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Who asks and who receives in salary negotiation
Journal of Organizational Behavior
Abstract
The influence of individual differences and negotiation strategies on starting salary outcomes was investigated. A sample of 149 newly hired employees in various industry settings participated in this study. Results indicated that those who chose to negotiate increased their starting salaries by an average of $5000. Individuals who negotiated by using competing and collaborating strategies, characterized by an open discussion of one's positions, issues, and perspectives, further increased their salaries as compared to those who used compromising and accommodating strategies. Individual differences, including risk-aversion and integrative attitudes, played a significant role in predicting whether or not individuals negotiated, and if so, what strategies they used. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
... Whereas past studies on negotiation propensity were mostly conducted with negotiation simulations in the laboratory (cf. Gerhart & Rynes, 1991;Marks & Harold, 2011), our field studies have high ecological validity because we examined the negotiation propensity and outcomes of actual employees. Moreover, our 19-year MBA data set is among the first to reveal how negotiation propensity is influenced by industry negotiation norm (consulting industry vs. non-consulting industries), which remains understudied in the literature. ...
... "You don't get what you deserve, you get what you negotiate" is a well-known adage in negotiations, as evidenced by its many parallels ("You don't get what you don't ask for"; "You miss 100% of the shots you don't take"; "If you don't ask, the answer is always no"). Consistent with this adage, much research has documented the economic benefits of negotiation (Marks & Harold, 2011;O'Shea & Bush, 2002). For example, a study of MBA graduates found that 56% of those who negotiated obtained higher salaries as a result (Gerhart & Rynes, 1991). ...
... In light of these reasons about relational concerns, we propose that EAs and SEAs may be less likely than SAs and Whites to negotiate starting salaries (an act of assertiveness). Given the economic benefits of negotiation (Gerhart & Rynes, 1991;Marks & Harold, 2011), EAs and SEAs may thus have lower starting salaries (net of other factors such as education level). ...
In the US, Asians are commonly viewed as the “model minority” because of their economic prosperity. We challenge this rosy view by revealing that certain Asian groups may be susceptible to lower starting salaries. In Study 1, we analyzed 19 class years of MBAs who accepted full-time job offers in the US. At first glance, Asians appeared to have starting salaries similarly high as Whites’. However, a striking gap emerged once we distinguished between East Asians (e.g., ethnic Chinese), Southeast Asians (e.g., ethnic Vietnamese), and South Asians (e.g., ethnic Indians): Whereas South Asians started with the highest salaries of all ethnicities, East/Southeast Asians were near the bottom. This salary gap was mediated by East/Southeast Asians’ propensity to not negotiate due to higher relational concerns. Importantly, negotiation predicted higher salary for each of the three groups (East/Southeast Asians, South Asians, and Whites). In further support of negotiation propensity as a mechanism, we identified industry as a boundary condition: The salary gap was not observed for consulting jobs, where MBA starting salaries are typically standard and non-negotiable. The non-consulting salary gap between East/Southeast and South Asians was estimated to be $4,002/year, a sizable difference that can compound over career life. Study 2 found similar results in a non-MBA sample while further accounting for individuals’ bargaining power (e.g., the number of alternative offers, the highest alternative offer). In revealing the differences between East/Southeast and South Asians, this research moves beyond the predominant West-vs-East paradigm, and reveals a more complex reality underneath Asian prosperity.
... Future salary increases and benefit rates are commonly awarded based on starting rate of pay (Gerhart and Rynes 1991;Kugler et al. 2018;Rubin and Brown 1975;Thompson et al. 2010), and can have a drastic financial impact across a career. Assuming a five-percent wage increase over a 40-year career, an employee with a starting salary of $55,000 can earn nearly $635,000 more across their career compared to a counterpart with a starting salary of $50,000 (Marks and Harold 2009). Just a $5,000 difference in starting salary can drastically affect the financial trajectory of a young employee. ...
... Overall, women are less likely to initiate and participate in negotiations compared to men (Babcock et al. 2006;Gerhart and Rynes 1991;Hernandez-Arenaz and Iriberri 2019;Kugler et al. 2018;O'Shea and Bush 2002), and individual differences in the type of negotiation strategies used also account for who is likely to initiate and receive benefit from the negotiation attempt (Marks and Harold 2009). Social role theory explains that beliefs about assumed gender roles guide the perceptions of men's and women's social roles within society (Eagly and Wood 2012), which contributes to the assignment of gender-specific attitudes in negotiation situations. ...
... Though women have the ability to attain agentic attributes in a negotiation experience, they often face what is known as the "backlash effect": social retaliation for violating gender roles and norms (Amanatullah and Morris 2010;Amanatullah and Tinsley 2013;Kugler et al. 2018;Rudman 1998;Rudman and Fairchild 2004;Rudman and Glick 1999;Williams and Tiedens 2016). As a result, women tend to negotiate in ways that favor communal benefits rather than personal gain (Nelson et al. 2015;Saari et al. 2017), which often is less successful than agentic strategies (Hernandez-Arenaz and Iriberri 2019; Marks and Harold 2009;Nelson et al. 2015). ...
Early experiences in the home and at school provide opportunities for young workers to acquire foundational financial literacy knowledge and skills. Among adults, documented gender differences exist in terms of financial knowledge, remuneration, and negotiation in the workplace. The current study surveyed adolescent early workers (N = 268; 51% female) aged 18–19 years to assess gender differences in perceptions of and experiences with early work, remuneration, and negotiation. Key findings supported some patterns of gender disparities. Females reported learning less about finances in school compared to males and reported being paid less for casual jobs than their male counterparts. While few early workers had any previous negotiation experience, success rate of a negotiator was predicted by characteristics related to existing gender norms. The study provides evidence of some gender differences in financial knowledge and negotiation behavior among early workers and supports the need for additional educational support and opportunities in these domains.
... Future salary increases and benefit rates are commonly awarded based on starting rate of pay (Gerhart and Rynes 1991;Kugler et al. 2018;Rubin and Brown 1975;Thompson et al. 2010), and can have a drastic financial impact across a career. Assuming a five-percent wage increase over a 40-year career, an employee with a starting salary of $55,000 can earn nearly $635,000 more across their career compared to a counterpart with a starting salary of $50,000 (Marks and Harold 2009). Just a $5,000 difference in starting salary can drastically affect the financial trajectory of a young employee. ...
... Overall, women are less likely to initiate and participate in negotiations compared to men (Babcock et al. 2006;Gerhart and Rynes 1991;Hernandez-Arenaz and Iriberri 2019;Kugler et al. 2018;O'Shea and Bush 2002), and individual differences in the type of negotiation strategies used also account for who is likely to initiate and receive benefit from the negotiation attempt (Marks and Harold 2009). Social role theory explains that beliefs about assumed gender roles guide the perceptions of men's and women's social roles within society (Eagly and Wood 2012), which contributes to the assignment of gender-specific attitudes in negotiation situations. ...
... Though women have the ability to attain agentic attributes in a negotiation experience, they often face what is known as the "backlash effect": social retaliation for violating gender roles and norms (Amanatullah and Morris 2010;Amanatullah and Tinsley 2013;Kugler et al. 2018;Rudman 1998;Rudman and Fairchild 2004;Rudman and Glick 1999;Williams and Tiedens 2016). As a result, women tend to negotiate in ways that favor communal benefits rather than personal gain (Nelson et al. 2015;Saari et al. 2017), which often is less successful than agentic strategies (Hernandez-Arenaz and Iriberri 2019; Marks and Harold 2009;Nelson et al. 2015). ...
Emerging adulthood is a time of both expected and unexpected life changes (e.g., Arnett, 2000). One anticipated transition that early adults face is entering the formal workforce for the first time, which may present unexpected challenges as they put into practice knowledge and skills regarding pay, benefits, and negotiation they may have observed or learned about at home or at school. The development of these skills emphasizes independence, autonomy, and financial freedom in ways that have not been previously explored (Harris, 2004; Raby et al., 2018) While these experiences allow emerging adults to develop independence, both socially and financially (Raby et al., 2018), many adolescents and early adults are not equipped with the proper financial literacy they need to succeed in the workforce (BMO Wealth Management, 2017). Adult literature indicates that negotiating for pay results in increased work benefits, one of which is higher overall salary (e.g., Kugler et al., 2018). Documented gender differences exist between males and females in terms of preparedness for the workforce both in financial knowledge (e.g., Danes & Haberman, 2007; Saari et al., 2017), and the ways in which they negotiate (or fail to negotiate) for higher pay (e.g., Babcock et al., 2006; Kugler et al. 2018). This study extended current literature by investigating preparedness for the workforce among emerging adults. Knowledge about wages, experiences in both paid formal and casual jobs, and experience with negotiating in the workplace were assessed and examined as a function of gender. In total, 251 participants (131 females) aged 18-19 years (M= 18.44) completed a survey to assess knowledge about wage, workforce readiness, and experiences with negotiation. Key findings were, (a) adolescents indicated that they had learned more about finances and career preparation through their family compared to through formal financial education in school, (b) only 20 participants indicated that they have negotiated for a higher wage in the past, and this finding did not differ as a function of gender, (c) females indicated that they were paid significantly less money per hour for casual jobs compared to males, however, males and females were paid relatively equivalent wages per hour for formal work, and (d) awareness of current minimum wage standards were present in only half the participants, with an even smaller portion correctly identifying the current rate of student wage. The results indicate that overall, emerging adults could benefit from further education and experience in preparing for transitioning into the workforce. Although gender differences did not completely replicate those found in adult populations, some similar patterns emerged and are discussed with respect to future gender disparity in knowledge and work preparation. Overall, discussion centres on current trends among emerging adults with respect to future directions needed to maximize successful transition to the formal work environment.
... The authors found a significant difference in salary negotiation outcomes based on gender and found that the men in their study almost always asked for a higher salary. Marks and Harold (2009) hypothesize that for a salary increase to occur one must ask and since the women in this study tended to ask less in comparison to the men surveyed, salary increase outcomes were predominantly successful among the men in the study. ...
... Whether or not an individual would or would not negotiate was based on aversion or inclination towards risk. Marks and Harold (2009) deconstructed individual differences into two categories: ...
