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Phylogeography, population genetics and conservation of the European red deer Cervus elaphus
Abstract
ABSTRACT • During the Last Glacial Maximum, European red deer Cervus elaphus occurred in refugia in Iberia/southern France, Italy, the Balkans and the Carpathians. Most of Europe, including large parts of the east and north-east, is now inhabited by red deer from the western lineage. The eastern lineage is largely confined to south-eastern Europe; a third lineage comprises Sardo-Corsican and Barbary red deer. • Sardo-Corsican, Barbary and Mesola red deer are genetically unique units. They exhibit low levels of genetic diversity and deserve particular protection, since conservation strategies should target genetic information. • Hybridization between sika Cervus nippon and red deer occurs rarely, but may lead to extensive introgression, particularly in parts of the British Isles. Further expansion of both species may lead to increased hybridization in continental Europe. • Although hunting has an impact on red deer gene pools, the main threat today is habitat fragmentation in human-dominated landscapes. The resulting increase in genetic drift and inbreeding reduces variability in isolated populations and may lead to inbreeding depression. To support vital meta-populations, migration corridors should be established.
... Међутим, према неким ауторима (Whitehead, 1972) Наведене врсте и подврсте у оквиру породице јелена су описане на основу морфолошких, социјалних и генетских одлика, али и до дан-данас мишљења научника нису јединствена у погледу укупног броја врста и подврста (нпр. Данилкин, 1999, Zachos, Hartl, 2011, Lovari et al., 2016. ...
... Када је реч о обичном јелену, неки аутори (Zachos, Hartl, 2011) наводе четири главна питања у вези његовог очувања, и то: 1) угрожене генетске линије и замагљивање природног генетичког структурирања кроз транслокације и реинтродукције, 2) локална хибридизација са сика јеленом Cervus nippon, 3) селективни лов, и 4) смањену ефективну величину популације услед фрагментације станишта. ...
... Дакле, ови резултати иду у прилог констатацији да је фрагментација шума једна од најважнијих претњи за конзервацију обичног јелена (нпр. Zachos, Hartl, 2011). Насупрот очекиваном, популације у ограђеним просторима нису представљале ни вишу диференцијацију нити нижу генетску разноврсност од оних у слободној природи (тзв. ...
... The red deer, Cervus elaphus, is one of the most widespread wild ungulates across Europe and a species with a great economic, social, and ecosystem value (Milner et al., 2006;Apollonio et al., 2010). Several subspecies have been recognized using phenotypic or biogeographical traits, though there is still an ongoing debate about this subspecific taxonomy since it is not congruent with the evolutionary units that have been described by genetic studies (Zachos and Hartl, 2011;Meiri et al., 2018). Due to its importance and wide distribution, red deer have been largely studied over their geographical range, with numerous studies focused on understanding their evolutionary history (Ludt et al., 2004;Skog et al., 2009;Meiri et al., 2013;Stanton et al., 2016;Queirós et al., 2019). ...
... Due to its importance and wide distribution, red deer have been largely studied over their geographical range, with numerous studies focused on understanding their evolutionary history (Ludt et al., 2004;Skog et al., 2009;Meiri et al., 2013;Stanton et al., 2016;Queirós et al., 2019). Despite being intensively exploited as a natural resource since the Pleistocene (Sommer et al., 2008), studies based on mitochondrial DNA have shown a natural wide-scale phylogeographic pattern of red deer across Europe (Niedziałkowska et al., 2011;Zachos and Hartl, 2011;Meiri et al., 2013;Queirós et al., 2019). Three main mitochondrial D-loop lineages have been described, with a clear spatial pattern: A Western European lineage distributed in Western Europe; an Eastern European lineage distributed in the Balkans (Eastern Europe); and a Mediterranean lineage distributed in Africa and the islands of Sardinia and Corsica. ...
... Anthropogenic hybridization in the red deer between autochthonous European populations and introduced sika deer (Cervus nippon) or wapiti deer (Cervus canadensis) has been often documented (McDevitt et al., 2009;Senn and Pemberton, 2009;Biedrzycka et al., 2012;Smith et al., 2014Smith et al., , 2018. However, anthropogenic admixture between red deer is more challenging to address because of the inconsistent support between subspecies defined using morphological characteristics or biogeography and the genetic evolutionary units (Zachos and Hartl, 2011;Meiri et al., 2018). In addition, such analysis requires large genetic databases to accurately infer non-native or hybrid individuals across Europe. ...
Anthropogenic hybridization is one of the greatest threats to global biodiversity. It incites human-mediated gene flow between non-native/exotic and native taxa, which can have irreversible effects on native species or locally adapted populations, eventually leading to extinction. The red deer, Cervus elaphus, is a game species that, due to its extraordinary economic value, has been introduced in several regions throughout Europe. However, the consequences of those introductions on native populations, namely on their genetic background, have been poorly addressed. This study is focused on the Iberian Peninsula and aims to: (i) assess the extent of anthropogenic hybridization/introgression of introduced red deer into the native Iberian populations; (ii) evaluate the impact of red deer management regimes on the observed hybridization/introgression patterns; and (iii) assess how hybridization/introgression influence the current genetic diversity of native Iberian populations. A set of 11 microsatellites and a 329 bases pair fragment of the mitochondrial D-loop gene were used to estimate nuclear admixture and mitochondrial introgression in 1,132 individuals sampled across 46 red deer populations throughout Iberia. A Bayesian approach implemented in the STRUCTURE program was employed to investigate the proportion of admixture between native populations and non-native red deer. Results showed that 17% of individuals presented signs of non-native recent ancestors and 10.1% had non-native mitochondrial haplotypes, reaching an overall hybridization/introgression rate of 23%. Non-native or hybrid individuals were found throughout 40 Iberian red deer populations, and the percentages per population varied between 3.3 and 75.0%, independently of the management regime. Mitochondrial introgression was observed across 15 Iberian red deer populations, being more frequent in free-ranging individuals (16.2%) than in fenced populations (9.2%) but was completely absent from public-owned populations. Nuclear genetic diversity correlated positively with the proportion of hybrid individuals in public-owned populations. The genetic footprint of historical and current human-mediated translocations of non-native red deer into the Iberian Peninsula is evidenced in this study, highlighting the need to implement effective measures to avoid such practices both in Portugal and Spain, in order to preserve the endogenous genetic patrimony of the Iberian red deer populations.
... The initial transmission of microsatellites from various ungulates to red deer (Kühn et al. 1996;Slate et al. 1998;Roed and Midthjell 1998;Poetsch et al. 2001) had a huge impact on the efficiency of population genetic studies in this species and led to numerous studies on a wide variety of issues. In the foreground were questions about the degrees of relationship and assignments of subspecies and subpopulations (Kuehn 2004;Hajji et al. 2008), the impact of management (Hmwe et al. 2006a;Höglund et al. 2013;Galarza et al. 2015Galarza et al. , 2017, the effect of landscape fragmentation and isolation of populations (Perez-Espona et al. 2008;Dellicour et al. 2011;Frantz et al. 2012), and ways for the conservation of this species (Zachos and Hartl 2011;Zachos et al. 2016). The major advantage of microsatellites is their high variability compared to SNPs and mitochondrial markers, which make them particularly suitable for the investigation of spatially and temporally more closely related populations (Zachos et al. 2016). ...
... Microsatellite studies were done to compare populations of specific areas within countries (Zachos et al. 2007;Niedzialkowska et al. 2012;Willems et al. 2016) or between countries (Fickel et al. 2012;Höglund et al. 2013;Krojerova-Prokesova et al. 2015). Other studies compared populations of entire regions (Zachos and Hartl 2011;Zachos et al. 2016). However, sample numbers, gender relations, microsatellite loci, and microsatellite loci numbers vary considerably between studies. ...
... Twenty-four references were extracted from literature in order to determine the sample size of the populations examined and the microsatellite markers used (Kuehn et al. 2003;Zachos et al. 2003;Kuehn 2004;HMWE et al. 2006aHMWE et al. , 2006bFrantz et al. 2008;Hajji et al. 2008;Kinser and Herzog 2008;Nielsen et al. 2008;Perez-Espona et al. 2008;Dellicour et al. 2011;Zachos and Hartl 2011;Fickel et al. 2012;Frantz et al. 2012;Perez-Gonzales et al. 2012;Niedzialkowska et al. 2012;Höglund et al. 2013;Sprem et al. 2013;Queiros et al. 2014;Galarza et al. 2015;Krojerova et al. 2015;Hoffmann et al. 2016;Willems et al. 2016;Zachos et al. 2016). Only literature making statements on European red deer populations, using microsatellites and being available in the accessible databases (e.g., Medline), was considered. ...
Population genetic parameters from different studies might be significantly influenced by differences in sample size, fraction of males and females, marker number, and sets of markers used, reducing the comparability between studies. This hypothesis was tested on a red deer population of 205 individuals with an estimated size of 1000 animals. Four tests were performed: (1) the population was subdivided into 10 populations each with 10 to 150 individuals and genotyped with 16 markers, (2) the total population was genotyped 10 times with different panels of microsatellite loci containing 2 to 14 markers, (3) a subset of 8 microsatellite loci was used to genotype the total population; markers of this subset were replaced one by one with a different marker set and genotyping results were compared to the results of the original subset and (4) the effect of sex was estimated. Additionally, 24 references from literature, including 256 European red deer populations, were analyzed. A median of 25 individuals per population was investigated in published studies using 11 microsatellite markers (5 to 22). Sixty-eight percent of possible study comparisons matched with less than 10% of microsatellite loci. Our results show that the factors investigated, except for the factor gender, lead to significant deviations in the population genetic results, especially with sample sizes below 30, with less than 6 to 8 microsatellite markers and with the use of different panels of microsatellite loci. This is also true with respect to population genetic structure and the use of Bayesian methods. Therefore, populations from different studies should be compared with each other with caution.
... The red deer (Cervus elaphus) is a good model species to address the hypothesis of cryptic refugia and its influence on the European postglacial colonization history, owing to its current and past widespread natural distribution across Europe [15,16], and known phylogeographical structure [17]. The most comprehensive study on a large biogeographical scale, using mitochondrial (mtDNA) cytochrome b data, has revealed that red deer originated in Asia and evolved into two distinct groups: a Western group with four lineages (Western Europe, Balkans, Africa and Middle East); and an Eastern group consisting of three lineages (North Asia/ America, South-Asia and East-Asia) [18]. ...
... The new D-loop sequences (670 bp) were aligned together with 624 sequences retrieved from GenBank, comprising the representative haplotypes from the majority of red deer studies published throughout Europe and North Africa up to 2017 [13,17,24,30,31,34,[64][65][66][67][68][69][70][71][72][73][74][75][76][77][78][79][80][81][82]. Phylogeographic analyses were performed at two geographical scales: the central and northern European level and the Iberian level. ...
... Populations from south-western of France, southern Ireland or a region between them could rapidly expand to central and northern Europe because there was a connection between the British Isles and mainland Europe [126] (Fig 10). The small haplotype diversity observed in the central and northern European countries, excluding the British Isles, is consistent with this rapid expansion after the LGM [17,19], while the high mtDNA diversity currently found in the British Isles could be a result of the sampling bias/reintroductions mentioned above or a local refugium (in or surrounding) of this species during the LGM [26]. Sampling of ancient red deer specimens in the continental shelf and southern France would help to elucidate the precise location of cryptic refugia, since current populations in France mostly derive from restocking events after World War II, as a consequence of almost complete extirpation of populations over the middle of the nineteenth century [127]. ...
The red deer (Cervus elaphus) is a widespread wild ungulate in Europe that has suffered strong anthropogenic impacts over their distribution during the last centuries, but also at the present time, due its economic importance as a game species. Here we focus on the evolutionary history of the red deer in Iberia, one of the three main southern refugial areas for temperate species in Europe, and addressed the hypothesis of a cryptic refugia at higher latitudes during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM). A total of 911 individuals were sampled, genotyped for 34 microsatellites specifically developed for red deer and sequenced for a fragment of 670 bp of the mitochondrial (mtDNA) D-loop. The results were combined with published mtDNA sequences, and integrated with species distribution models and historical European paleo-distribution data, in order to further examine the alternative glacial refugial models and the influence of cryptic refugia on European postglacial colonization history. Clear genetic differentiation between Iberian and European contemporary populations was observed at nuclear and mtDNA levels, despite the mtDNA haplotypes central to the phylogenetic network are present across western Europe (including Iberia) suggesting a panmictic population in the past. Species distribution models, fossil records and genetic data support a timing of divergence between Iberian and European populations that overlap with the LGM. A notable population structure was also found within the Iberian Peninsula, although several populations displayed high levels of admixture as a consequence of recent red deer translocations. Five D-loop sub-lineages were found in Iberia that belong to the Western European mtDNA lineage, while there were four main clusters based on analysis of nuclear markers. Regarding glacial refugial models, our findings provide detailed support for the hypothesis that red deer may have persisted in cryptic northern refugia in western Europe during the LGM, most likely in southern France, southern Ireland, or in a region between them (continental shelf), and these regions were the source of individuals during the European re-colonization. This evidence heightens the importance of conserving the high mitochondrial and nuclear diversity currently observed in Iberian populations.
... The red deer (Cervus elaphus) is one of the most widespread large mammals in Europe [29]. According to the Central Statistical Office in Poland, the national population of red deer increased significantly from 180 thousand to 281.9 thousand over the last eleven years, increasing the risk of exposure to deer in urban environments [30]. ...
... According to the Central Statistical Office in Poland, the national population of red deer increased significantly from 180 thousand to 281.9 thousand over the last eleven years, increasing the risk of exposure to deer in urban environments [30]. Furthermore, an in silico study of ACE2 (angiotensin-I-converting enzyme 2) receptors demonstrated that ACE2 from all three studied Cervidae species-the white-tailed deer, reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) and Père David's deer (Elaphurus davidianus)-are at high risk of binding SARS-CoV-2 receptor-binding domain [29]. Apart from K-N substitution, no differences have been found between the red deer and white-tailed deer ACE2 amino acid sequence [28]. ...
Several studies reported a high prevalence of SARS-CoV-2 among white-tailed deer in North America. Monitoring cervids in all regions to better understand SARS-CoV-2 infection and circulation in other deer populations has been urged. To evaluate deer exposure and/or infection to/by SARS-CoV-2 in Poland, we sampled 90 red deer shot by hunters in five hunting districts in north-eastern Poland. Serum and nasopharyngeal swabs were collected, and then an immunofluorescent assay (IFA) to detect anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibodies was performed as well as real-time PCR with reverse transcription for direct virus detection. No positive samples were detected. There is no evidence of spillover of SARS-CoV-2 from the human to deer population in Poland.
