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Situation leadership: A review of the research

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Abstract

Situational leadership theory (SLT)—it sounds great, but will it work? SLT, a popular theory based on task behavior, relationship behavior, follower (subordinate) maturity, and effective leader behavior, may not be what the training-management professional expects. Johansen reviews the three major areas of research on SLT: conceptual validity, validity of the instrument associated with SLT— the Leadership Effectiveness and Adaptability (LEAD) survey—and the effect on subordinates' performance when the theory is accurately practiced by a leader or manager. According to Johansen, research has failed to support the conceptual basis of the theory and the validity of the instruments. Research regarding the effect on subordinates' performance when situational leadership is properly practiced by the leader has provided mixed results and only limited support for the theory. Johansen found that it is not possible to make a definitive statement based on experimental findings. Yet SLT does have redeeming qualities: it has opened much discussion about the many factors that affect leadership behavior and about the nature of leader-subordinate relationships, and it has generated critical research. But until the validity and performance questions are answered, Johansen strongly suggests that SLT will be appropriately used only as a starting point for discussion about the dynamics of leadership behavior, subordinate expectations, leadership effectiveness, and decision making.

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... In line with Stogdill's (1948) comment regarding how the analysis of leadership involves both leaders and situations, leadership study followed the line of situation and its affects upon leadership outcomes. The situational approach was introduced by Hersey and Blanchard in 1969 under the name life-cycle theory based upon Reddin's (1967) 3-D management style theory (Hersey & Blanchard, 1969;Johansen, 1990). Since then, the model has evolved into the situational leadership model (SLM) II. ...
... The model is based upon two leader and two follower dimensions: direction a leader gives/task behavior, socio-emotional support/relationship behavior, readiness level of the followers/maturity level, and effectiveness of leadership behavior (Graeff, 1997;Hersey & Blanchard, 1969). Within the context of the SLM, the leader matches style to the ability and commitment of the followers, adapting leadership style based upon the needs of the followers (Johansen, 1990;Schermerhorn, 2001). The situational leadership model has been used and tested in a number of environments as evidenced by Gumpert and Hambleton (1979) at Xerox and Johansen's (1990) review of the literature. ...
... Within the context of the SLM, the leader matches style to the ability and commitment of the followers, adapting leadership style based upon the needs of the followers (Johansen, 1990;Schermerhorn, 2001). The situational leadership model has been used and tested in a number of environments as evidenced by Gumpert and Hambleton (1979) at Xerox and Johansen's (1990) review of the literature. These environments represent high tech environments, education, and others assumed from its use a training tool for new managers. ...
Thesis
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... Many researchers have studied the validity, applicability, and measurability of situational leadership styles in various applications, including education [7]. Hersey, Angelini, and Carakushansky (1982) conducted two training courses for small groups of managers. ...
... The four teaching styles in the situational teaching model are described below. These styles are adopted from original situational leadership styles [5,7] and applied into classroom teaching [4,12]. The interaction and relationship between these styles will be discussed later. ...
Article
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The extended situational teaching model is a variation of situational teaching, which itself has roots in situational leadership. Application of situational leadership in education requires the teacher to lead students through various stages of the learning process. This paper presents the relationship between performance measures of extended situational teaching and common pedagogical tools in engineering classrooms. These relationships outlined the response of students at different preparation levels to the application of various course components, including classroom activities and out-of-classroom assignments, in respect to task and relationship behaviors. The results of a quantitative survey are presented to support the existence of such a relationship and to demonstrate the effectiveness of the extended situational teaching model. The survey covered 476 engineering students enrolled in nine different courses over a four-year period within the civil engineering program. The statistical analysis of the survey responses proceeded in two stages. The first stage of the analysis evaluates whether the survey tool can resolve meaningful differences between the categories of the situational teaching model, and provides aggregate recommendations for each category. In the second stage of the analysis, the specific instantiation of these categories is broken down according to academic standing (grade point average) and academic level, offering support for an extended situational teaching model. Conclusions discuss the statistical characteristics of the results and correlations between selected pedagogical tools and performance measures.
... Leadership research in the 80s and 90s is replete with studies on SLT, though mostly in the context of western, for-profit organisations. Many of these studies were conducted with the objective of (re) validating the theory and its prescriptions (Blank, Weitze,l and Green, 1990;Graeff, 1983;Goodson, McGee and Cashman, 1989;Hambleton and Gumpert, 1982;Johansen, 1990;Norris and Vecchio, 1992). Some of these researches did not find empirical support for the prescriptions of SLT (Graeff, 1983;Goodson, McGee, and Cashman, 1989), whereas others found little or partial empirical support (Blank, Weitzel, and Green, 1990;McLaurin, 2006;Norris and Vecchio, 1992). ...