... If individuals possess integrative attitudes, they tend to use one of the following four strategies: (1) collaboration -reaching an agreement amenable to both parties, (2) competition -the use of persuasion, threat, or misrepresentation, (3) accommodationyielding, or (4) compromise -a mix of concern for one's self and the other party. Marks and Harold (2009) touch on the importance of emotion in negotiation and how perceived fairness during discussions formed attitudes of commitment and satisfaction which ultimately impact performance in the workplace. I would be interested to know the authors' opinions as to whether or not emotion is gendered. ...
This thesis explores negotiation processes for remuneration in the workplace. Drawing on a survey of 97 respondents and interviews with employees at a large private university on the East Coast of the United States, it analyzes the impact of gender on negotiation outcomes. It demonstrates that gender-based disparities persist, even when women enter into negotiation processes. The survey and interviews investigate six consequential aspects of workplace negotiation: (1) fear and assumptions in early career negotiations, (2) penalization and deviance, (3) the role of an advocate in the negotiation process, (4) generational differences in approaches to negotiation and in sharing information about remuneration, (5) drivers of negotiation, and (6) tactics and approaches to advance successful negotiation outcomes. In compiling shared experiences and identifying patterns in negotiation outcomes, constructive strategies for successful negotiation in the workplace are developed.
... However, the evidence is not unanimous. Marks andHarold (2011) andO'Shea &Bush (2002) found no significant difference in the likelihood or success of negotiation. This suggests that whilst bargaining powers may contribute to gender disparities in earnings growth when switching jobs, they are not the sole reason. ...
... However, the evidence is not unanimous. Marks andHarold (2011) andO'Shea &Bush (2002) found no significant difference in the likelihood or success of negotiation. This suggests that whilst bargaining powers may contribute to gender disparities in earnings growth when switching jobs, they are not the sole reason. ...
This paper investigates the relationship between job mobility and earnings growth in the UK labour market, with a focus on gender differences in the returns to switching jobs. Using data from the Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings (ASHE) between 2011 and 2023, the analysis compares wage progression for job switchers and stayers, controlling for individual and job characteristics. The findings show that job mobility is associated with higher earnings growth, but women experience smaller gains than men, with occupational mobility and age further widening this gap. However, the study finds no statistically significant evidence that changes in occupation, sector, or working time pattern influence this gender gap. The results highlight the importance of addressing gender disparities in the returns to job mobility and provide valuable evidence for developing policy interventions aimed at promoting more equitable labour market outcomes.
... A third account for negotiation avoidance suggests it relates to cognitive and emotional expectations. Specifically, individuals who are more focused on avoiding losses ("prevention focus") versus securing gains ("promotion focus") are more likely to avoid negotiating (Marks & Harold, 2011;Shalvi et al., 2013;Volkema & Fleck, 2012). Similarly, individuals are more likely to avoid or withdraw from negotiations when they anticipate lower levels of happiness (Kong et al., 2011;Reif & Brodbeck, 2021) and when they generally feel anxious (Brooks & Schweitzer, 2011). ...
... In this way, we contribute to knowledge about negotiation initiation and avoidance. In contrast to prior research that has focused on the role of individual differences in negotiation avoidance (Bear, 2011;Kugler et al., 2018;Marks & Harold, 2011;Shalvi et al., 2013;Wang et al., 2012) and has conceptualized avoidance as indifference to outcomes (De Dreu, 2010;Pruitt & Rubin, 1986), we suggest that individuals may avoid negotiating because they care a great deal about the negotiation outcome, and that this depends on negotiator role and context. ...
... One pathway relates to salary negotiations. It is well-established that, all else being equal, negotiations play an important role in salary level (e.g., Marks & Harold, 2011). In turn, negotiation power, partly depends on personality and social and emotional skills (Galinsky et al., 2008;Marks & Harold, 2011). ...
... It is well-established that, all else being equal, negotiations play an important role in salary level (e.g., Marks & Harold, 2011). In turn, negotiation power, partly depends on personality and social and emotional skills (Galinsky et al., 2008;Marks & Harold, 2011). Related to this, there is evidence pointing to better negotiation skills in high-GFP individuals. ...
Previous studies have suggested that a general factor exists at the top of the hierarchal structure of personality. One interpretation of this General Factor of Personality (GFP) is that it reflects social effectiveness. Accordingly, in a large employee sample (N = 1267), we tested whether the GFP relates to several outcomes assumed to be linked with social effectiveness. Specifically, we examine whether the GFP is positively related to salary and to obtaining a leadership position. Additionally, we test whether high-GFP employees more often work in social occupations. Controlling for demographics and background variables, it was found that the GFP is indeed positively related to monthly (gross) salary. Moreover, employees occupying leadership positions in organizations scored higher on the GFP. GFP scores of employees in more social occupations (e.g., education, health care) were higher than of employees in other types of jobs (e.g., construction). GFP scores were also positively associated with the extent to which one has to relate to others in the job. Overall, the pattern of findings is in line with the notion of the GFP as relating to social effectiveness or adaptiveness, which are assumed to play a significant role in occupational outcomes.
... Women physicians may experience an increasing need for further developing personal skills in integrating professional and family obligations (including care of young children or aging parents) [17,[27][28][29][30]; skills as a mentor and sponsor of younger physicians and physician peers, or finding mentors, sponsors, and coaches to help their career advancement [13,14]; skills in negotiation and advocacy as a leader locally or on a broader scale [30]; and/or learning to better recognize their own self-care needs when facing burnout or other mental or physical health issues [31]. ...
... Women physicians may experience an increasing need for further developing personal skills in integrating professional and family obligations (including care of young children or aging parents) [17,[27][28][29][30]; skills as a mentor and sponsor of younger physicians and physician peers, or finding mentors, sponsors, and coaches to help their career advancement [13,14]; skills in negotiation and advocacy as a leader locally or on a broader scale [30]; and/or learning to better recognize their own self-care needs when facing burnout or other mental or physical health issues [31]. ...
Background
Women physicians face unique obstacles while progressing through their careers, navigating career advancement and seeking balance between professional and personal responsibilities. Systemic changes, along with individual and institutional changes, are needed to overcome obstacles perpetuating physician gender inequities. Developing a deeper understanding of women physicians’ experiences during important transition points could reveal both barriers and opportunities for recruitment, retention, and promotion, and inform best practices developed based on these experiences.
Objective
The aim is to learn from the experiences and perspectives of women physicians as they transition from early to mid-career, then develop best practices that can serve to support women physicians as they advance through their careers.
Methods
Semistructured interviews were conducted with women physicians in the United States in 2020 and 2021. Eligibility criteria included self-identification as a woman who is in the process of transitioning or who recently transitioned from early to mid-career stage. Purposeful sampling facilitated identification of participants who represented diversity in career pathway, practice setting, specialty, and race/ethnicity. Each participant was offered compensation for their participation. Interviews were audio-recorded and professionally transcribed. Interview questions were open-ended, exploring participants' perceptions of this transition. Qualitative thematic analysis will be performed. We will use an open coding and grounded theory approach on interview transcripts.
Results
The Ethics Review Committee of the Faculty of Health, Medicine, and Life Sciences at Maastricht University approved the study; Stanford University expedited review approved the study; and the University of California, San Diego certified the study as exempt from review. Twelve in-depth interviews of 50-100 minutes in duration were completed. Preliminary analyses indicate one key theme is a tension resulting from finite time divided between demands from a physician career and demands from family needs. In turn, this results in constant boundary control between these life domains that are inextricable and seemingly competing against each other within a finite space; family needs impinge on planned career goals, if the boundary between them is not carefully managed. To remedy this, women sought resources to help them redistribute home responsibilities, freeing themselves to have more time, especially for children. Women similarly sought resources to help with career advancement, although not with regard to time directly, but to first address foundational knowledge gaps about career milestones and how to achieve them.
Conclusions
Preliminary results provide initial insights about how women identify or activate a career shift and how they marshaled resources and support to navigate barriers they faced. Further analyses are continuing as of March 2022 and are expected to be completed by June 2022. The dissemination plan includes peer-reviewed open-access journal publication of the results and presentation at the annual meeting of the American Medical Association’s Women Physicians Section.
... Moreover, there is only a little understanding of the underlying mechanisms explaining how employers perceive former entrepreneurs in the recruitment and selection context . Therefore, a more dedicated inquiry of employers' perceptions is warranted as they may determine the number and quality of former entrepreneurs' job options (e.g., Feldman, 1996;Leana & Feldman, 1995;Marks & Harold, 2011). Accordingly, employers' perceptions initial career outcomes and alter former entrepreneurs' career trajectories toward their "upward, downward, or lateral mobility" (Burton et al., 2016, p. 241). ...
... Employability perceptions are important career indicators that determine the number and quality of job options (e.g., Feldman, 1996;Gerhart & Rynes, 1991;Leana & Feldman, 1995;Marks & Harold, 2011) and by that can alter entrepreneurs' career trajectories toward their "upward, downward, or lateral mobility" (Burton et al., 2016, p. 241). By conceptually informing employability perceptions, categorization theories also provide a new perspective toward the entrepreneurial careers literature that has predominantly dealt with post-hire administrative data estimating the economic returns from entrepreneurship in paid employment (e.g., . ...