... The red deer (Cervus elaphus) is one of the most widespread large mammals in Europe [29]. According to the Central Statistical Office in Poland, the national population of red deer increased significantly from 180 thousand to 281.9 thousand over the last eleven years, increasing the risk of exposure to deer in urban environments [30]. ...
... According to the Central Statistical Office in Poland, the national population of red deer increased significantly from 180 thousand to 281.9 thousand over the last eleven years, increasing the risk of exposure to deer in urban environments [30]. Furthermore, an in silico study of ACE2 (angiotensin-I-converting enzyme 2) receptors demonstrated that ACE2 from all three studied Cervidae species-the white-tailed deer, reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) and Père David's deer (Elaphurus davidianus)-are at high risk of binding SARS-CoV-2 receptor-binding domain [29]. Apart from K-N substitution, no differences have been found between the red deer and white-tailed deer ACE2 amino acid sequence [28]. ...
Several studies reported a high prevalence of SARS-CoV-2 among white-tailed deer in North America. Monitoring cervids in all regions to better understand SARS-CoV-2 infection and circulation in other deer populations has been urged. To evaluate deer exposure to SARS-CoV-2 in Poland, we sampled 90 reed deer individuals shot by hunters in five hunting districts in northeastern Poland. Serum and nasopharyngeal swabs were collected, and then the Immunofluorescent Assay (IFA) to detect anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibodies was performed as well as real-time PCR with reverse transcription for direct virus detection. No positive samples were detected. There is no evidence of spillover of SARS-CoV-2 from the human to deer population in Poland.
... Consequently, its populations have been extensively managed, introduced, restocked, and selectively hunted for centuries or even millennia (Martínez et al. 2002;Haanes et al. 2010;Carden et al. 2012;Rivrud et al. 2013;Queirós et al. 2014;Hoffmann et al. 2016;Stanton et al. 2016;Frantz et al. 2017;Galarza et al. 2017). Furthermore, during the last decades, the keeping of deer in enclosures has spread all over the world, and the species is farmed for venison and antler products (Milner et al. 2006;Wada et al. 2010;Zachos and Hartl 2011;Bana et al. 2018). ...
... The blurred structuring could also be explained by humaninduced translocations, as such activities are thought to have concerned important game species for centuries or even millennia (Scandura et al. 2011;Zachos and Hartl 2011;Steinbach et al. 2018;Queirós et al. 2020). It is believed that the present gene pool of many European red deer populations is affected by human-induced translocations (Frantz et al. 2006;Carden et al. 2012;Krojerová-Prokešová et al. 2015;Stanton et al. 2016;Galarza et al. 2017;Iacolina et al. 2019;Queirós et al. 2020). ...
After the last glacial, the Carpathian Basin was repopulated from either eastward or northward colonisation routes for various species; one of these was the emblematic member of the European megafauna, the red deer, Cervus elaphus. We analysed 303 red deer individuals from the middle of the region, in seven Hungarian game reserves, at ten microsatellite loci (C01, C229, T26, T108, T123, T156, T172, T193, T501, T507), to investigate the genetic diversity of these subpopulations. We discovered high levels of genetic diversity of red deer subpopulations; allelic richness values ranging 4.99-7.01, observed heterozygosity 0.729-0.800, polymorphic information content 0.722-0.806, and Shannon's information index 1.668-2.064. Multi-locus analyses indicated population admixtures of various degrees that corresponded to geographical location, and complex genetic structures were shown by clustering. Populations in the southwestern and the northeastern parts of the region formed two highly separated groups, and the red deer from populations in between them were highly admixed (in western Pannonia/Transdanubia, where the Danube flows into the Carpathian Basin). This pattern corresponds to the distribution of mitochondrial as well as Y-chromosome lineages. Assignment tests showed that a large fraction of individuals (29.4%) are found outside of their population of origin, indicating that the dispersal of red deer is rather common, which could be expected considering the life course of the species.
... Mitochondrial markers (for a review see Zachos and Hartl 2011) identified in European red deer modern populations three major haplogroups including the several subspecies described for this taxon (Skog et al. 2009 in Italy. C. e. italicus (formerly in haplogroup C) (Ludt et al. 2004;Skog et al. 2009) and haplogroup E occur in Armenia, Crimea, and Southern Russia (Doan et al. 2022). ...
... From Iberia, lineage A colonized the British Isles and parts of Central Europe; in the Balkan region, lineage C migrated to South-East Central Europe and the Carpathians. The Mediterranean (lineage B) could be originated from the Italian refugial lineage, and lineage D has been proposed for the Middle East and South-Eastern Europe (Zachos and Hartl 2011;Meiri et al. 2013;Doan et al. 2017;Schnitzler et al. 2018;Queiros et al. 2019). These hypotheses have been recently reconsidered and new data suggested that the species survived the LGM not only in the well-known southern European refugia, but also in more northern areas of Western and Eastern Europe and in the Urals (Niedziałkowska et al. 2021). ...
The red deer Cervus elephus has been a common species in Italy until the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, when its distribution range started to considerably decrease, due to gradual deforestation and hunting pressure. Afterwards, the red deer has been reintroduced to many regions of the world, including Italy. In the Italian Apennines, the Acquerino-Cantagallo Natural Reserve (ACQUERINO) hosts one of the largest peninsular red deer populations, originated from a series of successful reintroductions. In this study, we meant to detect the level of genetic variability of Acquerino-Cantagallo Natural Reserve deer population and to investigate the genetic relationships with the other Italian and European populations. We identified five mitochondrial DNA control region (D-loop) haplotypes, four falling in lineage A and one falling in lineage C, derived from at least two maternal lineages, confirming that ACQUERINO population should be the result of multiple reintroductions. Haplotype diversity (H = 0.50) and nucleotide (π = 0.004) diversity were low, but included into the deer range values. ACQUERINO population showed low levels of genetic diversity when compared to other European and Mediterranean populations, confirming that this expanding population may have been generated from a low number of founders.
... Red deer Cervus elaphus stags produce their rutting calls for attracting potential mates and deterring competitive males (Clutton-Brock and Albon 1979). Studies of acoustic variation of stag rutting calls (Frey et al. 2012;Passilongo et al. 2013;Della Libera et al. 2015;Volodin et al. 2015aVolodin et al. ,b, 2019Golosova et al. 2017) are in agreement with the subdivision of red deer to phylogenetic lineages (Mahmut et al. 2002;Ludt et al. 2004;Skog et al. 2009;Zachos and Hartl 2011;Zachos et al. 2016). The acoustics of stag rutting calls proved to be helpful population markers in red deer (Frey et al. 2012;Passilongo et al. 2013;Volodin et al. 2019) in addition to the genetic markers, such as mtDNA and microsatellites (Feulner et al. 2004;Niedziałkowska et al. 2012;Krojerova-Prokešova et al. 2015;Carranza et al. 2016;Zachos et al. 2016). ...
... After the Late Pleistocene glacial maximum occurred 25-12 thousand years ago (Clark et al. 2009), the species Cervus elaphus recolonized Europe (Ludt et al. 2004;Skog et al. 2009;Zachos and Hartl 2011;Niedziałkowska et al. 2021). Recolonization started from the three main refugia, corresponding to red deer mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) lineages A, B, and C (Ludt et al. 2004;Skog et al. 2009;Niedziałkowska et al. 2011Niedziałkowska et al. , 2021. ...
This study investigates a population of red deer Cervus elaphus, founded by 10 individuals introduced in the nineteenth century from Germany to the Voronezh region of the European part of Southern Russia and then developed without further introductions. We characterize for the first time the vocal phenotype of the Voronezh red deer male rutting calls in comparison with similar data on the Pannonian (native Central European) and Iberian (native West European) red deer obtained by the authors during preceding studies. In addition, we provide for the first time the genetic data on Pannonian red deer. In Voronezh stags, the number of roars per bout (2.85 ± 1.79) was lower than in Pannonian (3.18 ± 2.17) but higher than in Iberian (2.11 ± 1.71) stags. In Voronezh stags, the duration of main (the longest within bouts) roars was longer (2.46 ± 1.14 s) than in Pannonian (1.13 ± 0.50 s) or Iberian (1.90 ± 0.50 s) stags. The maximum fundamental frequency of main roars was similar between Voronezh (175 ± 60 Hz) and Pannonian (168 ± 61 Hz) but higher in Iberian stags (223 ± 35 Hz). Mitochondrial cytochrome b gene analysis of red deer from the three study populations partially supports the bioacoustical data, of closer similarity between Voronezh and Pannonian populations. In contrast, microsatellite DNA analysis delineates Voronezh red deer from either Pannonian or Iberian red deer. We discuss that population bottlenecking might affect the acoustics of the rutting roars, in addition to genotype.
... The vocal features of a certain subspecies are constant across different populations, e.g. in Iberian red deer C.e. hispanicus (Frey et al., 2012;Passilongo et al., 2013;Volodin et al., 2015a) and Siberian wapiti C.e. sibiricus (Volodin et al., 2013b;Golosova et al., 2017). Therefore, bioacoustical analysis represents a powerful tool for defining and validating subspecies of red deer, provided they were not subjected to the introgression of genes from other subspecies as a result of multiple anthropogenic translocations of red deer over historical times (Zachos and Hartl, 2011;Zachos et al., 2016;Frantz et al., 2017). Although subspecies-specific rutting vocalizations do not provide reliable reproductive barriers against hybridization (Long et al., 1998;Nussey et al., 2006;Wyman et al., 2016), they may serve for the affiliation of native populations of Cervus elaphus with a particular subspecies (Frey et al., 2012;Volodin et al., 2015a, b;Golosova et al., 2017). ...
... We also compared stag rutting roars of the Pannonian red deer with stag roars of other European subspecies, regarding fundamental frequency and duration (Fig. 5, Table A1 in Appendix A). Overall, the acoustics of stag rutting roars in the European subspecies of red deer fit well to the respective three haplogroups of mitochondrial DNA (A, B, and C), which, in their order, fit to the Please cite this article in press as: Volodin (Skog et al., 2009;Zachos and Hartl, 2011). The roars of male Corsican red deer C.e. corsicanus (haplogroup B, Skog et al., 2009;Doan et al., 2017) are the lowest in maximum fundamental frequency and are well distinguishable from the roars of both the Mesola red deer stags C.e. italicus (lineage intermediate between A and C haplogroups, Zachos et al., 2014) and from the roars of the Scottish and the Iberian stags (haplogroup A, Skog et al., 2009) (Fig. 5). ...
The acoustics of male rutting roars, aside from genetic markers, are useful tools for characterization of populations and subspecies of red deer Cervus elaphus. This study of rutting mature male Pannonian red deer from Southern Hungary presents a description of the calling posture, a graphical reconstruction of the oral vocal tract length during rutting roar production and a spectrographic analyses of 1740 bouts containing a total of 5535 rutting roars. In addition, this study provides the first direct comparison of the bouts and main (=longest) rutting roars between Pannonian and Iberian red deer stags, representative of the Western and Eastern lineages of European red deer. The bouts of the Pannonian stags comprised 1-15 roars per bout; 24.37% were single-roar bouts and 23.68% were two-roar bouts. The duration of the main roars within bouts ranged from 0.52 s to 4.60 s, 1.13±0.50 s on average. Main common roars (66.3% of the 1740 main roars), were longer than harsh roars (1.27±0.55 s vs 0.87±0.25 s) and higher in maximum fundamental frequency (179±61 Hz vs 147±54 Hz). In multi-roar bouts, main harsh roars were first roars in 47.4%, intermediate roars in 19.2% and last roars in 18.8% of the bouts. Bout structure and the acoustics of main roars in the Pannonian stags differed from those in the Iberian stags and in stags from other populations of Cervus elaphus. These results support a power of rutting vocalizations for consideration as an additional tool for discriminating populations and subspecies within Cervus elaphus.
... Currently, red deer is one of the largest wildlife species in Central Europe [25][26][27]. ...
This paper presents a streamlined approach to describing potential habitats for red deer (Cervus elaphus) in situations where in situ data collected through observations and monitoring are absent or insufficient. The main objectives of this study were as follows: (a) to minimize the negative effects of limited in situ data; (b) to identify landscape features with a functional relationship between habitat quality and landscape structure; and (c) to use imprecise in situ data for statistical analyses to specify these relationships. The test area was located in the eastern part of Mecklenburg-Western Pomeriania (Germany). For this area, remotely sensed forest maps were used to determine landscape metrics as independent variables. Dichotomous habitat suitability was determined based on hunting distances over a five-year period. Ecological and biological habitat requirements of red deer were derived from suitable landscape measures, which served as model inputs. Correlation analysis identified the most relevant independent landscape metrics. Logistic regression then tested various metric combinations at both class and landscape levels to assess habitat suitability. Within the model variants, the contagion index, edge density, and percentage of forested area showed the largest relative impact on habitat suitability. The approach can also be applied to other mammals, provided there are appropriate structural preferences and empirical data on habitat suitability.
... In particular, the study of population genetics has proven invaluable for designing evidence-based conservation strategies. For example, genome-wide sequencing efforts have been pivotal in assessing the genetic health of endangered species, such as the European bison (Bison bonasus) and wild boar (Sus scrofa), where targeted conservation actions, including translocation and habitat restoration, have been implemented based on genetic findings [27,28]. In light of these advances, this study aims to contribute to the conservation efforts for Siberian roe deer in the Greater Khingan Mountains by investigating the population genetic characteristics of the species in this unique cold-temperate forest ecosystem. ...
