is consistent with prescribed conditioning procedures are shown to encourage attention to the advertised brands in subsequent product displays. Experiment 2 suggests that differential attention to conditioned brands can be attributed to the signaling properties the brand acquires as a consequence of conditioning. Evidence from a third experiment raises the possibility that semantic conditioning may be responsible for the effects observed in experiments 1 and 2. The findings suggest that current prescriptions on the use of conditioning procedures may need to be updated. Copyright 1993 by the University of Chicago.