Entrepreneurship is not a final career destination. Accordingly, there is an emerging debate in the entrepreneurial careers literature about the employability of former entrepreneurs in subsequent paid employment. By investigating income distributions, current research proposes both earning premiums and wage penalties for former entrepreneurs. Despite the meaningful contributions of this research, the literature occurs predominantly on the macro-economic level with large-scale administrative data, concentrates on post-hire performance measures for such individuals with a “successful” transition into paid employment, and is far away from a consistent picture on the employability of former entrepreneurs. Research on the pre-hire employability of former entrepreneurs is scattered, and it is not intuitively clear if former entrepreneurs are preferred job candidates in the eyes of future employers. Therefore, this dissertation addresses this void by zooming into employers’ subjective perceptions of former entrepreneurs’ employability. By that, this dissertation establishes a pre-hire and cognitive-based perspective grounded in categorization and attribution theories to contribute to the employability debate about former entrepreneurs. To achieve this, Chapter 1 describes the scientific relevance, the goals, and the intended contributions of this dissertation. Chapter 2 develops and tests a novel theory about the employability of former entrepreneurs by accounting for the heterogeneity in employers’ perceptions and the underlying mechanisms in two studies. Overall, employability perceptions are mediated by the positive and negative stereotypes and the inherent uncertainty employers possess about former entrepreneurs resulting in an overall negative perception of former entrepreneurs. Moreover, there is evidence that the entrepreneurship category has “neutral” employment implications if the job opening comes with personnel responsibility, if the entrepreneur has failure in the vita, or if employers are more similar to the entrepreneur. Chapter 3 addresses the stereotypes about former entrepreneurs more directly. Results from a priming experiment indicate that six negative stereotype factors (e.g., difficulties in following instructions) explain the negative employability perceptions and four stereotype factors that compensate for the general negative effect (e.g., good people management). Chapter 4 targets employers’ perceptions of former entrepreneurs’ failure attributions. The results from a metric conjoint experiment indicate that person-centered failure attributions (e.g., lack of skill or lack of effort) outweigh the distancing attributions in the employment interview, especially when the former entrepreneur is female. Chapter 5 has a methodological focus and illustrates the concerns with the current use of test-retest reliabilities in metric conjoint experiments (a recurring issue of the previous chapters). Two simulation studies indicate that the current reliability threshold of r = 0.70 is superficial as regression outcomes are relatively stable across several test-retest reliabilities. The last chapter summarizes the previous chapters and discusses the overall scientific contributions. Overall, this dissertation helps to understand the employment implications for former entrepreneurs by zooming into employers’ subjective evaluations of former entrepreneurs’ employability.
... A recent survey by Glassdoor, a popular job recruiting site, found almost 60 percent of American employees simply accepted the first salary they were offered (Glassdoor Team 2016). This, despite research demonstrating that those who negotiate their salaries earn considerably more (Marks and Harold 2011;Säve-Söderbergh 2019). It has even been argued that reluctance to negotiate contributes to economic inequality as both women and minorities show greater reluctance to negotiate (Babcock and Laschever 2009;Hernandez and Avery 2016), and even when they negotiate, their demands are met with resistance and backlash (Amanatullah and Tinsley 2013). ...
... However, this increase in experimental control comes at a great cost. One of the hallmarks of strong negotiators is the ability to adapt to one's partner-to understand their opponent's interests, communicate their own, and guide the negotiation toward mutually beneficial trade-offs (Thompson 1991;Marks and Harold 2011). Study of such interactive processes is simply not possible if one side is controlled by a deterministic script. ...
Innovations in artificial intelligence are enabling a new class of applications that can negotiate with people through chat or spoken language. Developed in close collaboration with behavioral science research, these algorithms can detect, mimic, and leverage human psychology, enabling them to undertake such functions as the detection of common mistakes made by novice negotiators. These algorithms can simulate the cognitive processes that shape human negotiations and make use of these models to influence negotiated outcomes. This article reviews some of the scientific advances enabling this technology and discusses how it is being used to advance negotiation research, teaching, and practice.
... Participants' view of negotiation as a zero-sum Bfixed pie^was assessed using two items (α = 0.698) drawn from Marks and Harold (2011). Participants indicated their (dis)agreement with these statements (e.g. ...
... We provide a second test of our prediction about entitlement and aspirations (hypothesis 1), examining whether these aspirations extend to the employment context. In salary negotiations, the willingness to ask for more leads to large career-long differences in earnings, as the benefits to negotiating repeat, accumulate and compound (Gerhart & Rynes, 1991;O'Shea & Bush, 2002;Marks & Harold, 2011). We also seek to replicate our finding from our two previous studies (hypothesis 5) that entitlement predicts the endorsement of unethical tactics in negotiation. ...
In this paper, we extend the literature on psychological entitlement to the domain of negotiation. Psychological entitlement describes a tendency to demand excessive and unearned rewards. For negotiators, entitlement is associated with individually beneficial attitudes like aspirations, first offer intentions, and self-efficacy, but also with contentious and unethical approaches to bargaining. As such, we argue that entitlement in negotiation may function as a social trap: The functional negotiation attitudes it engenders are likely to result in personally favourable outcomes for the entitled negotiator, reinforcing and exacerbating those attitudes. But these advantages are simultaneously accompanied by a suite of dysfunctional attitudes (unethicality, a "zero-sum" mindset, and a contentious style) that lead the entitled to seek advantage at others' cost. In three cross-sectional studies of recalled, hypothetical, and planned future negotiations (n=615), we show both the functional and dysfunctional consequences of entitlement in negotiation. Importantly, we establish the ability of entitlement to predict these consequences above and beyond traits robustly situated in the personality literature (e.g., narcissism, low agreeableness, neuroticism). Our findings indicate entitlement may have pernicious effects for negotiation ethics. We close by addressing the methodological limitations of our study, and by proposing a research agenda for management, personality, and negotiation researchers interested in mitigating the effects of entitlement in negotiating.
... For example, risk aversion influences how one expresses one's preferences during elicitation for an automated dispute resolution system. Prior work suggests differences in risk aversion may partially explain disparities in salary compensation by influencing one's willingness to negotiate [28,29]. ...
Prior work suggests automated dispute resolution tools using “provably fair” algorithms can address disparities between demographic groups. These methods use multi-criteria elicited preferences from all disputants and satisfy constraints to generate “fair” solutions. However, we analyze the potential for inequity to permeate proposals through the preference elicitation stage. This possibility arises if differences in dispositional attitudes differ between demographics, and those dispositions affect elicited preferences. Specifically, risk aversion plays a prominent role in predicting preferences. Risk aversion predicts a weaker relative preference for salary and a softer within-issue utility for each issue; this leads to worse compensation packages for risk-averse groups. These results raise important questions in AI-value alignment about whether an AI mediator should take explicit preferences at face value.
... Job offer negotiation is vital for students to develop so they can make proper, informed decisions on employment. Being able to negotiate a salary and benefits can prevent students from having lower perceptions of satisfaction and fairness [17]. ...
... Participants noted at times feeling intimidated, unprepared, and lacking confidence regarding salary negotiation. With such detrimental data indicating substantial loss of lifelong earnings (Babcock & Laschever, 2003;Marks & Harold, 2011), it is evident that mentoring and information related to salary should be provided. Having knowledge and information, as well as feeling confident in salary negotiations, can be immensely beneficial (Allen et al., 2004). ...
Female professors continue to make less than their male counterparts. In traditionally male dominated fields, such as sport management, the pay gap can be even greater. To gain further insight into the salary negotiation process, the specific role of mentoring was examined utilizing qualitative research, and specifically semi-structured interviews conducted with female sport management professors. Open-ended coding was employed to analyze the data. Female participants reported they had limited mentoring for the salary negotiation process and felt there were barriers that influenced if mentoring took place. Participants did indicate informal mentoring occurred, and some reported the development of meaningful relationships specifically with major advisors who intentionally provided advice and mentoring related to the salary negotiation process. Being cognizant of gender roles and utilizing mentoring strategies is critical to addressing salary and the continued gap in salary amongst female and male professors in sport management.
... In addition to research on whether or not a firm will bargain, there is a literature on candidate and firm negotiation processes (e.g., Gerhart and Rynes, 1991;Marks and Harold, 2011;O'Shea and Bush, 2002). This work indicates that in a negotiation, there is uncertainty on both sides regarding the other party's "reservation point (the point at which the negotiator is indifferent between reaching a settlement and walking away from the negotiation) and target point (the negotiator's ideal or most preferred outcome)" (Galinsky and Mussweiler, 2001: 656). ...
... We note that the phenomenon could have implications for job candidates' material progress even if objective effect sizes are small, as small salary increases can have a large compounding effect over the long term. For example, prior research finds that those who negotiate an extra $5,000 in starting salary can, assuming conservative raises and interest rates, accumulate as much as $560,000 more than their peers over the course of a career Laschever 2003, Marks andHarold 2011). More generally, even small biases in hiring evaluations can lead to significant rates of hiring discrimination (Hardy et al. 2022). ...
Past research suggests that when organizations communicate the benefits of their work for human welfare—that is, use a social impact framing for work—job candidates are willing to accept lower wages because they expect the work to be personally meaningful. We argue that this explanation overlooks a less socially desirable mechanism by which social impact framing leads to lower compensation demands: the perception among job candidates that requesting higher pay will breach organizational expectations to value work for its intrinsic (rather than extrinsic) rewards, or constitute a motivational norm violation. We find evidence for our theory across five studies: a qualitative study (Study 1), a hiring experiment with undergraduate students (Study 2), an online labor market field experiment (Study 3), a vignette-based simulation (Study 4), and a stimulus sampling study using multiple occupations (Study 5). Exploratory analyses find that the negative effects are unique to monetary (versus nonmonetary) job rewards. Together, results uncover a novel mechanism by which emphasizing work for the greater good leads job candidates to accept lower wages—one that reflects candidates self-censoring on pay from concerns about violating organizational norms rather than solely from a willingness to trade higher pay for potentially meaningful work. Our research contributes to understandings of how social responsibility messaging impacts workers’ perceptions of organizations and negotiation behavior. It also holds implications for emerging scholarship on managers’ implicit theories of employee work motivation.
Funding: I. Hussain thanks the Dean’s Research Excellence Grant at the McCombs School of Business at the University of Texas Austin for generous financial support. The research also benefitted from Tier 1 Academic Research Funds awarded to M. Pitesa [Grant C207/MSS19B011] and M. Schaerer [Grant C207/MSS22B011] by the Ministry of Education, Singapore, and the Research & Development Fund of INSEAD.
Supplemental Material: The online supplement is available at https://doi.org/10.1287/orsc.2023.1675 .
... We conducted two empirical studies to investigate employability perceptions regarding former entrepreneurs. Employability perceptions are important career indicators that determine the number and quality of job options (e.g., Feldman, 1996;Gerhart and Rynes, 1991;Leana and Feldman, 1995;Marks and Harold, 2011). Consequently, they alter entrepreneurs' career trajectories, affecting their "upward, downward, or lateral mobility" (Burton et al., 2016, p. 241). ...