This study focuses on the Siberian roe deer population in the Greater Khingan Mountains, Northeast China. The cold temperate forest ecosystem in this area is distinctive. The Siberian roe deer is a crucial ecological indicator species, and its living conditions hold significant importance for ecological balance. From the winter of 2019 to 2022, 269 fecal samples of Siberian roe deer were collected from four protected areas in the northern part of the Greater Khingan Mountains, Heilongjiang Province. These samples were comprehensively analyzed using mitochondrial DNA and microsatellite markers, combined with conservation genetics evaluation methods. The results revealed that 244 individuals were identified in the fecal samples. The results of a Cyt b genetic analysis of the samples indicated that the haplotype and nucleotide diversity were 88.1% and 20.3%, respectively. The evaluation of 14 pairs of microsatellite loci showed that the average number of alleles was 11.2, and the average expected and observed heterozygosity were 0.672 and 0.506, respectively. Therefore, the overall genetic diversity level is high, but some populations of Siberian roe deer are at risk. AMOVA analysis and STRUCTURE Bayesian clustering confirmed the existence of obvious genetic differentiation among the populations. Historical studies have shown that the HZ and SH populations underwent the earliest diffusion events, and the BJC and SL populations also exhibited related signs (HZ: Huzhong Nature Reserve in the Greater Khingan Mountains; SH: Shuanghe National Nature Reserve in Heilongjiang Province; BJC: Heilongjiang Beijicun National Nature Reserve; SL: Songling District in Heilongjiang Province). Mismatch distribution and neutral tests indicated no expansion events or bottleneck effects in the population, and the inbreeding coefficient was positive, suggesting the possibility of inbreeding. The development potential of the population in the future varies among the various local populations. This study supports the biodiversity of Siberian roe deer at the genetic level to save the population and provides important scientific basis and reference for the protection and management of Siberian roe deer.
... The red deer (Cervus elaphus) belongs to the mammalian class, Artiodacytla order, and Cervidae family [1], and is one of the largest and most populous herbivore species (population of~69,000 red deer in 2023), after roe deer (Capreolus capreolus, population of 230,000 in 2023), in Latvia [2]. The red deer is native to continental Europe, apart from Northern Scandinavia, Finland, and Iceland [3]. ...
Simple Summary
Normal values of tear production (STT) and intraocular pressure (IOP) are important values resulting from ophthalmic examinations in animals, but so far there are no data from conscious red deer. The establishment of reference value ranges specific to conscious animals may be useful to institutions in settings where chemical immobilization is not necessary for the examination of the species. A total of 60 red deer were examined in this study. Both eyes of all red deer underwent a complete ophthalmic examination, including evaluation of tear production with the Schirmer tear test and IOP readings. The mean ± standard deviation of STT values were 18.35 ± 4.54 mm/30 s in the right eye and 17.87 ± 4.12 mm/30 s in the left; for both eyes, 18.11 ± 4.33 mm/30 s, with a reference range of 17.33–18.89 mm/30 s. IOP was as follows: 26.96 ± 4.42 mmHg in the right eye and 26.67 ± 3.80 mmHg in the left; for both eyes, 26.81 ± 4.11 mmHg, with a reference range of 26.07–27.55 mm/30 s. No statistically significant differences were found between the right and left eye in terms of IOP and STT values. This study provides the normal range for STT and IOP in healthy red deer. It demonstrates that STT is a practical method for determining tear production, and rebound tonometry is a practical method for evaluating IOP in ophthalmic examinations of deer.
Abstract
Normal values of tear production (STT) and intraocular pressure (IOP) have not been reported in conscious red deer to date. The objective was to determine the normal range of STT and IOP in clinically healthy, conscious red deer (Cervus elaphus) by utilizing a chute restraint. A total of 60 red deer were examined in this study. Both eyes of all red deer underwent a complete ophthalmic examination, including evaluation of tear production with the Schirmer tear test (STT) and assessment of intraocular pressure (IOP) with rebound tonometry, employing the TonoVet® device. The mean ± standard deviation of STT values were 18.35 ± 4.54 mm/30 s in the right eye and 17.87 ± 4.12 mm/30 s in the left; for both eyes, 18.11 ± 4.33 mm/30 s, with a reference range of 17.33–18.89 mm/30 s. IOP was as follows: 26.96 ± 4.42 mmHg in the right eye and 26.67 ± 3.80 mmHg in the left; for both eyes, it was 26.81 ± 4.11 mmHg, with a reference range of 26.07–27.55 mm/30 s. No statistically significant differences were observed between the IOP and STT values of the right and left eyes. This study provides a reference range for the STT and IOP in healthy red deer, showing that STT determination of tear production, and rebound tonometry to evaluate the IOP methods, are practical methods for ophthalmic examination in deer.
... As neither an accepted domesticated nor a "pristine" wild species, both Persian and European fallow deer have been under-researched relative to other cervids such as reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) and red deer (Cervus elaphus) which have been the subject of numerous studies concerning their ancient range and management (19)(20)(21)(22)(23). By contrast, there is no consensus regarding the European fallow deer's glacial refugia or natural post-glacial distribution. ...
Over the last 10,000 y, humans have manipulated fallow deer populations with varying outcomes. Persian fallow deer ( Dama mesopotamica ) are now endangered. European fallow deer ( Dama dama ) are globally widespread and are simultaneously considered wild, domestic, endangered, invasive and are even the national animal of Barbuda and Antigua. Despite their close association with people, there is no consensus regarding their natural ranges or the timing and circumstances of their human-mediated translocations and extirpations. Our mitochondrial analyses of modern and archaeological specimens revealed two distinct clades of European fallow deer present in Anatolia and the Balkans. Zooarchaeological evidence suggests these regions were their sole glacial refugia. By combining biomolecular analyses with archaeological and textual evidence, we chart the declining distribution of Persian fallow deer and demonstrate that humans repeatedly translocated European fallow deer, sourced from the most geographically distant populations. Deer taken to Neolithic Chios and Rhodes derived not from nearby Anatolia, but from the Balkans. Though fallow deer were translocated throughout the Mediterranean as part of their association with the Greco-Roman goddesses Artemis and Diana, deer taken to Roman Mallorca were not locally available Dama dama , but Dama mesopotamica . Romans also initially introduced fallow deer to Northern Europe but the species became extinct and was reintroduced in the medieval period, this time from Anatolia. European colonial powers then transported deer populations across the globe. The biocultural histories of fallow deer challenge preconceptions about the divisions between wild and domestic species and provide information that should underpin modern management strategies.
... The overall population genetic diversity of roe deer in Europe appeared relatively high compared to other large ungulates inhabiting the temperate climatic zone such as Red Deer (Cervus elaphus; Niedziałkowska et al. 2012;Zachos et al. 2016) and Moose (Alces alces; Niedziałkowska et al. 2016a). Observed heterozygosity of roe deer was higher than in Red Deer and Moose populations, whereas allelic richness was similar to Moose and higher than in Red Deer (Zachos and Hartl 2011;Niedziałkowska et al. 2012;Zachos et al. 2016). We found some excess heterozygosity in all except one studied roe deer site. ...
Although the European Roe Deer (Capreolus capreolus) is one of the most common and widespread ungulate species in Europe and inhabiting a variety of habitats, few studies have addressed its population structure at a large spatial scale using nuclear genetic data. The aims of our study were to: (i) investigate genetic diversity, level of admixture, and genetic structure across European Roe Deer populations; (ii) identify barriers to gene flow; and (iii) reveal factors that have impacted the observed pattern of population genetic structure. Using 12 microsatellite loci, we analyzed 920 European Roe Deer samples from 16 study sites from northern, southern, central, and eastern Europe. The highest genetic diversity was found in central and eastern sites, and lowest in the northern and southern sites. There were 2 main groups of genetically related populations in the study area—one inhabiting mainly Fennoscandia, and the second in the continental part of Europe. This second population was further divided into 3 to 5 spatially distributed genetic clusters. European Roe Deer belonging to the Siberian mitochondrial DNA clade, inhabiting large parts of eastern Europe, were not identified as a separate population in the analysis of microsatellite loci. No isolation by distance (IBD) was detected between roe deer from the fennoscandian and the continental study sites, but the Baltic Sea was inferred to be the main barrier to gene flow. Only weak IBD was revealed within the continental population. Three lower-level genetic barriers were detected in the western, southern, and eastern parts of the study area. The main factors inferred as shaping the observed genetic diversity and population structure of European Roe Deer were postglacial recolonization, admixture of different populations of the species originating from several Last Glacial Maximum refugial areas, and isolation of several study sites.
... The red deer (Cervus elaphus) is a widely distributed large mammal, ecosystem engineer, and an important game species in Europe [36]. Despite the abundance of red deer in most of its range, concerns have been raised regarding the preservation of their genetic composition in specific areas [37,38]. Furthermore, game management practices have the potential to impact the genetic structure of red deer populations through activities such as translocating individuals [39], preventing dispersal [40], modifying female aggregation patterns and polygyny degree [41], and altering population structures [42,43]. ...
The analysis of population genetic structure and individual multilocus heterozygosity are crucial for wildlife management and conservation. Microsatellite markers have traditionally been used to assess these genetic parameters. However, single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) are becoming increasingly popular. Our goal here was to determine to what extent SNPs can provide better insights than microsatellites into the overall genetic status and population genetic processes in the species. To this end, we genotyped 210 red deer (Cervus elaphus) in the Spanish wild population with both 11 microsatellites and 31,712 SNPs. We compared parameters related to population genetic structure and individual multilocus heterozygosity obtained with both types of markers. Our results showed correlations between parameters measured using both microsatellites and SNPs, particularly those related to the level of genetic diversity and genetic differentiation. However, we found notably lower precision of microsatellites in measuring the distribution of genetic diversity among individuals. We conclude that microsatellites can be used to monitor the overall genetic status and detect broad patterns in red deer populations. Nevertheless, the greater precision of SNPs in inferring genetic structure and multilocus heterozygosity leads us to encourage scientists and wildlife managers to prioritize their use whenever possible.
... A particular example of this phenomenon is the fencing of game estates and deer parks, which is considered the first management action in order to preserve the trophy quality and avoid the loss of valuable individuals [25]. Therefore, without monitoring of populations' diversity and proper farm management (game estates and parks/game preserves), effective population size and genetic drift, and simultaneously increase of inbreeding in small and discontinuously distributed populations can be expected [1,9,26]. ...
In this study, we analysed the effect of human-mediated selection on the gene pool of wild and farmed red deer populations based on genotyping-by-sequencing data. The farmed red deer sample covered populations spread across seven countries and two continents (France, Germany, Hungary, Latvia, New Zealand, Poland, and Slovakia). The Slovak and Spain wild red deer populations (the latter one in a large game estate) were used as control outgroups. The gene flow intensity, relationship and admixture among populations were tested by the Bayesian approach and discriminant analysis of principal components (DAPC). The highest gene diversity (He = 0.19) and the lowest genomic inbreeding (FHOM = 0.04) found in Slovak wild population confirmed our hypothesis that artificial selection accompanied by bottlenecks has led to the increase in overall genomic homozygosity. The Bayesian approach and DAPC consistently identified three separate genetic groups. As expected, the farmed populations were clustered together, while the Slovak and Spanish populations formed two separate clusters. Identified traces of genetic admixture in the gene pool of farmed populations reflected a strong contemporary migration rate between them. This study suggests that even if the history of deer farming has been shorter than traditional livestock species, it may leave significant traces in the genome structure.
... It has been influenced by human disturbances over centuries (Hartl et al., 2003). The principal threat on red deer gene pools is habitat fragmentation in human landscapes, which causes a reduction of genetic variability in the isolated populations throughout Europe (Zachos and Hartl, 2011). In Switzerland, this species was considered early as a focal species for the definition of the national level ecological network because red deer is a longdistance migrant animal and the corridors used during these movements are relatively well known in the country (Holzgang et al., 2001;Berthoud et al., 2004). ...
Ecological connectivity is a key attribute of landscapes and indicates how landscapes facilitate or impede movement. It is an essential criterion to consider in the design of green infrastructures (GIs) when landscape planners and managers deal with population viability, which in part depends on the movement capacities of organisms. Our goal is to inform about the conservation value of land parcels to maintain or enhance connectivity. For this, we developed a red deer functional connectivity model at a regional scale. We focused our study on this large mammal species inhabiting the Greater Geneva agglomeration between Switzerland and France. Our study site is dominated by forested mountains and lowlands, which are highly fragmented by human infrastructures and agricultural lands. We used GPS location data from 15 red deer to parameterize the habitat resistances with a multivariate analysis. To predict connectivity at the regional scale, we used local expert knowledge to design a graph-based landscape. Then, we used electric circuit theory with Circuitscape software to detect pinch points and map corridors, using the set of resistances parameterized with experimental data and the putative core areas and links identified with the help of expert knowledge. We obtained a map that highlights suitable regional habitat patches and corridors or connectivity pinch points potentially used by red deer between the mountains and the lowlands, ratifying the importance of the transfrontier collaboration while implementing the GI. The obtained results are used to assist landscape managers and planners in their effort to include functional connectivity in the prioritization of the GI across the region.
... These glacial refugia determined the evolution of ≥3 differentiated genetic lineages that shape the current genetic structure of red deer in Europe: western European lineage, eastern European lineage, and Mediterranean lineage in North Africa and the Tyrrhenian islands (Skog et al. 2009). Moreover, genetically distinctive groups have been detected in some areas that acted as glacial refugia (Zachos and Hartl 2011, Zachos et al. 2014, Carranza et al. 2016. For instance, Skog et al. (2009) reported that red deer from Mesola, Italy present a D-loop ancient haplotype with uncertain placement between the western and eastern European lineages. ...
Natural events over time, and human interventions, influence the genetic structure of species. The red deer ( Cervus elaphus ) is widely distributed in Europe, with a large‐scale genetic structure largely determined by Pleistocene climatic oscillations. The Iberian Peninsula acted as one of the main glacial refuges for many species; a particular red deer lineage remains on the peninsula and is subjected to special conservation policies. The mountain range of the Pyrenees might be a contact zone where Iberian red deer ( Cervus elaphus hispanicus ) could hybridize with other central European genetic lineages. In the late twentieth century, the natural distribution areas of red deer on both sides of the Pyrenees became closer because of restocking from central Iberia to areas south of the Pyrenees and from French populations to areas north of the Pyrenees. We analyzed the genetic structure of red deer populations in the Pyrenees to investigate the underlying processes of population contact and hybridization. The analysis of microsatellite genotypes showed 2 genetic clusters. One of these clusters associated with Iberian red deer, whereas the other presented European non‐Iberian genetic composition. Migration and hybridization events occurred between both genetic clusters, mostly in the eastern part of the sampling area. The Pyrenees is currently a secondary contact zone caused by anthropogenic translocations, and a risky hybrid belt for red deer genetic conservation.