... A review by Johansen (1990) of about thirty papers on SLT published till the late 80s focuses on three aspects: conceptual validity, validity of the instrument, and effect on subordinates' performance. The review did present an unfavourable view of SLT; however, while discussing its role in HRD, it saw it as a springboard for leadership discussion in training. ...
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The paper attempts to gauge the perceptions of the respondents on their preferred leadership style, style range and leadership effectiveness in Development Organizations in India. Leader Adaptability and Style Inventory (LASI) by Hersey and Blanchard (1981) is used for collecting data on leadership. In addition, the paper uses the personal effectiveness (PE) scale by Pareek (2002) based on the concept of personal effectiveness drawn from Johari Window Theory. The scale is used to assess personal effectiveness based on three dimensions namely Self-Disclosure, Openness to Feedback and Perceptiveness. Analysis of the data collected indicates a high preference for S2 style and a negligible preference to S4 style. The paper also attempts to explain the findings and highlight the cultural context as the reason for preference to S2 style. It also discusses the implications of the findings on the Managerial training in the Indian Development Organizations. Key Words: Situational Leadership, Development Organizations, Personal Effectiveness, Indian NGOs, Leadership Effectiveness
... The specific idea that knowledge attributes can explain contingent effects of managerial control efforts is also is in keeping with prior research (Blanchard, Zigarmi, & Nelson, 1993;Osborn & Hunt, 1974;Sims, Faraj, & Yun, 2009). Specifically, situational leadership (Blanchard et al., 1993;Johansen, 1990) argues that the effectiveness of managerial leadership styles (support vs. task) is dependent on the situation. One important situational variable described in situational leadership is the ability of the individual being managed (Johansen, 1990). ...
... Specifically, situational leadership (Blanchard et al., 1993;Johansen, 1990) argues that the effectiveness of managerial leadership styles (support vs. task) is dependent on the situation. One important situational variable described in situational leadership is the ability of the individual being managed (Johansen, 1990). Thus, effective leaders should adapt their level of control based on the level of knowledge possessed by the employee (Blanchard et al., 1993). ...
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Considerable effort is made by organizations to increase long-term firm performance through innovation. Despite the emphasis on innovation as a source of renewal, relatively little is known about the effective management of human resources supporting innovation efforts. Prior research supports a negative impact of managerial control on the motivation of employees. Following on recent theoretical developments, we argue that the impact of managerial control will differ based on the type of knowledge being used. Using data from 104 members of product development teams working on new product development or current product management, our findings suggest that the use of control can have differing effects on motivation depending on the attributes of the knowledge involved. Specifically, tests of moderation indicated the negative impact of control on employee motivation is much greater when the knowledge being used is less complete (those working on the development of new products).
... The influencing behavior can be based on personal interaction with employees or teams as well as structural elements or empowering working conditions [14,15]. While there seems to be no doubt that effective leadership is based on different behaviors and approaches in different contexts [16], there has been no precise empirical research in what leadership pattern can be attributed to IPS work systems. ...
... Jansen, Vera and Crossan [27] underline the influence of environmental dynamics on the effectiveness of leadership for exploration and exploitation. They line up with theories postulating the contextual specificity of effective leadership styles [16]. ...
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Research in the field of industrial product service systems (IPS2) gives emphasis to the importance of leadership behavior in order to propel new business models. Nevertheless, there is only a little knowledge of what leadership pattern is crucial and makes a difference in comparison to production and service. In our paper we address leadership behaviors and empowerment in IPS2, trying to shed light on qualitative structural differences compared to product- and service-oriented work systems. We present data from an empirical survey among 172 engineers in Germany. The participants evaluated psychological and structural empowerment and perceived interactive leadership behaviors. These aspects built the basis for explorative factor analyses conducted for each work system separately. Comparative qualitative interpretations of the results show that there are three different patterns of leadership. In an IPS2 work system, leadership shows a contextualized configuration in which specific behaviors and empowerment components fuse within factors. The resulting pattern is compared to product- and service-oriented work systems. Detailed analyses display a pattern in IPS2-oriented work systems in which a combination of leadership behaviors and empowerment elements supporting strategic goal-orientation, transparency and positive sensemaking makes up the difference in comparison to both other work systems.