Do employers perceive former entrepreneurs as suitable candidates for paid employment? We argue that (positive and negative) stereotypes and uncertainty drive employability perceptions regarding former entrepreneurs; these perceptions are contingent upon job type and the background of both the applicant and the person evaluating them. Two empirical studies yield broad support for our predictions. In Study 1 (a vignette study), we find lower employability perceptions regarding former entrepreneurs compared to other applicants, which are significantly mediated by positive and negative stereotypes as well as uncertainty perceptions. In Study 2 (conjoint experiments with two separate samples: recruiters and executives), we substantiate the results of Study 1, revealing that when former entrepreneurs apply for a job involving personnel responsibility or when there is evidence of a failure in their vita, they are less likely to face devaluations. Further, we find evidence for similarity effects; more specifically, entrepreneurs do not suffer from employability devaluation when the recruiter is a part-time entrepreneur or the executive is the business owner. We discuss the implications as part of the employability debate about former entrepreneurs.
... Moreover, self-centered employees may perceive a job change as a successful career self-management behavior in itself (Sturges et al., 2002;Weng & McElroy, 2010) because the new job constitutes an immediate improvement compared to the previous one. Improvements especially in valued aspects such as flexible work arrangements (Greenhaus & Kossek, 2014), financial rewards (Segers et al., 2008), and skill development to enhance employability (Gerber et al., 2012) can be achieved immediately with a job change since they are largely negotiated at the hiring stage (e.g., Marks & Harold, 2011). Such improvements are also often the reason for undertaking a job change in the first place, creating a positive contrast to the prior job situation (e.g., Louis, 1980), which may lead to a greater peak in job satisfaction following organizational entry. ...
Joining a new organization to change jobs is an influential event in an employee's career. Thus, inter‐organizational job changes have sparked growing scholarly interest, especially in the temporal dynamics involved in detaching from organizations and adapting to new ones. While it is widely accepted that employees adapt differently to job changes, the influence of employees' career orientations on changes in job attitudes has not yet been considered. This is surprising given that a key difference between self‐centered and organization‐centered career orientations is a positive attitude toward job changes. Building on hedonic adaptation, we examined how career orientations influence changes in job satisfaction and turnover intention throughout a job change. We compared self‐centered and organization‐centered employees using random coefficient modeling on two longitudinal data sets with voluntary job changers. Our results illustrate that self‐centered career orientations foster a stronger decline in job satisfaction with the new employer, as well as a larger increase in turnover intention, than organization‐centered career orientations. In contrast, employees with organization‐centered career orientations experienced an upward trend in job satisfaction toward the end of the first year. Our findings offer important implications for research on the determinants of job attitude trajectories when individuals join a new organization.
... Further, because many i-deals arise in the context of ongoing employment arrangements, conventional market-oriented bargaining need not always apply in i-deal creation. I-deal negotiations are likely to overlap partially with conventions regarding employment negotiation (Kyl-Heku & Buss, 1996;Marks & Harold, 2011), while also operating in a more distinct relational space where persuasion and interpersonal support also contribute to their creation (Cialdini, 2007). These gaps suggest the value of examining how negotiation research can inform the understanding and study of i-deals and where new theorizing may be needed to explicate the dynamics of i-deal creation. ...
Individualized work arrangements (“i-deals”) negotiated by employees are increasingly common in contemporary employment. Existing research largely focuses on phenomena emerging after the creation of i-deals, particularly their consequences for employees and organizations. This focus overlooks the fundamental processes associated with negotiating i-deals in the first place. I-deals research originating in the last two decades can benefit from the more advanced body of research on negotiations, particularly in its attention to negotiation preparation and the bargaining process. We examine how negotiation research and theory inform our understanding of the dynamics operating in the creation of i-deals. In doing so, we identify key features of negotiation research that apply to i-deal formulation and use these to develop an agenda for future research on i-deals.
... Given the power of negotiation to influence both social and organizational life-across one's career and across domains-it is important to identify and understand systematic differences in who benefits from negotiation and who does not, as well the conditions that lead individuals to be less or more successful in achieving their goals through negotiation. Whether and how someone negotiates can affect his or her salary, promotion chances, and general well-being (Bazerman & Neale, 1993;Marks & Harold, 2011;Neale & Lys, 2015a). In particular, the gender gap in pay has been attributed in part to gender differences in negotiations (Babcock & Laschever, 2003;Gerhart & Rynes, 1991). ...
A substantial body of prior research documents a gender gap in negotiation performance. Competing accounts suggest that the gap is due either to women’s stereotype-congruent behavior in negotiations or to backlash enacted toward women for stereotype-incongruent behavior. In this article, we use a novel data set of over 2,500 individual negotiators to examine how negotiation performance varies as a function of gender and the strength of one’s alternative to a negotiated agreement. We find that the gender gap in negotiation outcomes exists only when female negotiators have a strong outside option. Furthermore, our large data set allows us to examine an understudied performance outcome, rate of impasse. We find that negotiations in which at least one negotiator is a woman with a strong alternative disproportionately end in impasse, a performance outcome that leaves considerable potential value unallocated. In addition, we find that these gender differences in negotiation performance are not due to gender differences in aspirations, reservation values, or first offers. Overall, these findings are consistent with a backlash account, whereby counterparts are less likely to come to an agreement and therefore reach a potentially worse outcome when one party is a female negotiator empowered by a strong alternative.
... However, students failing to negotiate their job offers is a significant issue because students who do not negotiate are often leaving value on the table, which will compound over time. One study found a $5,000 premium in the starting salaries of new hires who negotiated (Marks & Harold, 2011). There are also gender differences, such as women being more reluctant to negotiate (Kulik & Olekalns, 2012), which might be contributing to perpetuating pay equity issues between men and women. ...
Students who do not negotiate their job offers often leave value on the table, which will compound over time and perhaps throughout an entire career. The purpose of this article is to present a process that has been successfully used to instruct management students regarding what to communicate during their job offer negotiations. Sample statements are provided so that students can communicate with prospective employers in a way that will allow them to maximize the value of their job offers while maintaining the relationship with the prospective employer. The connections between this teaching practice and the extant research literature as well as research questions that emanate specifically from these connections are also discussed.
... A study conducted by researchers at Temple and George Mason looked at new hires who were paid a relatively small amount more than another worker hired at the same time was paid. 6 Assuming average annual pay increases of 5%, a male employee whose starting annual salary was $55,000 rather than a $50,000 salary for a female in an equivalent job would earn more than $600,000 extra over the course of a 40-year career. This significantly affects decisions such as retirement because the woman would have to work 3 years longer than the man to earn the same amount over the course of her career. ...
This article addresses new approaches to address a long-standing employment compensation problem—the gender pay gap. Existing approaches, including the Equal Pay Act and Title VII, are more than 50 years old, and have only been marginally successful in resolving this problem. A pay gap based on gender remains a problem today. New approaches include the potential passage of the Paycheck Fairness Act at the federal level and a variety of laws at the state level. Some states have passed pay equity laws that are more successful than the federal law due to the use of the comparable work concept. Additionally, some states have passed laws regulating the asking of salary history questions, as well as the use of non-compete and no-poaching agreements, all of which have a chilling effect on pay equity. The result of the combination of these actions is a probable reduction of the gender pay gap, although eliminating it remains a distant goal.
... A common challenge in modelling job markets is a general lack of detailed information concerning firm behaviour, notably concerning employee recruiting practices. However, while the reasons why firms decide to hire a specific applicant are largely unobserved, the value that a company places on the hired applicant is readily available in the form of income surveys (Marks and Harold 2011). Specifically, assuming that most firms are profit maximizers, the wages paid to each employee represents an observable measure of the firm's assessment of the employee's value. ...
This paper introduces a new agent-based microsimulation (ABM) model of urban labour markets, in which workers actively seeking employment in each time period are matched with vacant jobs. The model is designed to operate within the Integrated Land Use, Transportation, Environment (ILUTE) urban simulation model system. In the current model application, 1986 is taken as the base year, with 20-year simulations being run (1986–2006) to test the model’s performance within a known historical time-period.
... Investigation of past SIOP activities relating to salary negotiations reveal some research on the topic, but there is much that needs to be done in terms of workshops and other training opportunities. In 2010 SIOP reported research by Crystal Harold and Michelle Marks on salary negotiation, which appeared in news stories and other articles and radio stations (Marks & Harold, 2011). The study showed that negotiation increases starting salaries by an average of $5,000, highlighting the significance of effective salary negotiation and why it is important to be upfront with issues, enabling both parties to consider creative ways to find win-win solutions. ...
A major goal of Gardner, Ryan, and Snoeyink (2018) was to determine what steps are needed moving forward in examining gender representation in industrial and organizational (I-O) psychology. Specifically, on the topic of pay differences, we highlight that gender differences in pay are in part due to differences in negotiation behaviors and/or experiences. Prior research demonstrates that female negotiators receive greater backlash than male negotiators—a possible explanation to why men tend to negotiate more often and more successfully than women (Bowles, Babcock, & Lai, 2007). Based on this evidence, one next step in moving forward should involve providing resources and knowledge to improve negotiation skills and practices specifically aimed at eliminating differences between women and men in both propensity to negotiate and the evaluation/consequences of negotiating.
Although prior work has characterized creativity as a primarily agentic endeavor, we diverge from this perspective and argue for agentic and communal pathways to creativity that offer unique advantages to each gender. We draw from social role theory to predict that risk-taking and empathic tendencies—as agentic and communal mechanisms, respectively—help explain how gender influences creativity. We also identify contextual moderators that can strengthen the communal pathway—predicting a more positive relationship between empathic tendency and creativity as well as a stronger indirect effect via empathic tendency when the tasks demand perspective-taking and when usefulness is explicitly incorporated in creativity assessment. With a meta-analysis of 753 independent samples (265,762 individuals), we find support for a communal pathway (i.e., women are creative via empathic tendency) and for an agentic pathway (i.e., men are creative via risk-taking tendency). We also find that the communal pathway is stronger when usefulness is explicitly incorporated in creativity assessment. Task demands for perspective-taking did not show a moderating effect. Taken together, our findings provide a more balanced account of the gender–creativity relationship, demonstrate why men and women differ in creativity and when women can leverage the communal mechanism to enhance creativity, and inform theory and practice towards a more gender-equitable workplace.
Context
Appropriate salaries for athletic trainers (ATs) have been a contentious topic for decades. While professional advocacy efforts to increase ATs’ salaries have gained traction, little is known about ATs’ experiences with negotiation during the hiring process.
Objective
To explore the reasons, influences, and factors influencing ATs' negotiation decisions.
Design
Qualitative study.
Setting
Individual video interviews.