... Environmental factors have influenced the distribution and genetic diversity of cervids. For example, the phylogeographic structure of the European red deer (Cervus elaphus) has been influenced by environmental factors with a signal of population expansions from multiple refugia after the last glacial period (Ludt et al. 2004;Skog et al. 2009;Zachos and Hartl 2011;Meiri et al. 2013). Range expansion from glacial refugia is known for other deer such as North American mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus; Latch et al. 2009), and European roe deer (Capreolus capreolus; Sommer et al. 2009). ...
Deer have been a major resource for human populations for thousands of years. Anthropogenic activities, such as hunting, have influenced the genetic structure and distribution of deer populations. In Japan, wild Japanese sika deer (Cervus nippon) have been hunted since ancient times but have also been historically protected as sacred animals in several sanctuaries. Sika deer have been protected for over a thousand years in the religious sanctuary around the Kasuga Taisha Shrine on the Kii Peninsula, located in the center of Japan. Here, we used short sequence repeats (SSR) and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) to investigate the genetic diversity, population structure, and demography of Japanese sika deer inhabiting the Kii Peninsula, Japan, and discuss possible anthropogenic influences. Using SSR, three distinct genetic groups were distinguished on the Kii Peninsula: an Eastern genetic group, a Western genetic group, and an isolated genetic group with individuals in the religious sanctuary of Kasuga Taisha Shrine in Nara city. The isolated genetic sanctuary group had only the mtDNA haplotype S4. The SSR genotype data suggested a newer divergence time of the genetic groups of the religious sanctuary than would have occurred as a result of Late Quaternary climate change. This time scale coincided with the establishment of the sanctuary with Kasuga Taisha Shrine. Thus, the religious protection conserved genetic variation over a thousand years.
... Diversity values are therefore usually not directly comparable, although the relative diversity when comparing different populations often holds across different marker systems. Zachos and Hartl (2011) give an overview of studies (including diversity values) until 2010. The only continent-wide population genetic study yielding directly comparable diversity values (including estimates of effective population sizes N e ) based on highly variable microsatellite data is the one by Zachos et al. (2016). ...
... It is considered a fruitful conservation tool, although its implementation needs to present consistent justification and it needs to reflect a balance between conservation benefits and its costs [23]. Management practices targeting ungulate species-including translocations, captive-breeding, fencing-potentially lead to changes in the genetic patterns of populations [24][25][26] but can result on: the decline of genetic variation, increased inbreeding, low population viability and even loss of local adaptations [27][28][29]. Demographic restoration may not reflect genetic improvement of the target populations [30]. For these reasons, information on the phylogeographic origins and genetic affinities among populations may provide useful insights for the implementation of conservation and management strategies, although this is still underappreciated [31]. ...
The Iberian ibex is one of the most singular species of the Iberian Peninsula. Throughout the years, this species suffered several threats which led the population to its decline. Many reintroductions and translocations were made, however, none of those actions took into account the genetic patterns of both reintroduced individuals and the target populations. In this paper, we explored the genetic traits of three populations of Iberian ibex in Catalonia, which experienced blind reintroductions in past years: The populations of Iberian ibex from Els Ports de Tortosa i Beseit National Game Reserve (TBNGR), Montserrat Natural Park (Monserrat) and Montgrí, les Illes Medes i el Baix Ter Natural Park (Montgrí) Based on the genetic patterns of the three populations coupled with the absence of genetic introgression with domestic goats–inferred using mitochondrial and nuclear markers–we propose that these should be regarded as two different management units: TBNGR coupled with Montserrat, and Montgrí. Montserrat population should be targeted as a population model for ecology and evolution studies. Although we did not detect evidences of recent bottleneck events, this population seems to be monomorphic for the mtDNA haplotype. Our results suggest that the blind reintroductions from TBNGR to Montserrat failed on maximizing the genetic diversity of the latter. We enhance the importance of genetic monitoring of both the source population and the selected individuals to be re-introduced. We conclude that the three studied population of Iberian ibex must be monitored to explore which strategy would be advantageous for maintaining the genetic diversity. On the other hand, TBNGR should be monitored to assess the existence of its singular genetic variation, where stochastic events could preserve this lost genetic variation.
... It is considered a fruitful conservation tool, although its implementation needs to present consistent justification and it needs to reflect a balance between conservation benefits and its costs [23]. Management practices targeting ungulate species-including translocations, captive-breeding, fencing-potentially lead to changes in the genetic patterns of populations [24][25][26] but can result on: the decline of genetic variation, increased inbreeding, low population viability and even loss of local adaptations [27][28][29]. Demographic restoration may not reflect genetic improvement of the target populations [30]. For these reasons, information on the phylogeographic origins and genetic affinities among populations may provide useful insights for the implementation of conservation and management strategies, although this is still underappreciated [31]. ...
... Particularly Particularly among disturbance-sensitive species, investigation of obtaining, enhancing, or establishing functional connectivity is a challenge. One such species is the red deer, a social herbivore distributed across Europe with large-scale habitat demands and threatened by habitat loss and fragmentation (Hartl et al. 2005;Milner et al. 2006;Kamler 2007;Zachos & Hartl 2011;Zachos et al. 2016). Naturally, a species using open landscapes, it was pushed back into the forests (Kinser et al. 2010) as secure habitats to rest, ruminate and forage (e.g., Charles, McGowan & East, 1977;Godvik et al. 2009;Richter et al. 2020). ...
This thesis investigates the effects of environmental variables on gene flow and migration of two contrasting species across Germany. Using red deer (Cervus elaphus) and European wildcat (Felis silvestris silvestris) as study species, the impeding effects of human infrastructure and current species management are demonstrated. Comparing genetically derived corridor models with already existing corridor models for both species, similarities and differences are presented.
... Diversity values are therefore usually not directly comparable, although the relative diversity when comparing different populations often holds across different marker systems. Zachos and Hartl (2011) give an overview of studies (including diversity values) until 2010. The only continent-wide population genetic study yielding directly comparable diversity values (including estimates of effective population sizes N e ) based on highly variable microsatellite data is the one by Zachos et al. (2016). ...
An up-to-date synthesis of the biology, ecology, behaviour and conservation status of the red deer. After introducing the taxonomic status and the the systematic of the species, we provide an account of its current distribution. We then describe the main morphological, physiological and genetic features; the main life history traits (growth, survival and reproduction); the relationships with the environment (space use, diet) and how internal and external variables impact on population dynamics, including competition with other species; the social behaviour throughout the year and the mating system; the most relevant diseases and their demographic impacts; the issues surrounding management and conservation. This chapter will provide researchers and people interested in red deer with the opportunity to access the most relevant advances on the biology of this species.
... L'augmentation de l'aire de répartition a également été observée pour les espèces de plaine. Le chevreuil et le cerf comptent aujourd'hui parmi les mammifères les plus largement distribués en Europe (Linnell & Zachos, 2010 ; Figure 1D&E) grâce à leurs capacités à occuper une large gamme d'habitats tels que les forêts tempérées ou les milieux du pourtour méditerranéen (Lovari, 2018), et dans le cas du cerf à de nombreuses réintroductions (Zachos and Hartl, 2011). Au cours de la fin du XIX e et au début du XX e siècle, une forte baisse du nombre de chevreuils en Europe et de sa distribution ont été observées en raison de la chasse, et dans certains pays, l'espèce était au bord de l'extinction -comme par exemple en Angleterre (Hewison and Staines, 2008) ou en Suède (Liberg et al., 2010). ...
Les effets des changements globaux sur les habitats naturels sont de plus en plus perceptibles, et comprendre comment les animaux y répondent est nécessaire pour une meilleure gestion de leurs populations. C’est en effet à travers leur impact sur l’environnement, et essentiellement sur les habitats, que les activités humaines ont souvent le plus grand effet sur les écosystèmes, à travers le changement climatique, la fragmentation, la destruction de l'habitat, les changements dans l'utilisation des terres ou la surexploitation des ressources. Les ongulés constituent un exemple marquant de progression numérique et spatiale d’une guilde d’espèces dans des écosystèmes impactés par l’Homme. Cet essor démographique est à l’origine d’un nombre croissant d’interactions entre Homme et faune et place la gestion de ces espèces au cœur des préoccupations des politiques publiques. Dans ce contexte, j’ai étudié cinq espèces de grands ongulés sauvages : le chamois, le mouflon, le bouquetin, le chevreuil et le cerf, dans le cadre du projet Mov-It (Ungulates MOVing across heterogeneous landscapes: identifying behavioural processes linking global change to spatially-explicIT demographic performance and management), soutenu par l’Agence Nationale de la Recherche (ANR). Dans un premier temps, je mets en évidence les liens entre variations intraspécifiques de la taille du domaine vital saisonnier des ongulés, le paysage (i.e. les ressources, le risque et l’hétérogénéité) et les traits d’histoire de vie de ces espèces. Je me suis ensuite intéressée plus particulièrement à l’influence des structures linéaires anthropiques et naturelles du paysage sur l'utilisation individuelle de l'espace. Je montre ainsi que les grands herbivores utilisent des structures linéaires du paysage pour délimiter leur domaine vital mensuel, mais que l'importance relative de ces structures linéaires dans la délimitation du domaine vital mensuel diminuait à mesure que leur densité augmentait dans le paysage local. Je mets également en évidence le caractère risqué des structures anthropiques pour les ongulés, en particulier l'effet de l'intensité de l’utilisation humaine de ces structures sur le nombre de traversées par les mouflons. Enfin, l’importance de la prise en compte du paysage du risque et des ressources sur l’organisation sociale est démontré. En effet, la formation de dyades (i.e. paires d’individus) est plus probable dans les milieux ouverts riche en ressources et lorsque le risque, incluant prédation et dérangement, est le plus fort (i.e. le jour). L’ensemble des résultats présentés dans ce travail de thèse a permis d’améliorer notre compréhension des effets de la structure du paysage et de la socialité sur la sélection d’habitat et le mouvement chez différentes espèces d’ongulés.
... The common and scientific species names for our three study species are taken from Burgin et al. (2020). For red deer, we additionally considered Ludt et al. (2004) and Zachos and Hartl (2011) ...
Eurasian deer are characterized by the extraordinary diversity of their vocal repertoires. Male sexual calls range from roars with relatively low fundamental frequency (hereafter fo) in red deer Cervus elaphus, to moans with extremely high fo in sika deer Cervus nippon, and almost infrasonic groans with exceptionally low fo in fallow deer Dama dama. Moreover, while both red and fallow males are capable of lowering their formant frequencies during their calls, sika males appear to lack this ability. Female contact calls are also characterized by relatively less pronounced, yet strong interspecific differences. The aim of this study is to examine the anatomical bases of these inter-specific and inter-sexual differences by identifying if the acoustic variation is reflected in corresponding anatomical variation. To do this, we investigated the vocal anatomy of male and female specimens of each of these three species. Across species and sexes, we find that the observed acoustic variability is indeed related to expected corresponding anatomical differences, based on the source-filter theory of vocal production. At the source level, low fo is associated with larger vocal folds, whereas high fo is associated with smaller vocal folds: sika deer have the smallest vocal folds and male fallow deer the largest. Red and sika deer vocal folds do not appear to be sexually dimorphic, while fallow deer exhibit strong sexual dimorphism (after correcting for body size differences). At the filter level, the variability in formants is related to the configuration of the vocal tract: in fallow and red deer, both sexes have evolved a permanently descended larynx (with a resting position of the larynx much lower in males than in females). Both sexes also have the potential for momentary, call-synchronous vocal tract elongation, again more pronounced in males than in females. In contrast, the resting position of the larynx is high in both sexes of sika deer and the potential for further active vocal tract elongation is virtually absent in both sexes. Anatomical evidence suggests an evolutionary reversal in larynx position within sika deer, that is, a secondary larynx ascent. Together, our observations confirm that the observed diversity of vocal behaviour in polygynous deer is supported by strong anatomical differences, highlighting the importance of anatomical specializations in shaping mammalian vocal repertoires. Sexual selection is discussed as a potential evolutionary driver of the observed vocal diversity and sexual dimorphisms.
... In absolute terms however, the data of the Hessian population show rather favourable heterozygosity and lower Fis values in comparison with other national (Poetsch et al. 2001;Kuehn et al. 2003;Zachos et al. 2007;Edelhoff et al. 2020) and international studies (Hmwe et al. 2006a, b;Nussey et al. 2007;Nielsen et al. 2008;Sanchez-Fernandez et al. 2008;Zsolnai et al. 2009). The lowest heterozygosity and the highest F values are typically found in small islet populations and populations with longer history of isolation and low population sizes (Hmwe et al. 2006a, b;Hajji et al. 2008;Zachos and Hartl 2011;Zachos et al. 2016;Edelhoff et al. 2020). However, it must be taken into account that both measures are decisively influenced by the markers used, their number, and the sample size (Reiner et al. 2019). ...
Nineteen red deer areas in a densely populated region with a huge network of fenced motorways and the division into administrative management units (AMUs) with restricted ecological connectivity were investigated. In the season 2018/2019, a total of 1291 red deer samples (on average 68 per area) were collected and genotyped using 16 microsatellite markers. The results show a clear genetic differentiation between most of the AMUs. Fourteen AMUs may be combined into four regions with a considerable internal genetic exchange. Five areas were largely isolated or showed only a limited gene flow with neighbouring areas. Ten of the 19 AMUs had an effective population size below 100. Effective population sizes greater than 500–1000, required to maintain the evolutionary potential and a long-term adaptation potential, were not achieved by any of the studied AMUs, even when AMUs with an appreciable genetic exchange were aggregated. Substantial genetic differentiation between areas can be associated with the presence of landscape barriers hindering gene flow, but also with the maintenance of ‘red deer–free’ areas. Efforts to sustainably preserve the genetic diversity of the entire region should therefore focus on measures ensuring genetic connectivity. Opportunities for this goal arise from the establishment of game bridges over motorways and from the protection of young male stags migrating through the statutory ‘red deer–free’ areas.
... Red deer (Cervus elaphus L.) belongs to the most abundant cervid species in Europe. Wild living and farming populations of red deer have an increasing economic, cultural, and ecological importance [1]. Red deer are a seasonally reproduced ruminant, and females exhibit several estrous cycles in autumn [2,3]. ...