... Leaders often select behaviors along that continuum depending on their own habits or because of the situations that the leaders find themselves. Here I am not referring to Blanchard's (1969a, 1969b) Situational Leadership Model which, while intuitively popular, has not proved robust enough to guide leaders (Butler & Reese, 1991;Johansen, 1990). Instead, a coaching orientation seems to consistently produce positive outcomes for followers in a variety of situations (DiGirolamo & Tkach, 2019). ...
... But other work would suggest the exact opposite (Ahearne et al., 2005). Indeed, this inconclusiveness could be a key reason for why it has been difficult to find supporting evidence for the effectiveness of situational leadership approaches (Johansen, 1990;Thompson & Vecchio, 2009). ...
... Many authors conducted studies with the purpose of (re)validating the situational leadership (Hambleton & Gumpert, 1982;Graeff, 1983;Goodson et al, 1989;Blank et al, 1990;Johansen, 1990;Norris & Vecchio, 1992;McLaurin, 2006). Graeff (1983) and Goodson et al. (1989) did not find empirical support for the prescriptions of situational leadership, while some scholars (Blank et al, 1990;Norris & Vecchio, 1992;McLaurin, 2006) found little or partial empirical support. ...
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Family-friendly policies are represented as the policies that enhance work and family life balance (Avey et al., 2006). Due to the increasing work-life conflicts in contemporary society, the need for these policies’ introduction is on the rise, both in public and private sector companies. In this regard, the objective of this paper is to present the literature overview of family-friendly policies and the results of the empirical studies examining their impact on employees’ productivity, turnover intention, turnover rates, job satisfaction, organizational commitment, as well as job related stress, burnout and absenteeism. Moreover, the paper addresses the factors impacting the proper implementation of these policies. The reason for writing this paper is not only to provide a resource for these policies’ potential use, but also to raise awareness of their existence and their beneficial effects. The methods used in the study are a descriptive method and a content analysis method.
... gency model (Bakacsi, 2006;Johansen, 1990). This notion is also reflected in recent research establishing three mindsets (Subramaniam & Shankar, 2020), of which two are purpose and people oriented. ...
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... Many authors conducted studies with the purpose of (re)validating the situational leadership (Hambleton & Gumpert, 1982;Graeff, 1983;Goodson et al, 1989;Blank et al, 1990;Johansen, 1990;Norris & Vecchio, 1992;McLaurin, 2006). Graeff (1983) and Goodson et al. (1989) did not find empirical support for the prescriptions of situational leadership, while some scholars (Blank et al, 1990;Norris & Vecchio, 1992;McLaurin, 2006) found little or partial empirical support. ...
Conference Paper
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Organisations endeavour to confront and endure many challenges. Rapid and frequent changes characterise the modern business environment. The leader must determine the type of follower and adjust the leadership style he will use embracing differences in follower types, possibilities for changes, and situational factors. The purpose of this paper is to analyse the development and application of situational leadership model, to consider perspectives to reduce the gap in previous research and to elaborate terminological and other differences that exist in the literature. Effectiveness in situational leadership is not only based on setting a vision and achieving goals, but also on motivating and developing followers. There are certain ambiguities caused by terminological and other differences, which are diagnosed by an extensive review of the literature in the domain of situational leadership. The findings provide an opportunity to improve the situational leadership model further and can be useful to leadership researchers, members of top management and the general public.
... The study exposed a mixed result and limited support for the application of the theory in the Bhutanese school leadership context. Johansen (1990) found that "it is not possible to make a perfect proclamation based on experimental findings yet it has opened a lot of debate about the many factors influencing leadership behaviors and the essence of leader-subordinate relationship". The study revealed the coaching and directing style of situational leadership dimension as a good predictor for teachers' organizational commitment. ...
Article
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How well a school performs largely depends on the commitment of teachers and the degree of their commitment greatly depends on the versatility of school leaders. For this reason, school leadership serves as an inner powerhouse of both school effectiveness and teachers' commitment towards their organization. This quantitative research is conducted to examine situational leadership practices and their relationship with teachers' commitment towards their organization in Bhutan. Using a simple random sampling method, 305 teachers in higher secondary schools of Bhutan were selected for the study. The descriptive analysis confirmed that overall Bhutanese principals' situational leadership practices were found at a moderate level. Additionally, results showed a positive correlation between the principal's situational leadership practices and the organizational commitment of the teachers. Although, the effect size of principals' situational leadership was not found high, nevertheless, the study established that the coaching and directing dimension of principal's situational leadership practices are good predictors of teachers' organizational commitment.