Patients or Other Participants
28 ATs who participated in a previous study and indicated a willingness to participate in the qualitative follow-up were interviewed (17 women, 10 men, 1 non-binary individual; age = 37.8±8.9 years; athletic training experience = 15.1±8.3 years). Of the 28 participants, 18 did negotiate, while 10 did not.
Data Collection and Analysis
An individual videoconference interview was conducted with each participant. After transcription, data were analyzed into themes and categories following the consensual qualitative research tradition. To ensure trustworthiness of the findings, we confirmed accuracy through member checks, triangulated the data using multi-analyst research teams, and confirmed representativeness by including an external auditor.
Results
Four parallel themes emerged during data analysis; factors for determining salary negotiation, reasons for negotiating/not negotiating, negotiation influencers/deterrents, and experiences with negotiation/impact of not negotiating.
Conclusions
Negotiators used a variety of data sources to support their requests, and their decisions were motivated by their known value, the area’s cost of living, and their current financial or employment situations. Negotiators relied on previous experiences to guide negotiations and provided successes and regrets from their negotiation experience. Nonnegotiators also used a variety of data types but were deterred by fear: of not knowing how to negotiate, losing the offer, or off 26 ending those involved. Non-negotiators highlighted lack of confidence they had in their ability to negotiate and provided the financial consequences and personal regrets from not negotiating. More training, education, and publicly available data are needed to assist ATs in future negotiation attempts.
When it comes to financial decision-making, women may be more risk averse than men, and mothers are more risk-averse than non-mothers on average (Charness & Gneezy, Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 83, 50–58, 2012; Ross, 2021). This pattern of responding is attributed as one reason for gender-based pay differences that negatively impact women in the workforce and risks placing blame on women when not considering the broader social context operating around womanhood and motherhood. The present study is an exploratory experimental analysis of the influence of motherhood as a context variable affecting probability discounting rates of women across two experiments. In the first experiment, a college student sample of non-mothers completed a standard probability discounting task and an additive discounting task where they imagined having a hypothetical child while completing the task. Results showed steeper probability discounting in the hypothetical motherhood condition (t(28) = –2.30, p < 0.05). In the second experiment, a sample of mothers recruited using Amazon’s Mechanical Turk completed the standard probability discounting task and a subtractive discounting task where they imagined that they had chosen not to have children and completed the task. Results showed lower probability discounting rates in the hypothetical non-motherhood condition (t(50) = –5.29, p < 0.01). Taken together, these results suggest that motherhood may be a broad context variable that influences discounting rates and further research is needed to pinpoint specific components within the social experiences of mothers that contribute to financial disadvantages for women within oppressive social systems.
Purpose:
To investigate attitudes, priorities, and behaviors of ophthalmologists in salary negotiations.
Design:
Cross-sectional study.
Methods:
A Qualtrics survey was disseminated to United States based practicing ophthalmologists between 11/1/2021 and 3/31/2022 and assessed attitudes, behaviors and priorities surrounding salary negotiation during the respondents' first negotiation as a practicing physician and currently. Optional case-based scenarios were also included.
Results:
Of 424 respondents, 155 (36.5%) identified as male and 269 (63.3%) identified as female. Men were more likely to negotiate salary for their first position as an independent ophthalmologist (Male (M): 78.3%, Female (F): 68.2%, p=0.04). Respondents of both genders assessed their success similarly; 85.0% of men and 75.7% of women (p=0.07) felt that their negotiation was very successful or somewhat successful. Women were more likely to select "flexibility in clinic/OR schedule for personal commitments" as a priority during salary negation for their first position (M: 14.8%, F: 23.1%, p=0.04). Women ophthalmologists reported feeling more uncomfortable (M: 36.1%, F: 49.1%, p=0.01), intimidated (M: 20.0%, F: 43.5%, p<0.01) and were less likely to feel well-trained (M: 24.5%, F: 13.0%, p<0.01). Most respondents never received formal training in negotiation.
Conclusions:
We found significant gender differences among ophthalmologists in attitudes, priorities and behaviors surrounding salary negotiation. There were low reported levels of formal negotiation training, which appears to disadvantage women more than men. These gender disparities suggest that incorporating education about negotiation skills and career development early in training may be impactful.
The purposes of this study are firstly to find out the salary expectations that gen z want while working. Secondly, to analyze what types of jobs are interested in gen z. Finally, to describe how the strategies are applied by Gen Z to achieve the salary and work they want and the implications of this research for the company. The method used in this research is qualitative with a case study approach and quantitative with a survey approach. The sample used in this research is 108 students of the management department UNISBA Blitar belonging to gene z. Data collection techniques were carried out using questionnaires and structured interviews online. Analysis of the data used by describing the results of the numbers from the survey conducted then elaborated with the results of interviews and theories that have been written. The results of this study suggest that gen z wants a salary above 5 million with a percentage of 44.9% and the rest below 5 million. Furthermore, 39.6% want to be entrepreneurs for future types of work and the rest as employees of BUMN, ASN and others. In addition, they also carry out special strategies and tips to achieve what they expect.
Although most scholars recommend making the first offer in negotiations, recent research and practitioners' experience have uncovered a second‐mover advantage in certain situations. In the current article, we explore this first‐ versus second‐mover dynamic by investigating the circumstances under which negotiators would make less favorable first offers than they would receive were they to move second, focusing on the effects of negotiation power in the form of alternatives. Additionally, we examine the effects of low power on reservation prices and whether these effects could be mitigated using an anchor‐debiasing technique. In Study 1, we manipulated negotiators' power in the form of the best alternative to the negotiated agreement and examined its effect on first offers and reservation prices. Our results showed that low‐power negotiators would receive more favorable first offers than they would have made themselves when facing either low‐ or medium‐power counterparts. Also, our results suggest that low‐power negotiators had less favorable reservation prices than their medium‐ and high‐ power counterparts. In Study 2, we investigated whether this effect would persist in the face of anchor‐debiasing techniques. Our results showed that while anchor‐debiasing techniques did improve their first offers, low‐power negotiators would still benefit from making the counteroffer rather than moving first. Our findings uncover the disadvantageous effects of low power on first‐offer magnitude while offering practical advice to negotiators.
Women of Color (WoC) engineering faculty in higher education differ in their approaches to coping with inequities and salary disparities. This study draws upon McGee's Stereotype Management [McGee, E. O. 2016. “Devalued Black and Latino Racial Identities: A By-Product of College STEM Culture?” American Educational Research Journal 53 (6): 1626–1662; McGee, E. O. 2020a. Black, Brown, Bruised: How Racialized STEM Education Stifles Innovation. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press. https://www.hepg.org/hep-home/books/black,-brown,-bruised#] and Identity Taxation [Hirshfield, L. E., and T. D. Joseph. 2012. “‘We Need a Woman, We Need a Black Woman': Gender, Race, and Identity Taxation in the Academy.” Gender and Education 24 (2): 213–227] to understand how WoC in Engineering respond to race and gender-based salary disparity in engineering higher education. Results reveal that WoC contend with identity taxation that forces them to navigate gendered negotiation systems to achieve salary parity. The racial backgrounds of WoC appeared to influence how they managed the impacts of pay inequity. Stereotype management emerges as a form of identity taxation that WoC use to navigate their academic environments. Our research suggests that, rather than confronting their structural racism, institutions of higher education place the onus on scholars of colour to use strategies to protect themselves from the reality of race/gendered wage disparity.
Job negotiations are an anxiety-inducing and highly important form of social interaction. Most people are not sufficiently trained in negotiation strategies and often do not receive job offers that are conducive to financial stability. With the rise of virtual agents and robotics that are capable of modeling social interactions, a significant research effort has been established to create realistic simulations of negotiations. While the bulk of this research has focused on virtual agents as a medium for simulated negotiations, we propose that embodied agents can be utilized to model the inherent nuances in human interaction. In this paper, we propose a study that aims to evaluate the effectiveness of embodied agents compared to virtual agents in simulated negotiations with human participants.
Beauty premium permeates every aspect of life. However, whether females' roles, as proposers or as recipients/responders, have an influence on the marginal effect of beauty remains unclear and was explored in the current study. Dictator game and ultimate game were employed to investigate the effect of females' roles on beauty premium from males. Participants played against female recipients and proposers in Study 1. Linear regression models of social preferences with respect to female attractiveness showed a strongly positive marginal effect of beauty, and the effect was significantly higher when participants played against female recipients than female proposers. Study 2 with ultimate games only was conducted for further testing the effect of strategic behavior on beauty premium. A probabilistic method was established to handle issues on comparison between participants' behaviors as proposers and as recipients/responders. The results of these studies suggest that there are significant money forgone differences between females as proposers and as recipients/responders financially regardless of the strategy‐or‐not decision difference. All the findings indicate that the beauty premium varies with female roles.
Female faculty earn 81.4% of what male faculty earn. Salary negotiation is a critical component of job offers and can have lasting implications for pay during a career. To better understand the salary negotiation process for female sport management professors, this study examined perceived barriers held by participants. A qualitative approach was taken, utilizing in-person and phone interviews to collect the participant’s experiences with salary negotiation. Results indicated that female sport management professors perceived the main barrier in salary negotiation to be the expected adherence to gender roles. Subthemes that emerged from the expected adherence to gender roles included believing stereotypes and lacking confidence. Understanding the influence of gender role adherence in salary negotiations can contribute to the education and skills necessary for students as well as professors in implementing pedagogical strategies related to salary negotiation. Implementing these strategies can contribute to a field that continues to strive to embrace diversity and promote an inclusive environment.
The pursuit of desirable outcomes is often hindered by the threat of failure. While extant research largely characterizes self-threatening outcomes as eliciting an avoidance motivation, the current work demonstrates a novel intervention that can shift people towards an approach motivation: ambivalence towards the outcome. Within professional and personal domains, we show in seven experiments that considering both the pros and cons, rather than just the pros, of a self-threatening outcome encourages people to pursue it. We find that this heightened approach motivation occurs because ambivalence reduces an outcome’s desirability, in turn reducing self-threat, serially mediating the relationship between ambivalence and likelihood of pursuing the outcome. Further, we show that people do not intuit this effect and are likely not taking advantage of it. We conclude by discussing the managerial and theoretical implications of ambivalence in the face of self-threat.
Objective: To identify the role of gender and other factors in influencing ophthalmologists' compensation.
Design: Cross-sectional study.
Participants: U.S. practicing ophthalmologists.