The aim was to estimate the effective pharmacological method of the estrous cycle synchronization by checking the effects of synchronization by measurement of progesterone (P4) and 17-beta estradiol (E2) concentration by RIA and artificial insemination. The experiment was performed at the red deer farm in Rudzie (North-East Poland; 3 year’s old). The herd (N = 14) was kept away from bulls and was divided in two groups of seven animals. In the Group I, CIDR insert (0.3 g of P4) was applicated intravaginally for 12 days; a second insert replaced the first one for the next 12 days, and next 200 IU of equine chorionic gonadotropin (eCG) was injected intramuscularly (Folligon). Estrus was expected 48 h after eCG injection. In the Group II, Chronogest sponge (20 mg of flugestone acetate) was applicated intravaginally and after 7 days replaced with second chronogest sponge for 7 days. After removing the sponge, on the same day eCG was injected and estrus was expected after 48 h. Artificial insemination was provided with frozen-thawed semen twice: 12 and 24 h after expected estrus. The peripheral blood from the jugular vein was collected each time when the inserts or sponge were applicated and 40 days after insemination. The concentration of P4 and E2 in plasma was measured by RIA. The effectiveness of insemination was monitored by pregnancy-associated glycoproteins determination and observed by the number of calves born. Two pregnancies were confirmed in Group I and five in Group II based on PAG concentration. One newborn was observed in Group I and five in Group II. Both methods of synchronization are effective in hinds based on the received profile of steroids. Although the sponge shape in case of chronogest is better comparing with CIDR, which was not completely deposited in the vagina of hind, potentially leads to bacteria inflammation, and it disturbs the rightful endocrine regulation. Moreover, pregnancy rate and hormone responsiveness were better in Group II.
... Deer have cultural, ecological and an increasing economic importance. Being among the most important game animals for trophies, their populations have been managed, translocated and selectively hunted throughout their history and distribution area [26][27][28][29][30]. Recently a worldwide "deer industry" has been developed, whereby animals are farmed for venison and to some extent for antler products [31][32][33]. ...
Microsatellites are widely applied in population and forensic genetics, wildlife studies and parentage testing in animal breeding, among others, and recently, high-throughput sequencing technologies have greatly facilitated the identification of microsatellite markers. In this study the genomic data of Cervus elaphus (CerEla1.0) was exploited, in order to identify microsatellite loci along the red deer genome and for designing the cognate primers. The bioinformatics pipeline identified 982,433 microsatellite motifs genome-wide, assorted along the chromosomes, from which 45,711 loci mapped to the X- and 1096 to the Y-chromosome. Primers were successfully designed for 170,873 loci, and validated with an independently developed autosomal tetranucleotide STR set. Ten X- and five Y-chromosome-linked microsatellites were selected and tested by two multiplex PCR setups on genomic DNA samples of 123 red deer stags. The average number of alleles per locus was 3.3, and the average gene diversity value of the markers was 0.270. The overall observed and expected heterozygosities were 0.755 and 0.832, respectively. Polymorphic Information Content (PIC) ranged between 0.469 and 0.909 per locus with a mean value of 0.813. Using the X- and Y-chromosome linked markers 19 different Y-chromosome and 72 X-chromosome lines were identified. Both the X- and the Y-haplotypes split to two distinct clades each. The Y-chromosome clades correlated strongly with the geographic origin of the haplotypes of the samples. Segregation and admixture of subpopulations were demonstrated by the use of the combination of nine autosomal and 16 sex chromosomal STRs concerning southwestern and northeastern Hungary. In conclusion, the approach demonstrated here is a very efficient method for developing microsatellite markers for species with available genomic sequence data, as well as for their use in individual identifications and in population genetics studies.
... Human mediated hybridisation is often regarded as 'genetic pollution' (Zachos and Hartl 2011). Although distinguishing between natural and anthropogenic hybridisation is vital for conservation, the division is often unclear (Allendorf et al. 2001). ...
Globalisation and invasive alien species (IAS) are creating current and damaging effects worldwide. Wildlife management is necessary to preserve the biodiversity of our global flora and fauna, whilst balancing the needs of people with those of wildlife. It is imperative to work to achieve the optimal management strategy on various levels from financial, to ethical and practical. The genetic integrity of Scotland’s native red deer is threatened, following the introduction of sika deer and subsequent hybridisation. This review summarises the problems and potential management strategies associated, as a case study for IAS policy. ?
... Red deer (Cervus elaphus L.) is currently one of the most widespread European ungulate species [1]. Nowadays, the New Zealand is the kingdom of deer farms [2], but they have also been developed in Europe during the last twenty years. ...
The aim was to compare the blastocyst stages of red deer embryos in respect of in vitro fertilization (IVF) efficiency, morphology, apoptotic and proliferative abilities, and antioxidative potential according to the reproductive status of hinds. We used three experimental groups, including the ovaries collected post mortem on the 4th and 13th days of the estrous cycle and during pregnancy (n = 18). After oocyte maturation, frozen-thawed epididymal semen was used for IVF. Blastocyst quality, apoptotic potential by determining the mRNA expression of BAX, BCL-2, OCT4, SOX2, and placenta-specific 8 gene (PLAC8), and antioxidative potential of blastocysts were evaluated by determining the mRNA expression of CuSOD, MnSOD, and GPX as well as the enzymatic activity of superoxide dismutase and reduced glutathione. The highest development rate of expanded blastocyst, mRNA expression of BCL-2, OCT4, SOX2, and PLAC8 and mRNA expression and enzymatic activity of the antioxidative factors increased (p < 0.05) in blastocysts developed from the oocytes collected on the 4th day, compared to those developed from the oocytes collected on the 13th day of the cycle and during pregnancy. Our study indicates that the 4th day of the estrous cycle is the most effective period for oocyte collection for IVF and embryo development in hinds, considering quality parameters and antioxidative potential of the blastocysts.
... Phylogenetic and phylogeographic reconstructions of the Sardinian red deer, carried out by different scholars, using different methodologies, have found close relationships with the North African red deer (Hartl et al. 1995;Ludt et al. 2004Ludt et al. , 1075Zachos and Hartl 2011); with the red deer from continental Italy (currently present in Gran Bosco della Mesola) and Spain (Hmwe et al. 2006, 691;Hajji et al. 2008, 669;Zachos et al. 2003) and even Bulgarian red deer, which are phylogenetically very similar to the Eastern subspecies (Hartl et al. 1995), even though the latter hypothesis has not been confirmed by later studies (Hajji et al. 2008, 660). By integrating genetic, palaeontological and historical/archaeological data Hajji et al. (2008, 669) propose an anthropic introduction of the red deer on the island. ...
... The average density of red deer (Cervus elaphus) in the Babia Góra forests was estimated at 8.6 ± 2.6 individuals/km 2 in 2010-2016 (mean ± sd; data from the BgNP Directorate). Red deer is the only ungulate in the subalpine spruce forest of the Babia Góra Massif, and the most abundant ungulate in most Central European forests (Zachos and Hartl, 2011). Rowan is the main palatable tree species in the Babia Góra subalpine spruce forest. ...
Browsing damage by ungulates is among the most decisive factors affecting the establishment and growth of young trees. In recent decades, ungulate populations have been expanding in the Northern Hemisphere; impairment of tree regeneration by their activity is an increasing problem. Herbivore-induced changes in tree regeneration may alter the composition and biodiversity of the future tree stand. In this study we determined where young trees can leave the seedling bank and succeed to higher forest strata in a protected natural forest that is under strong herbivore pressure. We studied rowan (Sorbus aucuparia) regeneration in a subalpine spruce forest growing in a strictly protected area of Babia Góra National Park (Western Carpathians). Rowan is one of the most palatable forest species, so browsing can significantly limit its growth. We predicted that factors, that restrict the movement of red deer (Cervus elaphus), decrease their visits in some forest patches, which will result in a higher share of rowan saplings. We also considered two other factors that can affect the distribution of rowan saplings: light availability and distance to maternal trees. In particular, we tested whether the occurrence of rowan saplings was related to: (i) slope angle, amount of logs lying on the forest floor, and distance to the hiking trails; (ii) distance to fruit-bearing trees; and (iii) canopy openness. The results confirmed our main predictions concerning the relation between the occurrence of palatable tree saplings and the availability of a forest area to ungulates. Factors related to the availability of terrain to red deer significantly influenced the distribution of rowan saplings taller than 1 m. The probability of rowan sapling occurrence increased when the amount of logs was higher and the distance to hiking trails was shorter. Slope had a significant negative impact on sapling occurrence. We found no effect of proximity of fruit-bearing rowan trees or canopy gap area. Thus, in the natural forest, the likelihood that young palatable trees will make the transition from seedlings to taller saplings seems to be determined mainly by factors related to ungulate activity. This suggests that the increase of ungulate populations and their browsing behavior will affect the species composition and spatial structure of future tree stands.
... The low values of H O observed in our study are rare for red deer and usually only found in populations with longterm low effective population sizes such as the red deer from Sardinia or from Mesola in northern Italy (Hmwe et al. 2006). Both, H O and H E values, in the Hasselbusch AMU are among the lowest ever found in a population of this species (Zachos and Hartl 2011;Zachos et al. 2016). We note that comparisons of genetic diversity estimates across studies should be performed with caution (Reiner et al. 2019). ...
Red deer (Cervus elaphus) throughout central Europe are influenced by different anthropogenic activities including habitat fragmentation, selective hunting and translocations. This has substantial impacts on genetic diversity and the long-term conservation of local populations of this species. Here we use genetic samples from 480 red deer individuals to assess genetic diversity and differentiation of the 12 administrative management units located in Schleswig Holstein, the northernmost federal state in Germany. We applied multiple analytical approaches and show that the history of local populations (i.e., translocations, culling of individuals outside of designated red deer zones, anthropogenic infrastructures) potentially has led to low levels of genetic diversity. Mean expected heterozygosity was below 0.6 and we observed on average 4.2 alleles across 12 microsatellite loci. Effective population sizes below the recommended level of 50 were estimated for multiple local populations. Our estimates of genetic structure and gene flow show that red deer in northern Germany are best described as a complex network of asymmetrically connected subpopulations, with high genetic exchange among some local populations and reduced connectivity of others. Genetic diversity was also correlated with population densities of neighboring management units. Based on these findings, we suggest that connectivity among existing management units should be considered in the practical management of the species, which means that some administrative management units should be managed together, while the effective isolation of other units needs to be mitigated.
... It is known that hybridisation between Cervus nippon and Cervus elaphus (mainly Cervus elaphus females and Cervus nippon males) occurs and that hybrids are fertile. Hybridisation may lead to extensive introgression (Zachos & Hartl, 2011). Studies on population genetics and subspecies of red deer exclusively used mtDNA, which may suggest relationships that are not reproducible when using paternal genes. ...
Systematic relationships of cervids have been controversial for decades. Despite new input from molecular systematics, consensus could only be partially reached. The initial, gross (sub) classification based on morphology and comparative anatomy was mostly supported by molecular data. The rich fossil record of cervids has never been extensively tested in phylogenetic frameworks concerning potential systematic relationships of fossil cervids to extant cervids. The aim of this work was to investigate the systematic relationships of extant and fossil cervids using molecular and morphological characters and make implications about their evolutionary history based on the phylogenetic reconstructions. To achieve these objectives, molecular data were compiled consisting of five nuclear markers and the complete mitochondrial genome of 50 extant and one fossil cervids. Several analyses using different data partitions, taxon sampling, partitioning schemes, and optimality criteria were undertaken. In addition, the most extensive morphological character matrix for such a broad cervid taxon sampling was compiled including 168 cranial and dental characters of 41 extant and 29 fossil cervids. The morphological and molecular data were analysed in a combined approach and other comprehensive phylogenetic reconstructions. The results showed that most Miocene cervids were more closely related to each other than to any other cervids. They were often positioned between the outgroup and all other cervids or as the sister taxon to Muntiacini. Two Miocene cervids were frequently placed within Muntiacini. Plio-and Pleistocene cervids could often be affiliated to Cervini, Odocoileini or Capreolini. The phylogenetic analyses provide new insights into the evolutionary history of cervids. Several fossil cervids could be successfully related to living representatives, confirming previously assumed affiliations based on comparative morphology and introducing new hypotheses. New systematic relationships were observed, some uncertainties persisted and resolving systematics within certain taxa remained challenging.
... Biological differences between subspecies are based on the genetic differentiation of C. e. hispanicus due to the isolation of the territory by the Pyrenees (Garde et al. 2010). Genetic studies (Skog et al. 2009;Zachos & Hartl, 2011) support the existence of different lineages (Iberian for C. e. hispanicus and Balkan/Carpathian for C. e. hippelaphus) belonging to different glacial refuges. ...
... Die älteste Hirschart Europas ist allerdings nicht der Rothirsch, sondern das Reh. Die gegenwärtige genetische Situation des Menschen) fassten Hartl et al. (2003) und Zachos und Hartl (2011) zusammen. ...
Red deer (Cervus elaphus) in Austria.
The relationship between man and red deer was and is controversial. Different interests collide in the cultural landscape. Here is an attempt to give an overview of the historical development of red deer and the human-deer interrelation in Austria. From this, guidelines for future deer management are compiled.
Dealing with red deer in our cultural landscape is one of the major challenges in wildlife management, as is the handling of wild boar and wolf. Politics and society are also required to support reality-based, sensible solutions instead of merely making ideologically justified demands. An integrated management approach well adapted to the respective regional situation (starting situation, objectives, environment factors) is required, which includes landowners, hunters, foresters, torrent and avalanche control, leisure activities, nature conservation, settlement development, transport infrastructure and land-use planning.
In order to integrate red deer in parts of the cultural landscape sustainably and as harmless as possible, the habitat design (esp. rest areas for wildlife, and forests with low susceptibility to damage by ungulates) as well as the regulation of red-deer populations and their distribution on a sufficiently large area must be well coordinated, both spatially, temporally and concerning the concrete measures. Accompanying this, it requires a regular, objective monitoring of success as the basis for adaptive management, and a flexible wildlife-ecological spatial planning with a clear distinction between different land-use priorities.
Wildlife-ecological connections are complex. But the problems with red deer are still easily solvable, which can be shown by some positive examples that have emerged with regionally-adapted management cooperation. So we can be optimistic. However, there is the danger of simplifying complex problems too much or even presenting them in a monocausal way. This leads to increased conflicts between the interest groups and prevents sustainable solutions of problems. Main points for the management and hunting of red deer: (1) Making habitat suitable for red deer; (2) critically scrutinizing needs of supplementary feeding, duration of shooting times and methods of hunting, and optimizing them according to location; (3) minimizing game damage by taking appropriate measures, esp. regulation of number and distribution of stocks, agricultural and forestry prevention measures, resting areas for game; (4) (temporary) disturbance-free areas where leisure activities etc. are omitted for efficient game stock regulation; (5) Prevention of diseases and epidemics, and (6) Seeing the “big picture", i.e. wildlife-ecological overview for a sustainable red deer management.