... That change has caused the research to be confusing and at times inconclusive. Articles such as Blank, et al, (14) and Johansen (15) cite studies that use the LEAD Self to make conclusions about ._ Situational Leadership even though the failings of the LEAD have been known for sometime. ...
... Este modelo, como reconocen Yukl (1989) o Moorhead y Griffin (1995), tiene un g ran atractivo intuitivo y suele citarse en la literatura científica como un importante enfoque situacional respecto a la efectividad del liderazgo, además de ser muy conocido entre los directivos. De hecho, en la revisión crítica de Graeff (1997), se reconoce que no sólo es una teoría popular (Johansen, 1990), sino que es una de las más conocidas (Sashkin, 1982;Vecchio, 1987), más empleadas (Randolph y Blackburn, 1989), y es uno de los modelos de liderazgo más populares empleados en la industria (Hersey, Angelini y Carakushansky, 1982) en los últimos 30 años. Además, las principales empresas con éxito en Estados Unidos emplean este modelo para entrenar a sus mandos. ...
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In this paper, in the framework of the Situational Leadership Theory - SLT - (Hersey & Blanchard, 1982), management styles and leadership effectiveness are analised in a sample of 105 subordinates and 18 managers of the Social Welfare Area in Local Administration. Results show no significant differences between managers and subordinates in their respective preferred management styles. Indeed, no significant differences were found between managers and subordinates in leadership effectiveness, as defined by SLT.
... Silnou stránkou teorií je zdůraznění flexibility vůdce a vztahu mezi vůdcem a podřízenými (Johansen, 1990). Kritika je zaměřena na nedostatečnou podporu teoretického základu modelu, na nejednoznačnost v konceptualizaci úrovně vyspělosti podřízených a platnosti spojení těchto úrovni s konkrétními styly vedení (Graeff, 1997; Thompson & Vecchio, 2009). ...
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The Encyclopedia of Work Psychology consists of original 108 entries covering personnel selection and assessment, work performance assessment, work motivation, employee training and development, teams and teamwork, job attitudes, career management, leadership, work-related stress and stress management, organizational culture and work psychology in general. The entries are based on both classical and recent research articles and monographs. Each entry offers not only short definitions of related theories, psychological constructs, models and methods, but also their critique and broader context. The encyclopedia is aimed at work psychologists, human resource professionals, consultants and managers interested in human behavior at workplace. It can also be helpful to students of psychology and human resources or researchers in these or related fields. The reader can use the encyclopedia to broaden their horizons, review the recent knowledge and trends in work psychology, or get a succinct understanding in areas that are, albeit maybe not directly, tied to their profession or field of study.
... Sánchez Santa-Bárbara (2000) reconoce un gran potencial a esta teoría. De hecho, en la revisión crítica de Graeff (1997), se reconoce que no sólo es una teoría popular (Johansen, 1990), sino que es una de las más conocidas (Sashkin, 1982;Vecchio, 1987), más empleadas (Randolph & Blackburn, 1989), y es uno de los modelos de liderazgo más populares aplicados en la industria (Hersey, Angelini & Carakushansky, 1982) en los últimos 30 años. Además, las principales empresas exitosas en Estados Unidos, emplean este modelo para entrenar a sus mandos. ...
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In this paper, our aim is to present a review of the main elements of this theoretical model. Thus, we will start with a historical revision on the advance of this proposal. We will point at the previous aspects, studies and models in which Hersey and Blanchard put their basis to conform SLT and strengths and weaknesses will be addressed. Among those strong -and weak- points, that integration of elements coming from other authors and areas can be included. In addition, we will address the assumptions which uphold the theory and we will point out the main criticisms on the logic or the congruence of the model. As an end, we will describe the three instruments linked to this theory. In another place (in preparation), empirical strengths and weaknesses of the SLT will be revised as well as the quality of the instruments linked to it.
... However, these data were not available. Furthermore, it is known that most LEAD-Self instrument respondents consistently score in the high task-high relationship leadership style category (Johansen, 1990;Lueder, 1985). This clustering may indicate that respondents ''knew'' how they should score and apparently reflects some form of self-deception of the respondents. ...