Methods: Between January and March 2020, an anonymous survey was sent to U.S. residency program directors and practicing ophthalmologists who recently completed residency training. Respondents who completed residency ≤10 years ago and responded to questions about gender, fellowship training, state of practice, and salary were included. Propensity score match (PSM) analysis was performed with age, academic residency, top residency, fellowship, state median wage, practice type, ethnicity and number of work days. Multivariate linear regression (MLR) analysis controlled for additional factors along with the aforementioned variables.
Main outcome measures: Base starting salary with bonus (SWB) received in the first year of clinical position was the main outcome measure. A multiplier of 1.2 (20%) was added to the base salary to account for bonus.
Results: Of 684 respondents, 384 (56% female, 44% male) from 68 programs were included. Female ophthalmologists received a mean initial SWB that was 27,273.89 (10.3% gap, p=0.0015). Additionally, SWB differences were calculated with the number of work days substituted by OR days [-27793.67 (10.5% gap, p=0.0013)] in separate PSM analyses. The SWB differences between genders were significant using MLR analyses, which also controlled for work, clinic, and OR days separately (-22261.49, -18604.65, and $-16191.26, respectively; p=0.017, p=0.015, p=0.002). Gender independently predicted income in all 3 analyses (p<0.05). Although an association between gender and the attempt to negotiate was not detected, a greater portion of men subjectively reported success in negotiation (p=0.03).
Conclusion: Female ophthalmologists earn significantly less than their male colleagues in the first year of clinical practice. Salary differences persist after controlling for demographic, educational, and practice type variables with MLR and PSM analyses. These income differences may lead to a substantial loss of accumulated earnings over an individual's career.
The studies about negotiation have been conducted in the various research fields. However, despite of its importance of employees’ concern, the number of studies for wage negotiation was few. Specifically, there have been no empirical studies directly examined the influence of participation of wage negotiation on the employees’ pay satisfaction and trust in Korea. The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of the opportunity and type of the wage negotiation on the pay satisfaction and trust in management. Data were collected from 315 workers employed in a variety of organizations in Korea and hierarchical multiple regression and MANCOVA were conducted to test hypothesis. The results of regression analysis indicated that the providing opportunity of wage negotiation have positive influence on the level of pay satisfaction and trust in management. Also, union negotiation rather than individual negotiation have positive influence on the level of pay satisfaction and trust in management. In addition, the results of MANCOVA was similar with that of regression analysis, however, there was no significant difference for trust in management and satisfaction of pay policy and management between union negotiation and individual negotiation.
When entering into a negotiation, individuals have the choice to enact a variety of communication styles. We test the differential impact of being “warm and friendly” versus “tough and firm” in a distributive negotiation when first offers are held constant and concession patterns are tracked. We train a natural language processing algorithm to precisely quantify the difference between how people enact warm and friendly versus tough and firm communication styles. We find that the two styles differ primarily in length and their expressions of politeness (Study 1). Negotiators with a tough and firm communication style achieved better economic outcomes than negotiators with a warm and friendly communication style in both a field experiment (Study 2) and a laboratory experiment (Study 3). This was driven by the fact that offers delivered in tough and firm language elicited more favorable counteroffers. We further find that the counterparts of warm and friendly versus tough and firm negotiators did not report different levels of satisfaction or enjoyment of their interactions (Study 3). Finally, we document that individuals’ lay beliefs are in direct opposition to our findings: participants believe that authors of warmly worded negotiation offers will be better liked and will achieve better economic outcomes (Study 4).
This paper was accepted by Yuval Rottenstreich, judgment and decision making.
This paper elaborates a research agenda on cultural norms in communication, negotiation, and conflict management. Our agenda is organized around five questions on negotiation and conflict management, for example: How do culture and norms relate to an individual's propensity to negotiate? Or How do tightness‐looseness norms explain negotiators’ reactions to norm conformity and norm violation? And three questions on communication, for example: What individual and cultural factors lead negotiators to use miscommunication as an opportunity rather than an obstacle? Or Are there cultural differences in whether and what forms of schmoozing are normative? The present paper is based on three pillars: (a) ideas provided by the think tank participants (full list on website), (b) state of the art research and (c) the authors’ perspectives. Our goal is to inspire young, as well as, established researchers to purse these research streams and increase our understanding about the influence of cultural norms.
In recent years, researchers have begun to explore the extent to which the impact of switching firms (inter-firm mobility) on wages varies between men and women. Using data from the NLSY79 from 1979 to 2012, this paper extends existing research by exploring how occupational segregation and individual level factors contribute to gender differences in the impact of voluntary inter-firm mobility on wages. The paper also examines how patterns vary depending on education level. Findings suggest that men without a college education receive greater wage gains from voluntary inter-firm mobility than similarly educated women although there is no overall gender difference for individuals with a bachelor's degree. The wage returns to voluntary inter-firm mobility for both men and women increase as a function of the male representation in the occupation. For individuals without a college education, the male premium to voluntary inter-firm mobility is largest in highly male dominated occupations. However, women with a bachelor's degree employed in highly male dominated occupations use voluntary inter-firm mobility to narrow the gender wage gap.
This paper introduces a new agent-based microsimulation (ABM) model of urban labour markets, in which workers actively seeking employment in each time period are matched with vacant jobs. The model is designed to operate within the ILUTE (Integrated Land Use, Transportation, Environment) urban simulation model system. In the current model application, 1986 is taken as the base year, with 20-year simulations being run (1986-2006) to test the model’s performance within a known historical time-period.
Gender differences in the initiation of negotiation have been suggested to reinforce unequal distributions of resources between men and women. Because previous research had yielded heterogeneous results, the authors conducted a meta-analysis investigating gender differences in initiating negotiation. On the basis of social role theory, they hypothesized that women are less likely to initiate negotiations than men, but also that the effect varies depending on characteristics of the immediate negotiation situation and the wider societal context. The meta-analysis comprised 55 effect sizes with 17,504 individuals, including both students and employees. A random-effects model confirmed that women were indeed less likely to initiate negotiations than men (g = 0.20). Additional moderator analyses, tested with mixed-effects models and metaregressions, revealed that gender differences were smaller when situational ambiguity regarding the appropriateness of negotiating was low rather than high as well as when situational cues were more consistent with the female gender role than with the male gender role. Gender differences decreased by year of publication (from 1977 to 2016) but were unrelated to the degree of gender inequality in the countries in which the studies were conducted. The authors conclude that gender differences in the initiation of negotiation exist, but they are small and context-bound. Finally, they discuss mechanisms that alter the gender difference with a particular focus on potential starting points for practical interventions.
This study explores the dimensionality of organizational justice and provides evidence of construct validityfor a new justice measure. Items for this measure were generated by strictly following the seminal works in the justice literature. The measure was then validated in 2 separate studies. Study 1 occurred in a university setting, and Study 2 occurred in a field setting using employees in an automobile parts manufacturing company. Confirmatory factor analyses supported a 4-factor structure to the measure, with distributive, procedural, interpersonal, and informational justice as distinct dimensions. This solution fit the data significantly better than a 2- or 3-factor solution using larger interactional or procedural dimensions. Structural equation modeling also demonstrated predictive validity for the justice dimensions on important outcomes, including leader evaluation, rule compliance, commitment, and helping behavior.
A Monte Carlo study compared 14 methods to test the statistical significance of the intervening variable effect. An intervening variable (mediator) transmits the effect of an independent variable to a dependent variable. The commonly used R. M. Baron and D. A. Kenny (1986) approach has low statistical power. Two methods based on the distribution of the product and 2 difference-in-coefficients methods have the most accurate Type I error rates and greatest statistical power except in 1 important case in which Type I error rates are too high. The best balance of Type I error and statistical power across all cases is the test of the joint significance of the two effects comprising the intervening variable effect.
In this article, we attempt to distinguish between the properties of moderator and mediator variables at a number of levels. First, we seek to make theorists and researchers aware of the importance of not using the terms moderator and mediator interchangeably by carefully elaborating, both conceptually and strategically, the many ways in which moderators and mediators differ. We then go beyond this largely pedagogical function and delineate the conceptual and strategic implications of making use of such distinctions with regard to a wide range of phenomena, including control and stress, attitudes, and personality traits. We also provide a specific compendium of analytic procedures appropriate for making the most effective use of the moderator and mediator distinction, both separately and in terms of a broader causal system that includes both moderators and mediators. (46 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
People act in ways that sometimes violate social expectations or role requirements. To bridge the gap between action and expectation, and thus prevent conflict, the offending party can provide an account, which is an explanation of the behavior in question. This article examines situations in work organizations in which a boss refuses a subordinate's request, thus failing to meet the subordinate's expectations. Specifically, we examine the effects of a boss's causal account, which is an explanation claiming mitigating circumstances for the refusal, on subordinate reactions that might induce conflict (e.g., anger, complaints). In a survey of 121 currently employed subordinates, it was found that the mere claim of mitigating circumstances does not explain the influence of a causal account in lessening conflict; rather, it is the adequacy of reasoning in support of the claim and the boss's sincerity in communicating the causal account that explain the variance in subordinates' reactions. The implications of these results for an analysis of accounts as a conflict-management strategy are discussed.
The authors examined the influence of personal information privacy concerns and computer experience on applicants’ reactions to online screening procedures. Study 1 used a student sample simulating application for a fictitious management intern job with a state personnel agency (N = 117) and employed a longitudinal, laboratory-based design. Study 2 employed a field sample of actual applicants (N = 396) applying for jobs online. As predicted, procedural justice mediated the relationship between personal information privacy concerns and test-taking motivation, organizational attraction, and organizational intentions in the laboratory and field. Experience with computers moderated the relationship between procedural justice with test-taking motivation and organizational intentions in the field but not in the laboratory sample. Implications are discussed in terms of the importance of considering applicants’ personal information privacy concerns and testing experience when designing online recruitment and selection systems.
Self-reports figure prominently in organizational and management research, but there are several problems associated with their use. This article identifies six categories of self-reports and discusses such problems as common method variance, the consistency motif, and social desirability. Statistical and post hoc remedies and some procedural methods for dealing with artifactual bias are presented and evaluated. Recommendations for future research are also offered.