... Red deer Cervus elaphus are the most abundant ungulates in central European forests (Zachos and Hartl 2011). In many forest ecosystems, red deer cause severe damage to young trees through browsing and antler rubbing (trophic and nontrophic interactions respectively; Gill 1992). ...
Trophic plant–animal interactions (e.g. browsing by ungulates, insect attack) are an important and well‐studied source of mortality in many tree populations. Non‐trophic tree–animal interactions (e.g. deer antler rubbing) also frequently lead to tree death, and thus have significant effects on forest ecosystem functioning, but they are much less well studied than trophic interactions are. As deer populations have increased in recent decades in the Northern Hemisphere, their impact on tree populations via browsing and antler rubbing will increase. The aim of the study was to illustrate the potential ability of non‐trophic plant–animal interactions to regulate the dynamics of a natural forest. Specifically, we wanted to determine whether and how density and distance‐dependent processes affect sapling mortality caused by an antler rubbing by red deer Cervus elaphus. We used a spatially explicit approach to examine density and distance‐dependent mortality effects in almost two thousand Picea abies saplings over 20 years, based on a fully mapped permanent 14.4 ha plot in a natural subalpine old‐growth spruce forest. Antler rubbing by deer was the main identified cause of sapling mortality, and it showed a strong spatial pattern: positive density dependence of survival among spruce saplings. Deer selectively killed spruce saplings that were isolated from conspecifics. In consequence, non‐trophic plant–deer interactions were a major driver of the spatial pattern of P. abies sapling survival. The other mortality causes (e.g. breaking, overturning) did not show density‐dependent patterns or their effects were much weaker. In the medium and long term, the density‐dependent pattern of sapling mortality due to antler rubbing can alter the tree stand structure. Our results highlight the ecological relevance of non‐trophic plant–animal interactions for forest ecosystem functioning.
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Genome‐wide technologies open up new possibilities to clarify questions on genetic structure and phylogeographic history of taxa previously studied with microsatellite loci and mitochondrial sequences. Here, we used 736 individual red deer ( Cervus elaphus ) samples genotyped at 35,701 single nucleotide polymorphism loci (SNPs) to assess the population structure of the species throughout Europe. The results identified 28 populations, with higher degrees of genetic distinction in peripheral compared to mainland populations. Iberian red deer show high genetic differentiation, with lineages in Western and Central Iberia maintaining their distinctiveness, which supports separate refugial ranges within Iberia along with little recent connection between Iberian and the remaining Western European populations. The Norwegian population exhibited the lowest variability and the largest allele frequency differences from mainland European populations, compatible with a history of bottlenecks and drift during post‐glacial colonization from southern refugia. Scottish populations showed high genetic distance from the mainland but high levels of diversity. Hybrid zones were found between Eastern and Western European lineages in Central Europe as well as in the Pyrenees, where red deer from France are in close contact with Iberian red deer. Anthropogenic restocking has promoted the Pyrenean contact zone, admixture events in populations on the Isle of Rum and in the Netherlands, and at least partly the admixture of the two main lineages in central‐eastern Europe. Our analysis enabled detailed resolution of population structure of a large mammal widely distributed throughout Europe and contributes to resolving the evolutionary history, which can also inform conservation and management policies.
Purpose
Observation of the animal world is an important component of nature surveys. It provides a number of different information concerning aspects such as population sizes, migration directions, feeding sites and many other data. The paper below presents the results from the flights of an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) aimed at detecting animals in their natural environment.
Design/methodology/approach
The drone used in the research was equipped with RGB and thermal infrared (TIR) cameras. Both cameras, which were mounted on the UAV, were used to take pictures showing the concentration of animals (deer). The overview flights were carried out in the villages of Podlaskie Voivodeship: Szerokie Laki, Bialousy and Sloja. Research flights were made in Bialousy and Sloja. A concentration of deer was photographed during research flights in Sloja. A Durango unmanned platform, equipped with a thermal imaging camera and a Canon RGB camera, was used for research flights. The pictures taken during the flights were used to create orthomaps. A multicopter, equipped with a GoPro camera, was used for overview flights to film the flight locations. A flight control station was also used, consisting of a laptop with MissionPlanner software.
Findings
Analysis of the collected images has indicated that environmental, organisational and technical factors influence the quality of the information. Sophisticated observation precision is ensured by the use of high-resolution RGB and TIR cameras. A proper platform for the cameras is an UAV provided with advanced positioning systems, which makes it possible to create high-quality orthomaps of the area. When observing animals, the time of day (temperature contrast), year season (leaf ascent) or flight parameters is important.
Originality/value
The paper introduces the conclusions of the research flights, pointing out useful information for animal observation using UAVs.
Zusammenfassung
Rothirsche, in der Jägersprache als Rotwild bezeichnet, können starke Emotionen hervorrufen und große Konflikte verursachen. Das Management von Rotwild sollte evidenzbasiert sein, sich also an wissenschaftlich gewonnenen Erkenntnissen orientieren. In diesem Kapitel fasse ich zusammen, wie solch ein evidenzbasiertes Rotwildmanagement grundsätzlich gestaltet sein sollte und welche Evidenzen es für verschiedene Aspekte des Rotwildmanagements gibt. Hierbei spielt die Jagd zwar eine wichtige Rolle, ist aber nur eine der möglichen Maßnahmen, mit denen Managementziele erreicht werden können. Ebenso ist die numerische Steuerung von Populationsgrößen bzw. -dichten in der Regel nur ein Zwischenziel im Management.
Ein evidenzbasiertes Rotwildmanagement sollte adaptiv aufgebaut sein und somit immer eine Erfolgskontrolle beinhalten, durch die sowohl die Umsetzung als auch die Wirkung von Managementmaßnahmen stetig überprüft und verbessert werden können. Solch eine Erfolgskontrolle basiert auf einem Langzeit-Monitoring, das mindestens die Faktoren Populationsentwicklung, Wildzustand und Wildeinfluss beinhalten sollte.
Die Verbreitung von Rotwild sowie der Austausch zwischen einzelnen Vorkommen werden in Deutschland stark von gesetzlichen Vorgaben und der Landschaftszerschneidung durch Siedlungen und Straßen bestimmt. Durch die räumliche Isolation und den damit einhergehenden geringen Genfluss zeigen einige Rotwildvorkommen bereits stark reduzierte genetische Diversität, sehr kleine genetisch-effektive Populationsgrößen und hohe Inzuchtwerte. Vor diesem Hintergrund sollte die Vernetzung der Rotwildvorkommen verbessert werden, was einerseits durch die Abschaffung rotwildfreier Gebiete erreicht werden könnte, andererseits durch Wiedervernetzungsmaßnahmen, z. B. durch Wildkorridore und Querungshilfen über Verkehrsinfrastrukturen.
Rothirsche passen ihr Raum-Zeit-Verhalten und ihre Habitatwahl an eine „Landschaft der Angst“ an, die vom wahrgenommenen Mortalitätsrisiko, dem Nahrungsangebot und der Habitatstruktur abhängt. Auch Störungen durch menschliche Aktivitäten spielen hierbei eine wichtige Rolle. Wissenschaftliche Studien belegen, dass sich Rotwild durch eine Steuerung dieser Faktoren in Raum und Zeit lenken lässt, wodurch Konflikte reduziert werden können. In der Praxis kann hierfür eine Zonierung für das Flächenmanagement sowie eine Kombination aus lokaler Schwerpunkt- und großflächiger Intervallbejagung angewandt werden, über die Rotwild von bestimmten Flächen ferngehalten und auf andere Flächen gelenkt werden kann.
Einige der bestehenden Abschussvorgaben für Rotwild erscheinen biologisch nicht plausibel, und es ist nicht sicher nachgewiesen, ob sie die gewünschten Effekte haben. Die Abschussplanung bzw. die dafür nötige Zuwachsberechnung erfolgt meist anhand von unbekannten Parametern zu Reproduktionsraten, Populationsstrukturen und Mortalitäten. Die hierdurch entstehenden Unsicherheiten bei der Vorhersage zukünftiger Bestandesentwicklungen sollten durch zusätzliche, populationsspezifische Forschung gemindert werden. Um Rotwildbestände über die Jagd zu reduzieren, müssen vor allem Alttiere erlegt werden, was aus Gründen des Tierschutzes den vorherigen Abschuss der geführten Kälber erfordert.
Basierend auf diesen Evidenzen mache ich grundsätzliche Vorschläge für das Rotwildmanagement, schlage Schritte vor, um weitere Evidenzen zu schaffen, und identifiziere weitergehenden Forschungsbedarf.
Abstract
Red deer can cause strong emotions and also severe damage. Red deer management should be evidence-based and hence use scientifically derived information. In this chapter, I summarize what an evidence-based red deer management should generally look like and what evidences actually exist for different aspects of red deer management. Hunting plays an important part in this, but is just one possible action to reach management goals. Similarly, the numeric control of population abundances or densities is usually just an intermediate goal in wildlife management.
An evidence-based red deer management should be adaptive and hence requires a control of success, so that implementation and effect of management actions can constantly be evaluated and improved. Such a control of success is based on a long-term monitoring that considers at least the three factors population development, animal performance, and herbivore impacts.
The distribution of red deer in Germany and the exchange among populations are severely impacted by legal regulations and by landscape fragmentation due to settlements and roads. The spatial isolation and associated low levels of gene flow have already led to low genetic diversity, low genetic-effective population sizes and high inbreeding values in some populations. This calls for an improvement of connectivity among red deer populations, which could be accomplished by giving up areas where red deer are not allowed to exist, and by defragmentation measures, such as wildlife corridors and crossing structures over transportation infrastructures.
Red deer adjust their space-time-behavior and habitat selection to the landscape of fear, which is shaped by the perceived mortality risk, food availability and habitat structure. Disturbances by humans also play a major role in this. Scientific research shows that red deer can be steered in space and time through these factors and that such a steering can reduce conflicts. From a practical standpoint, such steering can be accomplished by a zoning concept that combines area management, locally intensive hunting and broad-scale hunting in intervals, so that red deer are kept away from certain areas while being steered into other areas.
Some of the existing harvesting guidelines appear biologically implausible and their effectiveness has not sufficiently been demonstrated. Harvest planning is often based on unknown values for reproduction rates, population structures and mortalities. This leads to high uncertainties when predicting the future development of populations, calling for population-specific research to reduce these uncertainties. To reduce red deer abundances, especially adult females need to be harvested. Due to animal welfare laws, this is usually accompanied by an increased harvest of calves.
Based on these evidences, I provide general guidelines for red deer management, suggest further steps for generating additional evidences, and identify remaining research needs.
Aim. Following the discovery of a number of iconographically unique masonry petroglyphs depicting a red deer solar stag (i.e. bearing the sun between its antlers) in settlements of the Chamalal ethno‐linguistic group in the upper Andiiskoe Koisu region of the Tsumadinskiy district of Dagestan, the aim of the research has been: (1) to survey the region to ascertain whether other images of this nature existed and to understand the relationship of the corpus to other petroglyphs produced within the Avar‐Ando‐Dido metacultural zone and of neighbouring ethnic groups in the Caucasus; (2) to study the evolution and meaning to the community of the petroglyphic imagery and (3) to understand the mechanisms by which peoples of the Caucasus shared and adapted polytheistic belief systems arising from the deep past following their conversion to Christianity and Islam.
Materials and Methods. Research activities involved field surveys of traditional buildings within the ethno‐linguistic enclaves of the upper Andiiskoe Koisu which might contain masonry petroglyphs and their photographic documentation. A thorough survey of the scientific literature impacting on this field in the Caucasus was undertaken in the libraries and institutions of Dagestan, Moscow and Saint Petersburg. This data added to the documentation of masonry petroglyphs already undertaken in the Gidatli communities of the upper Avarskoe Koisu region.
Results. Field surveys resulted in the discovery of more petroglyphs of the solar stag iconography both within Chamalal territory and that of the neighbouring Tindals as well as other petroglyphs of interest in neighbouring republics of the North Caucasus. A socioecological assessment of local habitats which might have sustained both red deer and bezoar goat (the principal game animals since human presence in the region) indicated that the bezoar goat inhabited the territories of both groups but were now rarely found in Chamalal lands. While red deer did inhabit the forests of the Tindals, it appears that they never frequented those of the Chamalals, who must have travelled to hunt them in forests further to the south.
Conclusion. The research confirmed the presence of a unique corpus of petroglyphic imagery attesting to beliefs in a solar stag which may date back to period of man’s re‐inhabiting the upper Andiiskoe Koisu region in the early Holocene. Indigenous beliefs relating both to the red deer and the bezoar goat initially represented in rock face petroglyphs of the eastern Dagestan piedmonts and rock paintings of the mountainous regions were by the late Bronze Age represented on masonry blocks used in building in the Avar‐Ando‐Dido metacultural zone. As Christianity spread in Transcaucasia and the Great Caucasus Range, including north‐western Dagestan, indigenous images representing the solar stag were conflated with those of the popular Christian cult of the Miracle of Saint Eustace, resulting in the unique petroglyphs of the solar stag common to
Ce rapport, portant sur 125 espèces au total, reprend l'évaluation réalisée par espèce dans le cadre de la Liste rouge des mammifères de métropole de 2017 (Comité français de l'Union internationale pour la conservation de la nature, Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle, Société française pour l'étude et la protection des mammifères & Office national de la chasse et de la faune sauvage).
Aim: The Expansion-Contraction model has been used to explain the responses of species to climatic changes. During periods of unfavourable climatic conditions, species retreat to refugia from where they may later expand. This paper focuses on the palaeoecology of red deer over the past 54 ka across Europe and the Urals, to reveal patterns of change in their range and explore the role of environmental conditions in determining their distribution.
Location: Europe and western Asia to 63°E.
Taxon: Red deer (Cervus elaphus).
Methods: We collected 984 records of radiocarbon-dated red deer subfossils from the Late Pleistocene and the Holocene, including 93 original dates. For each deer sample we compiled climatic and biome type data for the corresponding time intervals.