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Sickness absence leads to understaffing and interferes with nursing efficiency and quality. It has been reported in literature that managerial leadership is associated with self-reported sickness absence in the working population. This study investigated the relationship between managerial leadership and sickness absence in health care by associating nurse managers' leadership styles with registered sickness absence among their nursing staff. The cross-sectional study included 699 nurses working in six wards (staff range = 91-140 employees) of a Dutch somatic hospital employing a total of 1,153 persons. The nurse managers heading the wards were asked to complete the Leadership Effectiveness and Adaptability Description questionnaire for situational leadership. The Leadership Effectiveness and Adaptability Description scores were linked to employer-registered nursing staff sickness absence. High relationship-high task behavior (odds ratio [OR] = 0.76, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.65-0.85) and high relationship-low task behavior (OR = 0.37, 95% CI = 0.14 -0.98) were inversely related to the number of short (one to seven consecutive days) episodes of sickness absence among the staff. Low relationship-high task styles (OR = 2.44, 95% CI = 1.14-5.22) as well as low relationship-low task styles (OR = 2.44, 95% CI = 1.26-4.71) were positively associated with the number of short episodes of sickness absence. However, the leadership styles only explained 10% of the variance in short episodes of sickness absence. Leadership styles are associated with registered sickness absence. The nursing staff of relationship-oriented nurse managers has fewer short episodes of sickness absence than the staff of task-oriented managers. Training nurse managers in relational leadership styles may reduce understaffing and improve nursing efficiency and quality.
... Este modelo, como reconocen Yukl (1989) o Moorhead y Griffin (1995), tiene un g ran atractivo intuitivo y suele citarse en la literatura científica como un importante enfoque situacional respecto a la efectividad del liderazgo, además de ser muy conocido entre los directivos. De hecho, en la revisión crítica de Graeff (1997), se reconoce que no sólo es una teoría popular (Johansen, 1990), sino que es una de las más conocidas (Sashkin, 1982;Vecchio, 1987), más empleadas (Randolph y Blackburn, 1989), y es uno de los modelos de liderazgo más populares empleados en la industria (Hersey, Angelini y Carakushansky, 1982) en los últimos 30 años. Además, las principales empresas con éxito en Estados Unidos emplean este modelo para entrenar a sus mandos. ...
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Bu bilimsel kitapta; geçmişten günümüze liderlik kavramı, liderlik teorileri, liderlik tarzları, klasik liderlik tarzları, modern liderlik tarzları, post-modern liderlik tarzları, liderliğin yeni paradigmaları, değerler yönünde liderlik tarzları, destekleyici liderlik tarzları, insan odaklı liderlik tarzları, kaotik liderlik tarzları, negatif liderlik tarzları derli toplu, geniş bir şekilde gruplandırılarak paylaşılmaya çalışılmıştır. Kitap içeriği; Liderlik Kavramına Genel Bir Bakış, Liderlikle İlgili Temel Teoriler, Otokratik Liderlik, Demokratik Liderlik, Bürokratik Liderlik, Dönüşümcü Liderlik, Etkileşimci Liderlik, Karizmatik Liderlik, Durumsal Liderlik, Holistik (Bütünleştirici) Liderlik, Stratejik Liderlik, Vizyoner Liderlik, Öğretimsel Liderlik, Siyasi Liderlik, Girişimci Liderlik, Yenilikçi Liderlik, Kültürel Liderlik, Teknolojik Liderlik, Çift Yetenekli Liderlik, Kuantum Liderlik, Etik Liderlik, Manevi Liderlik, Otantik Liderlik, Koçluk Stili Liderlik, Mentorluk Tarzı Liderlik, Güçlendirici Liderlik, Takım Liderliği, Kolaylaştırıcı Liderlik, İlham Verici Liderlik, Hizmetkâr Liderlik, Empatik Liderlik, Paternalist (Babacan) Liderlik, Dağıtımcı Liderlik, Öz Liderlik, Kriz Liderliği, Adaptif Liderlik, Toksik Liderlik, Saldırgan Liderlik, Karanlık Liderlik, Yıkıcı Liderlik, Diktatör Liderlik, Narsistik Liderlik, Örneklerle Liderlik Becerileri ve Liderlik Tarzlarının İş Davranışlarına Etkisi olmak üzere 44 bölümden oluşmaktadır.