"This paper advocates a validational process utilizing a matrix of intercorrelations among tests representing at least two traits, each measured by at least two methods. Measures of the same trait should correlate higher with each other than they do with measures of different traits involving separate methods. Ideally, these validity values should also be higher than the correlations among different traits measure by the same method." Examples from the literature are described as well as problems in the application of the technique. 36 refs. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)
This experiment examined the effects of motivational orientation (prosocial versus egoistic) on interpersonal trust, negotiation behavior, amount of impasses, and joint outcomes in three-person negotiations. Students participated in a joint venture negotiation, in which motivational orientation was manipulated by allocating individual incentives (egoistic motive) vs. team incentives (prosocial motive). Results indicated that prosocially motivated negotiators achieved more integrative agreements and fewer impasses, and reported higher trust, more problem solving, and less contending behavior than egoistically motivated negotiators. Hierarchical regression suggested that the finding that prosocial groups achieved higher joint outcomes can be explained by higher levels of trust, more problem solving behavior, and less contending behavior in prosocial groups.
Taking conflict personally (TCP) is conceptualized as a negative emotional personalization of conflict episodes. Here, individuals' TCP levels were examined in relationship to both their own conflict management styles and their perceptions of supervisors' conflict management styles. Results indicate that one's TCP levels are associated with one's own preferred conflict management style, with supervisor's perceived conflict style, and with satisfaction with supervisor.
217 middle managers from 3 industrial groups responded to an open-ended questionnaire in which they described the determinants of particularly fair or unfair performance appraisals. By Q-sort procedure, the responses were categorized and combined to yield 7 distinct determinants of fairness in performance evaluations. Ratings of the perceived importance of these determinants were factor analyzed, revealing 2 distinct factors—Procedural and Distributive determinants. The implications of the determinants are discussed with respect to existing research and theory on justice in organizations. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Classifies conflicts occurring in or as a result of membership in organizations into 3 major categories: intrapersonal, intragroup, and intergroup. Conflicts in each category result from various personal-cultural and organizational structure factors. These factors may be identified through appropriate diagnosis and their effects on and implications for each level of conflict established. This is a prerequisite for the appropriate development and implementation of intervention strategies. Management of organizational conflicts involves diagnosis and intervention to maintain a moderate amount of conflict and help the organizational members learn how to handle different conflict situations (e.g., problem-solving, smoothing, withdrawal, compromising). (69 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This article examines the ability of the individual differences, motivational, and cognitive approaches of negotiation to account for empirical research on dyadic negotiation. Investigators have typically focused on objective, economic measures of performance. However, social-psychological measures are important because negotiators often do not have the information necessary to make accurate judgments of the bargaining situation. Negotiators' judgments are biased, and biases are associated with inefficient performance. Personality and individual differences appear to play a minimal role in determining bargaining behavior; their impact may be dampened by several factors, such as homogeneity of S samples, situational constraints, and self-selection processes. Motivational and cognitive models provide compelling accounts of negotiation behavior. A psychological theory of negotiation should begin at the level of the individual negotiator and should integrate features of motivational and cognitive models. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Two people in an interdependent decision-making situation may have compatible interests; however, they often fail to realize this and settle on an outcome less favorable to both parties than another readily available solution. People sometimes settle for less favorable outcomes even when they realize they have compatible interests. The authors refer to this failure to identify and optimize compatible interests as the lose–lose effect, which means a faulty belief or judgment about another person's interests and an outcome or agreement that fails to capitalize on shared interests. Whether the people involved are individuals or organizations, lose–lose agreements result in reduced prosperity and satisfaction for both parties. The authors present a meta-analytic review of 32 experiments that document the pervasiveness of lose–lose agreements. They examine the relationship between the judgments people make about others' interests and lose–lose agreements and the effects of practice on both. They review theoretical explanations of lose–lose agreements. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Constructed 2 structurally similar risk-taking tasks to evaluate intertask consistency of individual differences. Only the mode of response differed between tasks. A total of 92 college students served as Ss. In 1 task, Ss chose their preferred bet within each of a number of pairs of bets. In the other, Ss set selling prices for these same bets. A measure of S's preference for "long-shot" gambles was obtained from each response. Reliable individual differences were found for each measure. However, the intermeasure correlation was relatively low considering the high degree of similarity between tasks. It is argued that the 2 response modes triggered different methods of processing information about probabilities and payoffs in a way that perturbed individual differences and reduced intertask consistency. Information-processing considerations may be one important component of the situation specificity prevalent in risk-taking behavior. Results suggest that high correlations are unlikely between risk-taking measures in structurally different settings or between risk-taking and other behaviors. (24 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Although it has been suggested that women negotiate over salaries less frequently than men, there is little empirical evidence on this point. Moreover, outside of laboratory settings, there are no investigations of whether, or to what extent, such negotiations actually pay off in higher salary outcomes for either men or women. The salary negotiating behaviors and starting salary outcomes of 205 graduating MBA students were investigated within a power and dependence theoretical framework. Results did not support the notion that women negotiate less than men. However, women did obtain lower monetary returns from negotiation (4.3% starting salary increment for men versus 2.7% for women). Over the course of a career, the accumulation of such differences may be substantial. Implications and suggestions for future research are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Negotiation researchers theorize that individual differences are determinants of bargaining processes and outcomes but have yet to establish empirically the role of individual differences. In 2 studies the authors used bargaining simulations to examine the roles of personality and cognitive ability in distributive (Study 1) and integrative (Study 2) negotiation. The authors hypothesized and found evidence that Extraversion and Agreeableness are liabilities in distributive bargaining encounters. For both Extraversion and Agreeableness there were interactions between personality and negotiator aspirations such that personality effects were more pronounced in the absence of high aspirations. Contrary to predictions, Conscientiousness was generally unrelated to bargaining success. Cognitive ability played no role in distributive bargaining but was markedly related to the attainment of joint outcomes in a situation with integrative potential.
Procedural and distributive justice were examined in an employee selection situation. Along procedural justice dimensions, job relatedness of and explanation offered for the selection procedures were manipulated. Distributive justice was examined through manipulation of a selection decision and collection of a priori hiring expectations. Dependent measures included fairness reactions, recommendation intentions, self-efficacy, and actual work performance. Undergraduates (n = 260) were selected/rejected for paid employment. Job relatedness influenced performance and interacted with selection decision on perceptions of distributive fairness and self-efficacy. Explanations influenced recommendations of rejected applicants. Interactions between hiring expectations and selection decision were observed on perceived fairness and recommendation intentions. Discussion focuses on theoretical and practical implications of the observed interactions.
Conflict management influences individual wellbeing, group performance and organizational effectiveness. This research examined the psychometric qualities of two versions of the newly developed test for conflict handling. The lean version (Study 1 and 2) included problem solving, forcing, yielding and avoiding as distinct conflict management strategies, and the expanded version (Study 3) also included compromising. A negotiation study (Study 1) showed substantial convergence between self-reports, opponent-reports and observer rated behavior for problem solving, forcing and yielding, but not for avoiding. In Study 2 and Study 3 the psychometric properties were examined of the lean and the expanded version, respectively. Confirmatory factor analyses revealed good to excellent psychometric qualities of both versions of the scale. We conclude that the scale is a parsimonious, flexible and valid instrument to assess conflict management strategies at work. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
The concept of risk propensity has been the subject of both theoretical and empirical investigation, but with little consensus about its definition and measurement. To address this need, a new scale assessing overall risk propensity in terms of reported frequency of risk behaviours in six domains was developed and applied: recreation, health, career, finance, safety and social. The paper describes the properties of the scale and its correlates: demographic variables, biographical self‐reports, and the NEO PI‐R, a Five Factor personality inventory (N = 2041). There are three main results. First, risk propensity has clear links with age and sex, and with objective measures of career‐related risk taking (changing jobs and setting up a business). Second, the data show risk propensity to be strongly rooted in personality. A clear Big Five pattern emerges for overall risk propensity, combining high extraversion and openness with low neuroticism, agreeableness, and conscientiousness. At the subscale level, sensation‐seeking surfaces as a key important component of risk propensity. Third, risk propensity differs markedly in its distribution across job types and business sectors. These findings are interpreted as indicating that risk takers are of three non‐exclusive types: stimulation seekers, goal achievers, and risk adapters. Only the first group is truly risk seeking, the others are more correctly viewed as risk bearers. The implications for risk research and management are discussed.
In this article, we attempt to distinguish between the properties of moderator and mediator variables at a number of levels. First, we seek to make theorists and researchers aware of the importance of not using the terms moderator and mediator interchangeably by carefully elaborating, both conceptually and strategically, the many ways in which moderators and mediators differ. We then go beyond this largely pedagogical function and delineate the conceptual and strategic implications of making use of such distinctions with regard to a wide range of phenomena, including control and stress, attitudes, and personality traits. We also provide a specific compendium of analytic procedures appropriate for making the most effective use of the moderator and mediator distinction, both separately and in terms of a broader causal system that includes both moderators and mediators.
A meta-analysis of 28 studies examined support for the Theory of Cooperation and Competition (M. Deutsch, 1973) and Dual Concern Theory (D. G. Pruitt & J. Z. Rubin, 1986). Effects of social motive (prosocial vs. egoistic) and resistance to yielding (high vs. low vs. unknown) on contenting, problem solving, and joint outcomes were examined. Consistent with Dual Concern Theory, results showed that negotiators were less contentious, engaged in more problem solving, and achieved higher joint outcomes when they had a prosocial rather than egoistic motive, but only when resistance to yielding was high (or unknown) rather than low. The authors also explored the moderating effects of study characteristics and found effects for participation inducement (class exercise, participant pool), for publication status, and for treatment of no-agreement dyads.
A Monte Carlo study compared 14 methods to test the statistical significance of the intervening variable effect. An intervening variable (mediator) transmits the effect of an independent variable to a dependent variable. The commonly used R. M. Baron and D. A. Kenny (1986) approach has low statistical power. Two methods based on the distribution of the product and 2 difference-in-coefficients methods have the most accurate Type I error rates and greatest statistical power except in 1 important case in which Type I error rates are too high. The best balance of Type I error and statistical power across all cases is the test of the joint significance of the two effects comprising the intervening variable effect.