Results: During the last 54 ka changes in red deer range in Europe and the Urals were asynchronous and differed between western and eastern Europe and western Asia due to different environmental conditions in those regions. The range of suitable areas for deer during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) was larger than previously
thought and covered vast regions not only in southern but also in western and eastern Europe. Throughout the period investigated the majority of specimens inhabited forests in the temperate climatic zone. The contribution of forests in deer localities significantly decreased during the last 4 ka, due to deforestation of Europe caused by humans. Mean January temperature was the main limiting factor for species distribution. Over 90% of the samples were found in areas where mean January temperature was above −10°C.
Main conclusions: Red deer response to climatic oscillations are in agreement with the Expansion-Contraction model but in contradiction to the statement of only the southernmost LGM refugia of the species. During the last 54 ka red deer occurred mostly in forests of the temperate climatic zone.
Habitat degradation leads to small and fragmented populations, lower genetic variability and fertility overtime. Assisted reproductive techniques represent important tools to cope with the dramatic loss of biodiversity. Fallow deer (Dama dama), beyond its high commercial value and wide distribution, may represent the most suitable model to study endangered cervids. In this study, oocytes were recovered post mortem from fallow deer during the breeding and no breeding seasons and were in vitro matured (IVM). The ability of cryopreserved thawed sperm samples recovered by electroejaculation from 4 adult males was tested by in vitro fertilization of IVM oocytes. The number of oocytes collected per ovary did significantly vary across seasons from 6.2 ± 0.92 during breeding season to 10.4 ± 1.26 during no breeding season (p = 0.006). Oocytes collected during the breeding season showed higher in vitro fertilization rate compared to the no breeding season (p = 0.045). However, no embryos reached the blastocyst stage. Semen samples obtained by electroejaculation were successfully cryopreserved, although the cryopreservation process negatively affected most kinetic parameters, mainly at 2h post‐thawing. Moreover, the percentage of rapid spermatozoa significantly decreased between fresh samples and at 2h post thawing, whereas the percentage of slow spermatozoa increased across the same period (p < 0.05). Our study provides the logistic steps for the application of assisted reproductive techniques in fallow deer and might be of great interest for genetic resource bank planning.
Systematic relationships of cervids have been controversial for decades. Despite new input from molecular systematics, consensus could only be partially reached. The initial, gross (sub)classification based on morphology and comparative anatomy was mostly supported by molecular data. The rich fossil record of cervids has never been extensively tested in phylogenetic frameworks concerning potential systematic relationships of fossil cervids to extant cervids. The aim of this work was to investigate the systematic relationships of extant and fossil cervids using molecular and morphological characters and make implications about their evolutionary history based on the phylogenetic reconstructions. To achieve these objectives, molecular data were compiled consisting of five nuclear markers and the complete mitochondrial genome of 50 extant and one fossil cervid species. Several analyses using different data partitions, taxon sampling, partitioning schemes, and optimality criteria were undertaken. In addition, the most extensive morphological character matrix for such a broad cervid taxon sampling was compiled including 168 cranial and dental characters of 41 extant and 29 fossil cervid species. The morphological and molecular data were analysed in a combined approach and other comprehensive phylogenetic reconstructions. The results showed that most of the Miocene cervids were more closely related to each other than to any other cervids. They were often positioned between the outgroup and all other cervids or as the sister taxon to Muntiacini. Two Miocene cervids were frequently placed within Muntiacini. Plio- and Pleistocene cervids could often be affiliated to Cervini, Odocoileini or Capreolini. The phylogenetic analyses of this work provide new insights into the evolutionary history of cervids. Several fossil cervids could be successfully related to living representatives, confirming previously assumed affiliations based on comparative morphology and introducing new hypotheses. New systematic relationships were observed, some uncertainties persisted and resolving systematics within certain taxa remained challenging.
In Romania, the hunting is permitted for 18 mammal species (Law no. 407/2006), fallow deer (Dama dama L.) and red deer (Cervus elaphus L.) being among the most common species of hunting interest. The aim of this study was to analyze the data provided by the central public authority responsible for hunting activity for the hunting seasons starting from 2014-2015 until present regarding the approved annual quotas for fallow deer and red deer. In the case of the red deer, Harghita, Mureș and Suceava were among the counties with the highest approved quotas and with the highest numbers of realized quotas by the foreign hunters. The highest approved quotas for fallow deer were recorded in Arad and Timiș counties, respectively. We believe that these results would be useful for those managers of the hunting associations who would like to develop additional programs and services targeting the foreign hunters.
Molecular forensic methods are being increasingly used to help enforce wildlife conservation laws. Using multilocus genotyping, illegal translocation of an animal can be demonstrated by excluding all potential source populations as an individual's population of origin. Here, we illustrate how this approach can be applied to a large continuous population by defining the population genetic structure and excluding suspect animals from each identified cluster. We aimed to test the hypothesis that recreational hunters had illegally introduced a group of red deer into a hunting area in Luxembourg. Reference samples were collected over a large area in order to test the possibility that the suspect individuals might be recent immigrants. Due to isolation-by-distance relationships in the data set, inferring the number of genetic clusters using Bayesian methods was not straightforward. Biologically meaningful clusters were only obtained by simultaneously analysing spatial and genetic information using the program baps 4.1. We inferred the presence of three genetic clusters in the study region. Using partial Mantel tests, we detected barriers to gene flow other than distance, probably created by a combination of urban areas, motorways and a river valley used for viticulture. The four focal animals could be excluded with a high certainty from the three genetic subpopulations and it was therefore likely that they had been released illegally.
The dwarfing of large mammals on islands occurred repeatedly in the Pleistocene. Elephants, deer, hippopotami and other species became dwarfed on islands in Indonesia, the Mediterranean, the east Pacific and elsewhere. In most cases, the full-sized ancestral form can be recognized among the adjacent mainland fauna, but evolutionary rates cannot be estimated because the entry of the ancestor onto the island, and appearance of the dwarf form, are poorly dated. Here I give the first example in which the island dwarf is well dated, the full-sized ancestor is found in demonstrably older deposits on the island, and a good estimate can be made for the duration of the isolation leading to dwarfing. In the Last Interglacial, red deer on Jersey, Channel Islands, became reduced to one sixth of their body weight in less than six thousand years.
Intra-specific Y-chromosomal sequence variation is useful for analysing the male contribution to a species’ spatial genetic structure. In red deer (Cervus elaphus) this is especially relevant, because geographic dispersal and game translocations occur mainly through the males. However, Y-chromosomal markers for wild organisms are scarce and frequently non-polymorphic within species. We assessed the intra-specific variation of two Y-chromosomal introns in red deer, one in the DBY (or DDX3Y) gene and the other in the UBE1Y gene. The introns were amplified using previously published exonic primers and directly sequenced in individuals of five red deer subspecies from across Eurasia. However, no nucleotide polymorphism was observed, which rebuts the usefulness of these introns for studies of red deer phylogeography and on illegal transport of red deer within this region. Male-based phylogeographic studies should thus be focused on other Y-chromosomal markers for this species.
Screening of 43 protein loci was used to evaluate the level of genetic variability in 42 red deer Cervus elaphus Linnaeus, 1758 from Mesola Wood, the only native population presently occurring in peninsular Italy. The survey revealed polymorphism at four loci. In one of them evidence was provided for a significant deficiency of heterozygotes. Average expected heterozygosity and the proportion of polymorphic loci were He = 0.025 and P = 0.093, respectively. Although these values are low, they are consistent with those reported for other European red deer populations. Repeated bottlenecks and slow recoveries along with prolonged selective removal of stags were indicated as affecting genetic variation as a consequence of random drift. A genetic factor may have influenced female fertility and antler conformation. Comparisons with free-ranging deer from the Alps, and with an enclosed population yielded estimates of absolute (mean Nei's 1972 D = 0.004, SD = 0.002; mean modified Rogers' D = 0.063, SD = 0.013) and relative (Wright's FST = 0.094) genetic distance typical for red deer populations. Given the biological value of Mesola red deer, genetic results are discussed in relation to both population history and conservation. A strategy for urgent management interventions is also proposed.
Morphological characters in red deer ( Cervus elaphus), which serve as criteria for selective hunting, were examined in relation to electrophoretic variation in three populations from the Vosges in eastern France. From the polymorphic loci examined, certain alleles at Idh-2, Me-1 and Acp-1 showed significant associations with a special development of body and antler characters selected for by hunters. Idh-2125 was associated with larger hind foot length in females and a higher number of antler points in males. Me-190 and Acp-1100 were associated with small spikes. The populations studied differed from one another in the duration and intensity of selective hunting and the increase or decrease in the respective allele frequencies could be explained by selection for large body size, a high number of antler points and against small spikes in yearlings, rather than by genetic drift. Among other morphological characters examined, the length of the main beam was significantly associated with the allele Acp-2100. In contrast, no associations could be detected between overall heterozygosity and the development or the degree of asymmetry (in paired structures) of any of the morphological traits in question. Although no obvious differences in the overall values of polymorphism or heterozygosity were found between the populations, selective hunting leads towards a change in allele frequencies and eventually to the loss of one or the other rare allele.
The Mesola red deer Cervus elaphus in the Po delta are the only native red deer population on the Italian mainland and have been the focus of conservationists and wildlife biologists for some time. In our study, we present a genetic analysis of 25 Mesola red deer on the basis of 20 polymorphic microsatellite loci, aiming at estimating the population's genetic diversity and at providing information for a future genetic screening. In addition, we carried out a population viability analysis (PVA) with demographic and life-history data available from a long-term population survey, simulating different management scenarios. Genetic diversity was very low compared to the rest of Europe (observed and expected heterozygosity 0.50 and 0.61, respectively), and an overall excess of homozygosity was indicative of inbreeding. Calculations of the probability of identity and genotype mismatch frequencies suggested that between five and seven highly informative loci were sufficient to resolve individuals with reasonable certainty. The PVA yielded a generally poor outlook, but at the same time, it showed that management measures already taken significantly increased population viability. A sensitivity analysis revealed that inbreeding depression and possible catastrophes had a huge impact on the population's prospects. However, the establishment of two subpopulations and successful attempts at reducing the consequences of catastrophic events were able to significantly mitigate the harmful effects of both inbreeding and environmental stochasticity. These results, in particular the splitting of the population, may be of general interest to conservationists dealing with unique threatened populations.
The Endangered Corsican red deer Cervus elaphus corsicanus was extirpated from Corsica in the early 1970s, at which time the Sardinian population fell to <250 individuals. The Sardinian authorities agreed to protect this subspecies and to secure its reintroduction in Corsica, a natural choice, considering ethological and historical descriptions. Since the beginning of 1985, when the first deer destined for captive breeding and eventual reintroduction arrived in Corsica, the population increased from 13 Sardinian founders to 106 captive animals under constant monitoring in three enclosures (Quenza, Casabianda and Ania di Fium'Orbu). The sites of Quenza, Chisà and Santo Pietro di Venaco were selected by the Regional Nature Park of Corsica for the reintroduction into the wild that began in 1998. Currently the size of the whole Corsican population is c. 250 individuals. These deer are still closely monitored and studied, both in enclosures and in the wild, to secure the long-term conservation of this subspecies. The Corsican and Sardinian populations together now total slightly >1,000, and the subspecies could therefore be downgraded to Near Threatened on the IUCN Red List.
The European roe deer Capreolus capreolus is a typical faunal element of the Holocene. It was already present in Europe at least 600 000 years ago and it has been known from both glacial and interglacial phases since then. With nearly 3000 fossil and subfossil records, it is one of the most frequent mammals in the Late Quaternary.
During the Middle and Late Weichselian Pleniglacial, the distribution of the roe deer was not restricted to the Mediterranean peninsulas but repeatedly reached regions of central Europe. In contrast to that, roe deer records from the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM, 21.0–14.5 ka ¹⁴ C BP) are largely confined to the Mediterranean peninsulas – with the exception of south‐western France and the surroundings of the Carpathians where several records attest to its occurrence during the LGM.
During the Greenland Interstadial 1 (12.5–10.8 ka ¹⁴ C BP), the species' distribution extended further north and the roe deer appeared north of the Alps and reached regions of central Germany. This seems to be correlated with the abrupt change to more favourable environmental conditions during this period. It is very likely that the roe deer disappeared north of the Alps during the Younger Dryas cooling (10.8–10.0 ka ¹⁴ C BP). The northern regions of the central European lowlands were recolonized by roe deer during the late Preboreal 9.7–9.5 ka ¹⁴ C BP for the first time since the Weichselian Glacial.
The combined pattern of genetic data and fossil records of European roe deer suggests several regions in the Iberian peninsula, southern France, Italy and the Balkans as well as in the Carpathians and/or eastern Europe as glacial refugia. It further suggests that C. capreolus might have recolonized most parts of central‐northern Europe out of one or more eastern European (not Balkan) and/or Carpathian refugia. This recolonization wave might have blocked immigration from the traditional Mediterranean areas.
The red deer (Cervus elaphus) population in Denmark became almost extinct in recent historical times due to over-hunting. The species has subsequently recovered within remote areas, but non-Danish individuals have been introduced at several localities. To assess genetic structure, past demographic history, and the possibility of a still existing original stock, we analysed 349 specimens from 11 geographically separate areas and from three enclosed areas, genotyping 11 microsatellite loci. Moreover, an 826-bp fragment of the control region of the mitochondrial DNA was sequenced for 116 recent specimens and seven museum specimens. There was a significant difference in mean expected heterozygosity (HE) between the three enclosed areas and the 11 unenclosed areas. Significant departures from Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium were observed in the three enclosed areas and in nine of the unenclosed areas. The overall degree of genetic differentiation among all 14 areas was significant (FST = 0.09, P < 0.01), primarily because the mean pairwise FST for the three enclosed areas was significantly higher than that for the 11 unenclosed areas. A Bayesian clustering procedure detected three genetically distinct populations and indicated reduced gene flow between the enclosed and unenclosed areas. The individuals in the unenclosed areas show genotypic mixture, presumably as a result of gene flow among them. Markov Chain Monte Carlo simulations, based on the genealogical history of the microsatellite alleles, suggest a drastic decline in the effective population size of the enclosed areas some 188–474 years ago. Mitochondrial DNA analysis of the recent specimens showed seven haplotypes. Individuals from the enclosed Jægersborg Dyrehave contain haplotypes that occur all over Denmark and also are found in Western Europe. A close relationship between Scandinavian and Western European red deer is most likely. Only individuals from the unenclosed Lindenborg Estate and the enclosed Tofte Skov did not group with any other Danish individuals. As six of seven museum specimens had haplotypes also found in modern Danish samples, the current population of red deer in Denmark is genetically close to the original Danish red deer. © 2008 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2008, 95, 688–701.