Mediation is said to occur when a causal effect of some variable X on an outcome Y is explained by some intervening variable M. The authors recommend that with small to moderate samples, bootstrap methods (B. Efron & R. Tibshirani, 1993) be used to assess mediation. Bootstrap tests are powerful because they detect that the sampling distribution of the mediated effect is skewed away from 0. They argue that R. M. Baron and D. A. Kenny's (1986) recommendation of first testing the X --> Y association for statistical significance should not be a requirement when there is a priori belief that the effect size is small or suppression is a possibility. Empirical examples and computer setups for bootstrap analyses are provided.
The process of exchange is almost continual in human interactions, and appears to have characteristics peculiar to itself, and to generate affect, motivation, and behavior that cannot be predicted unless exchange processes are understood. This chapter describes two major concepts relating to the perception of justice and injustice; the concept of relative deprivation and the complementary concept of relative gratification. All dissatisfaction and low morale are related to a person's suffering injustice in social exchanges. However, a significant portion of cases can be usefully explained by invoking injustice as an explanatory concept. In the theory of inequity, both the antecedents and consequences of perceived injustice have been stated in terms that permit quite specific predictions to be made about the behavior of persons entering social exchanges. Relative deprivation and distributive justice, as theoretical concepts, specify some of the conditions that arouse perceptions of injustice and complementarily, the conditions that lead men to feel that their relations with others are just. The need for much additional research notwithstanding, the theoretical analyses that have been made of injustice in social exchanges should result not only in a better general understanding of the phenomenon, but should lead to a degree of social control not previously possible. The experience of injustice need not be an accepted fact of life.
There has been an increasing amount of research conducted on issues of procedural justice. Although this research has demonstrated that the type of procedure used to allocate outcomes has an independent influence on people's judgments of the fairness of a decision, there is growing empirical evidence that such judgments are influenced by the enactment of the procedure as well. Fairness concerns raised about the propriety of a decision maker's behavior during the enactment of procedures are representative of a desire forinteractional justice. In this paper, we present three studies that examine the effects of giving acausal account, or a justification, versus not providing a justification, on judgments of interactional fairness and endorsement of a decision maker's actions. In Study I, a laboratory study, ratings of interactional fairness and support for a manager were higher when subjects received a causal account that claimed mitigating circumstances for a manager's improper action than when they did not receive such a causal account. A second laboratory study replicated the same pattern of findings in two different organizational contexts. In addition, it was found that the perceived adequacy of the causal account was a critical factor explaining its effect. In Study 3, a field setting, ratings of both interactional fairness and procedural fairness were higher when a manager provided anadequate causal account to justify the allocation of an unfavorable outcome. The discussion focuses on the implications of these findings for research on interactional and procedural justice.
Thecurrentresearchexploredwhethertwore- lated yet distinct social competencies—perspective taking (the cognitive capacity to consider the world from another individual'sviewpoint)andempathy(theabilitytoconnect emotionally with another individual)—have differential effectsinstrategic,mixed-motiveinteractions.Acrossthree studies, using both individual difference measures and ex- perimental manipulations, we found that perspective tak- ingincreased individuals'abilitytodiscover hiddenagree- ments and to both create and claim resources at the bar- gaining table. However, empathy did not prove nearly as advantageous and at times was detrimental to discovering a possible deal and achieving individual profit. These re- sults held regardless of whether the interaction was a ne- gotiation in which a prima facie solution was not possible or a multiple-issue negotiation that required discovering mutually beneficial trade-offs. Although empathy is an essential tool in many aspects of social life, perspective taking appears to be a particularly critical ability in strategic interactions.
One aspect of attracting new employees that has historically been ignored by recruitment researchers is salary negotiations. In this study, we used a hypothetical scenario design to depict salary negotiation experiences in which we varied the levels of salary offer, the behavior of a company and its representative, and the deadlines for receiving a signing bonus. MBA students served as study participants who read the scenarios and responded to questions about perceived organizational attractiveness and job acceptance decisions—two important recruitment outcomes. As hypothesized, our results indicated that salaries, a company's responsiveness to candidate questions, and a company representative's expression of derogatory comments all impact recruitment outcomes. However, exploding signing bonuses had no significant effects, calling into question the negative connotation practitioners have of exploding compensation schemes. Our justice framework revealed that many of the effects that we found for our manipulations on participants' judgments regarding our recruitment outcomes were mediated by perceptions of organizational justice. Finally, we found some evidence of the frustration effect, as procedures that were considered fair worsened rather than mitigated the negative effects of unfair outcomes on job acceptance decisions.
Four basic negotiating strategies are analyzed along with the outcomes they encourage and the determinants of their use. Guidelines for influencing the strategic choice of one's bargaining partners are also presented with an emphasis on techniques for encouraging one's adversaries to move away from contentious behavior and toward problem solving.
Presents an overview of the trends in previous justice research, including an analysis of 2 major theoretical inadequacies in current justice frameworks. Two alternative theoretical assumptions are outlined. To broaden the domain of the theory and research on justice, a typology of social accounts is presented, and the ramifications of the new framework are demonstrated in an analysis of 2 new justice-related issues that have heretofore been ignored by justice researchers. Moral issues raised by the use of social accounts are addressed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This article examines the adequacy of the “rules of thumb” conventional cutoff criteria and several new alternatives for various fit indexes used to evaluate model fit in practice. Using a 2‐index presentation strategy, which includes using the maximum likelihood (ML)‐based standardized root mean squared residual (SRMR) and supplementing it with either Tucker‐Lewis Index (TLI), Bollen's (1989) Fit Index (BL89), Relative Noncentrality Index (RNI), Comparative Fit Index (CFI), Gamma Hat, McDonald's Centrality Index (Mc), or root mean squared error of approximation (RMSEA), various combinations of cutoff values from selected ranges of cutoff criteria for the ML‐based SRMR and a given supplemental fit index were used to calculate rejection rates for various types of true‐population and misspecified models; that is, models with misspecified factor covariance(s) and models with misspecified factor loading(s). The results suggest that, for the ML method, a cutoff value close to .95 for TLI, BL89, CFI, RNI, and Gamma Hat; a cutoff value close to .90 for Mc; a cutoff value close to .08 for SRMR; and a cutoff value close to .06 for RMSEA are needed before we can conclude that there is a relatively good fit between the hypothesized model and the observed data. Furthermore, the 2‐index presentation strategy is required to reject reasonable proportions of various types of true‐population and misspecified models. Finally, using the proposed cutoff criteria, the ML‐based TLI, Mc, and RMSEA tend to overreject true‐population models at small sample size and thus are less preferable when sample size is small.
The present study proposes and tests a model that examines the relationship between leadership style, trust, employee interpretations of managerial explanations, and justice perceptions. Using a critical incident methodology, 203 working adults were asked to recall a recent situation in which a request or proposal made to their manager was denied. Results provide strong support for the theoretical model. Namely, the effect of leadership style on explanation perceptions was indirect through employees' level of trust in their manager. Specifically, employees who felt their manager was transformational reported a higher degree of trust and more favourable reactions to managerial explanations.
Recent college graduates were surveyed to explore factors associated with both negotiation propensity as well as success in raising initial salary offers through negotiation. The average payoff associated with negotiation was over $1,500, while the offers of those who did not negotiate increased negligibly. Applicants given the option to present their salary needs negotiated at higher rates than those who were not, and individuals who had prior work experience were more likely to receive this option. Women were no less likely to engage in negotiation than men, and experienced similar success as a result of their efforts.
We introduce the concept that internal organizational agents who negotiate starting salary packages with job applicants may not always act in the organization's best interests. To gain an understanding of what motivates the internal agent toward assuming a particular role, we use expectancy theory, agency theory and concepts from the negotiations literature. We describe the roles that agents may assume, identify factors that impact agents' motivation, and formulate propositions to help identify which role an agent is likely to enact in starting salary negotiations. We form propositions as to how these roles are likely to impact final negotiation outcomes of probability of hiring, salary size, and applicant satisfaction and discuss strategies for ensuring agents are motivated to enact a role that meets organizational objectives.
One assumption shared by many contemporary models of leadership is that situational variables moderate the relationships between leader behaviors and subordinate responses. Recently, however, R. J. House and J. L. Baetz (1979 in B. Staw & L. Cummings, Eds., Research in Organizational Behavior (Vol. 1), Greenwich, Connecticut, JAI Press) have suggested that the effects of some leader traits and behaviors may be relatively invariant; that is, have the same effects in a variety of situations. One possible class of leader behaviors which may have relatively consistent effects across situations are those known as leader reward and punishment behaviors. The first goal of the research reported here was to increase our understanding of the relationships between leader contingent and noncontingent reward and punishment behaviors and subordinate responses. Contingent reward behavior was found to have the most pronounced relationships with subordinate performance and satisfaction, followed by noncontingent punishment behavior. Neither leader noncontingent reward nor contingent punishment behavior were found to be related to either subordinate performance or satisfaction, with the exception that noncontingent reward behavior was negatively related to subordinates' satisfaction with work. The second goal of the research was to examine the effects of a variety of potential moderators on the relationships between leader reward and punishment behaviors and subordinate responses. The results of this study suggest that the relationships between leader reward and punishment behaviors and subordinates' performance are relatively free of moderating effects.
This study explores the dimensionality of organizational justice and provides evidence of construct validity for a new justice measure. Items for this measure were generated by strictly following the seminal works in the justice literature. The measure was then validated in 2 separate studies. Study 1 occurred in a university setting, and Study 2 occurred in a field setting using employees in an automobile parts manufacturing company. Confirmatory factor analyses supported a 4-factor structure to the measure, with distributive, procedural, interpersonal, and informational justice as distinct dimensions. This solution fit the data significantly better than a 2- or 3-factor solution using larger interactional or procedural dimensions. Structural equation modeling also demonstrated predictive validity for the justice dimensions on important outcomes, including leader evaluation, rule compliance, commitment, and helping behavior.
Three experiments tested a motivated information processing account of the interpersonal effects of anger and happiness in negotiations. In Experiment 1, participants received information about the opponent's emotion (anger, happiness, or none) in a computer-mediated negotiation. As predicted, they conceded more to an angry opponent than to a happy one (controls falling in between), but only when they had a low (rather than a high) need for cognitive closure. Experiment 2 similarly showed that participants were only affected by the other's emotion under low rather than high time pressure, because time pressure reduced their degree of information processing. Finally, Experiment 3 showed that negotiators were only influenced by their opponent's emotion if they had low (rather than high) power. These results support the motivated information processing model by showing that negotiators are only affected by their opponent's emotions if they are motivated to consider them.