Hunting can affect animal populations not only by increasing mortality but also by introducing selection components associated
with particular features of individuals. In addition to the most widespread hunting system in Spain for Iberian red deer stags
(Cervus elaphus hispanicus) called montería, there are also selective monterías aimed at culling poor-trophy males in order to improve the average quality
of the trophies for commercial hunt. This way of removing poor-trophy males contrasts with the most common procedure of shooting
individual males by selective stalking that is used in other areas of Europe. Also, due to the hunting procedure by which
most deer are shot while running chased by dogs, it is doubtful whether hunters are actually producing a selective impact
on deer populations. In this paper, we compare data of males shot in commercial montería and in selective montería in Southern
Spain. We found that males in selective montería were smaller in body size and in antler size than in commercial hunts, even
correcting by age, although the selective effect was stronger at some ages. We discuss the implications of this practice for
sustainable use and conservation.
Red deer (n=149) from eight geographical locations, including the endangered endemic populations from the Tyrrhenian islands
(Sardinia and Corsica), were analysed at eight polymorphic microsatellite loci. Two questions were addressed: (1) Is there
a founder effect in the Corsican population, which was reintroduced to the island using Sardinian deer after the species’
extinction on Corsica? (2) What is the origin of the Tyrrhenian or Corsican red deer (Cervus elaphus corsicanus)? Our results showed signs of a founder effect for the red deer on Corsica in that these deer showed differentiation from
the Sardinian population as measured by FST values, assignment tests (with and without a priori definition of populations) and individual-based dendrograms. Genetic
variability, however, did not differ significantly between the two populations. With respect to the phylogeography of C. e. corsicanus we found that both deer from North-Africa and Mesola on the Italian mainland were genetically close to the Corsican red deer,
but phylogenetic trees based on genetic distances were only poorly supported statistically. Among all populations studied
the Mesola red deer showed the lowest distance values from Corsican red deer and yielded allele frequencies that were more
similar to those of C. e. corsicanus than were those of North-African red deer. These results are in line with recent palaeontological and archaeozoological findings
which suggest that the Corsican red deer is derived from small Italian red deer introduced from the mainland to Sardinia and
Corsica during the Late Neolithic and just before the beginning of Classical Antiquity, respectively. They also suggest a
possible recent introduction of Tyrrhenian red deer to North-Africa (rather than the other way around), thus accounting for
the close genetic relationship (especially based on mitochondrial DNA) that has repeatedly been found between C. e. corsicanus and C. e. barbarus.
For several centuries, game management has involved translocations of non-native individuals of many species to reinforce
local native populations. However, there are few quantitative studies of potentially negative effects on population viability
as expected when taxa with different local adaptations hybridise. The European red deer has been subject to particularly many
translocations. Around 1900, a total of 17 red deer of Hungarian (Cervus elaphus hippelaphus) and German (C. e. germanicus) origin were introduced onto the island of Otterøya in Norway where few native red deer (C. e. atlanticus) remained (n~13). To assess interbreeding, the present stock on Otterøya and the indigenous Norwegian and Hungarian populations
were characterised in 14 microsatellite loci and in the control region of mtDNA. An intermediate level of genetic variation
in the Otterøya population and the presence of population specific alleles from both the indigenous Norwegian and the Hungarian
population demonstrate that the introduced red deer interbred with the native. Even distributions of one indigenous and one
non-indigenous mtDNA haplotype in the Otterøya population and two point estimates of admixture indicate similar genetic contributions
from the two parental populations into the hybrid stock. Low numbers of migrants identified with Bayesian assignment tests
demonstrate low recent gene flow from Otterøya into the Norwegian mainland population. The Otterøya hybrid stock has grown
vastly in numbers during recent decades, suggesting a high population viability. We observed that the body mass of red deer
on Otterøya was similar or greater than in adjacent indigenous Norwegian stocks, indicating that population performance has
not been reduced in the hybrid stock and that gene flow probably has not had any negative effects.
KeywordsTranslocation-Hybrid stock-Introgression-Admixture-Dispersal
The red deer (Cervus elaphus) populationof Bavaria in Southern Germany was severelyreduced during the 19th century due toover-hunting. The species has since recoveredwithin designated areas. Subsequent habitatfragmentation presumably has changed thegenetic structure of Bavarian red deer.In order to assess the genetic diversity, weanalysed samples obtained from nine differentBavarian and two adjacent (Thueringen andCzech-Republic) red deer populations,genotyping 19 microsatellite loci. Our analysesrevealed moderate and significant differencesin diversity. Referring to assignment tests,the genetic differentiation of Bavarian reddeer was sufficient to assign an individual'sorigin to the correct population at an averageof 91.6%. The correlation of genetic andgeographic distance matrices revealed noevidence for isolation by distance. Thecoalescent model analysis suggests that thegenetic structure used to be characterized by adrift–gene flow equilibrium and is nowinfluenced by drift and disruption of the geneflow. Only three of the examined populationsshowed a probability of less than 10% that twogenes within these populations share a commonancestor (F
IS-value). Twopopulations had high F
IS values,indicating the influence of drift.Additionally, the intrapopulation indicesrevealed a low variability in thesepopulations. The estimated effective populationsizes (N
e) were generally in thesame range as the actual population sizes. Theinbreeding rates, based on the estimated N
e, and the inbreeding coefficientssuggested that the Bavarian red deerpopulations are in a stable state.
The Corsican red deer, a sub-species of the European red deer endemic to Sardinia and Corsica, was abundant on both islands at the beginning of 1900. It went extinct in Corsica and reached a minimum of 100 individuals in Sardinia by 1970. Numbers have recovered in Sardinia with more than 1,000 rutting males now present; in the 1980s the deer was reintroduced to Corsica, but the Sardinian population remains fragmented. We developed a potential distribution model in Sardinia using Ecological Niche Factor Analysis. To assess the deer's protection status we compared the model with the existing and proposed conservation areas and investigated diVerent conservation scenarios in relation to the expansion of its current range and resilience to future changes in land use and predicted trends of desertiWcation. According to our results over 70% of Sardinia is unsuitable to the deer, nevertheless high suitability areas (Mediterranean forests away from main roads) are available throughout the island, particularly in the south and in the central-eastern part. Existing protected areas do not provide for the conservation of the deer but public owned forests, where hunting is prohibited, extend some level of protection, and the protected areas proposed by the Regional administration, if implemented, will be increasing this protection. Three main areas have emerged as conservation priorities to guarantee adequate conservation potential in the future. Our approach provides valuable data to inform conservation policy, and could be easily replicated in other parts of the Mediterranean.
Abstract The biometry, demography and genetics of red deer Cervus elaphus of Mesola Wood (NE Italy), are presented and discussed in relation to the conservation of this population. Modest body size, low stature, oversimplified antlers and a low reproductive performance characterise red deer from Mesola Wood. The mitochondrial genome showed a private haplotype, different from other red deer in Italy and central Europe. The uniqueness of this nucleus and its biogeographic importance make a long-term conservation plan particularly urgent. Management measures such as fallow deer reduction, winter feeding and pasture mowing were tested, giving promising results. The physical condition of the animals improved, calf and adult mortality declined, and a few cases of antlers with bez tine or crown were reported in this study after four decades. Riassunto Il Cervo della Mesola: caratteristiche fisiche, dinamica di popolazione e prospettive di conservazione La biometria, la demografia e la genetica del cervo Cervus elaphus del Gran Bosco della Mesola (Italia nord-orientale), vengono presentate e discusse in relazione alla salvaguardia di questa popolazione. Il cervo della Mesola risulta caratterizzato dalle modeste dimensioni corporee, dalla struttura semplificata dei palchi e da un basso rendimento riproduttivo. L'analisi del genoma mitocondriale ha evidenziato un aplotipo privato, diverso da quello degli altri cervi italiani e centroeuropei. L'unicità di questo nucleo e la sua importanza biogeografica rendono particolarmente urgente un piano di conservazione a lungo termine. Sono stati verificati interventi gestionali quali la riduzione numerica dei daini, il foraggiamento invernale e lo sfalcio delle superfici a pascolo, con risultati promettenti. Le condizioni fisiche degli animali sono migliorate, la mortalità tra i piccoli e gli adulti è diminuita, e sono stati registrati alcuni casi di palchi dotati di ago o corona per la prima volta dopo quattro decenni.
European red deer are known to show a conspicuous phylogeographic pattern with three distinct mtDNA lineages (western, eastern and North-African/Sardinian). The western lineage, believed to be indicative of a southwestern glacial refuge in Iberia and southern France, nowadays covers large areas of the continent including the British Isles, Scandinavia and parts of central Europe, while the eastern lineage is primarily found in southeast-central Europe, the Carpathians and the Balkans. However, large parts of central Europe and the whole northeast of the continent were not covered by previous analyses. To close this gap, we produced mtDNA control region sequences from more than 500 red deer from Denmark, Germany, Poland, Lithuania, Belarus, Ukraine and western Russia and combined our data with sequences available from earlier studies to an overall sample size of almost 1,100. Our results show that the western lineage extends far into the European east and is prominent in all eastern countries except for the Polish Carpathians, Ukraine and Russia where only eastern haplotypes occurred. While the latter may actually reflect the natural northward expansion of the eastern lineage after the last ice age, the present distribution of the western lineage in eastern Europe may in large parts be artificial and a result of translocations and reintroduction of red deer into areas where the species became extinct in historical times.
There is growing concern about the evolutionary consequences of human harvesting on phenotypic trait quality in wild populations. Undesirable consequences are especially likely with trophy hunting because of its strong bias for specific phenotypic trait values, such as large antlers in cervids and horns in bovids. Selective hunting can cause a decline in a trophy trait over time if it is heritable, thereby reducing the long-term sustainability of the activity itself.
How can we build a sustainable trophy hunting tradition without the negative trait-altering effects? We used an individual-based model to explore whether selective compensatory culling of ‘low quality’ individuals at an early life stage can facilitate sustainability, as suggested by information from managed game populations in eastern and central Europe. Our model was rooted in empirical data on red deer, where heritability of sexual ornaments has been confirmed and phenotypic quality can be assessed by antler size in individuals as young as 1 year.
Simulations showed that targeted culling of low-quality yearlings could counter the selective effects of trophy hunting on the distribution of the affected trait (e.g. antler or horn size) in prime-aged individuals. Assumptions of trait heritability and young-to-adult correlation were essential for compensation, but the model proved robust to various other assumptions and changes to input parameters. The simulation approach allowed us to verify responses as evolutionary changes in trait values rather than short-term consequences of altered age structure, density and viability selection.
We conclude that evolutionarily enlightened management may accommodate trophy hunting. This has far reaching implications as income from trophy hunting is often channelled into local conservation efforts and rural economies. As an essential follow-up, we recommend an analysis of the effects of trophy hunting in conjunction with compensatory culling on the phenotypic and underlying genetic variance of the trophy trait.
The Norwegian red deer population (Cervus elaphus) was from the mid eighteenth to the early twentieth century drastically reduced in size and distribution but has the last century expanded both demographically and spatially. We have investigated genetic variation, differentiation and admixture in this spatially expanding ungulate population, using 14 microsatellites. The present genetic structure is moderate to strong with an average F
ST = 0.08. Low M-ratios indicate loss of genetic variation in all localities and signals of a recent bottleneck was identified in 14 of 15 localities. Genetic distances between the localities indicate two main routes of dispersal during expansion, from the north–west and south–west, respectively. Bayesian assignment tests verify a break of the dataset in two, and demonstrate 99.9% probability for the existence of five sub-populations, which coincide well with five relict populations described by historic records. Computer simulations suggest that the observed genetic differentiation is recent rather than ancient, and that it may be explained by models of fragmentation or of founder events and subsequent merging rather than by models of recent bottlenecks in some particular demes within an ancient genetic structure.
The largest population of red deer (Cervus elaphus) in Europe is found in Scotland. However, human impacts through hunting and introduction of foreign deer stock have disturbed the population's genetics to an unknown extent. In this study, we analysed mitochondrial control region sequences of 625 individuals to assess signatures of human and natural historical influence on the genetic diversity and population structure of red deer in the Scottish Highlands. Genetic diversity was high with 74 haplotypes found in our study area (115 x 87 km). Phylogenetic analyses revealed that none of the individuals had introgressed mtDNA from foreign species or subspecies of deer and only suggested a very few localized red deer translocations among British localities. A haplotype network and population analyses indicated significant genetic structure (Phi(ST)=0.3452, F(ST)=0.2478), largely concordant with the geographical location of the populations. Mismatch distribution analysis and neutrality tests indicated a significant population expansion for one of the main haplogroups found in the study area, approximately dated c. 8200 or 16 400 years ago when applying a fast or slow mutation rate, respectively. Contrary to general belief, our results strongly suggest that native Scottish red deer mtDNA haplotypes have persisted in the Scottish Highlands and that the population retains a largely natural haplotype diversity and structure in our study area.
Red deer representing the four different European subspecies Cervus elaphus atlanticus, C. e. elaphus, C. e. germanicus, and C. e. scoticus were examined for allozyme variability at 35 enzyme loci. The proportion of polymorphic loci within populations (P) ranged from 0 to 13.8 per cent and the average heterozygosity (H) from 0 to 3.6 per cent. These estimates are within the range previously observed among mammalian species. Significant allele frequency differences were found both within and between subspecies. The mean genetic distance between subspecies (D = 0.0164) was smaller than the differentiation at similar taxonomic levels among other ungulates, probably because of a shorter time since divergence. Within subspecies the genetic differences between populations were similar to those reported between populations within closely related species in the same geographic region. Cluster analysis based on genetic distances indicated a major genetic dichotomy between the British C. e. scoticus and the Norwegian C. e. atlanticus on one hand and the Swedish C. e. elaphus and the continental C. e. germanicus on the other. Populations of pure C. e. elaphus were not found to differ genetically in any substantial way from Swedish populations of possible heterogeneous subspecific origin. An allele unique to C. e. scoticus was found in a Swedish enclosed population where imports of British deer are known to have taken place. A population established to preserve the genetic characteristics of the C. e. elaphus subspecies appeared to have lost 36 per cent of the electrophoretically measurable heterozygosity.