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Purpose: To investigate adaptive leadership in relation to personnel sickness absence (SA). In situational leadership, supervisors are effective if they adapt their leadership style appropriately to a given situation. Methods: A managerial reorganization in a Dutch hospital with reassignment of supervisors provided the opportunity to compare SA in the same wards while under the leadership of different supervisors. Leadership effectiveness was measured with the Leader Effectiveness and Adaptability Description (LEAD). Personnel SA was retrieved from employer's records and cumulated at the individual level, distinguishing between short-term (1-7 day) and long-term (>7 days) SA. Cumulated SA days and mean SA lengths before and after managerial reorganization were compared at the individual level by using non-parametric paired statistical analyses. Employer's costs to compensate sick-listed employees' salaries before and after reorganization were cumulated and compared at ward level by using non-parametric statistics. Results: 6 wards (N = 403) retained the same supervisor, 6 wards (N = 504) were assigned more effective supervisors, and 4 wards (N = 184) got less effective supervisors than the ones before reorganization. Cumulated short-term SA days and lengths did not change with leadership effectiveness. Employees who got more effective supervisors had fewer long-term SA days and shorter long-term SA lengths than before reorganization. More effective supervisors saved an average of 21,368 Euros per ward, particularly due to less long-term SA. Conclusions: Long-term SA was shorter after employees got more effective supervisors. Adaptive supervisors can facilitate return to work and save SA costs by providing the right type of support to sick-listed employees.
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To investigate nurse managers' leadership behaviour in relation to the sickness absence records of nursing staff. Sickness absence is high in healthcare and interferes with nursing efficiency and quality. Nurse managers' leadership behaviour may be associated with nursing staff sickness absence. Six nurse managers completed the Leadership Effectiveness and Adaptability Description (LEAD) questionnaire, which assesses leadership behaviour in terms of leadership flexibility (i.e. the range of leadership styles) and effectiveness (i.e. using the leadership style that is appropriate for a given situation). LEAD scores were linked to the number of recorded days of sickness absence and both short (1-7 days) and long (>7 days) episodes of sickness absence in the nursing teams. Leadership flexibility of nurse managers was not associated with sickness absence among nurses. High leadership effectiveness was associated with fewer days and fewer short episodes of sickness absence. Leadership effectiveness was unrelated to the number of long episodes of sickness absence. Effective nurse managers had less short-term sickness absence in their nursing teams. If these tentative cross-sectional associations are confirmed in longitudinal studies including more departments, then training effective leadership may improve the management of short-term sickness absence.
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Situational Leadership Theory was used to design and conduct two training courses for managers. Appropriate Situational Leadership styles were varied during the course, according to students' task maturity. When final examina tion scores for these groups were compared with scores obtained by managers in two control groups-receiving identicaL content, but not Situational Leader ship-based training-the managers in the experimental groups were found to have scored significantly higher. It is suggested that Situational Leadership Theory may be productively applied in training and educational as well as typical management situations.
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Leadership theory has been conceived in two different and incompatible ways. Hersey and Blanchard's analysis entails arithmetic combinations of the task and people variables, whereas Blake and Mouton's approach involves znteraction of the two. Examined in this way, Hersey and Blanchard's model eliminates a "9,9" or "one-best-way" orientation. When 9,9 options were added to this model, managers and mental health experts uniformly chose the 9,9 alternative and rejected situationally prescribed answers. This generalization held for all maturity levels. This fundamental difference in how leadership is conceived is then used to reinterpret major leadership research since World War II. Instruments based on adding magnitudes of variables, such as Fleishman, Reddin, and Hersey and Blanchard, among others, have shown no validity from an empirical standpoint, whereas instruments based on an interaction of variables—such as those by Likert, Argyris, and Blake and Mouton—have consistently demonstrated predictive validity. This paper provides a resolution for the controversy between situationalism and the one-best-style approach and indicates the validity of the latter and the lack of predictive value of the former.
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This study examined the use and validity of Hersey and Blanchard's Situa tional Leadership Theory. Several predictions were made from theory: that high performing managers will be rated higher than low performers on leader effectiveness and flexibility of style, both in self-report and by subordinates and superiors, and will show greater knowledge and use of Situational Leadership; and that managers will generally rate subordinates' job performance more highly when applying the theory correctly. Subjects were 65 managers, 189 subordinates, and 56 supervisors. The results support the validity of the theory, suggesting that when it was applied correctly, the gain in subordinate job performance was both practically and statistically significant. No definite causal relationship could be established, however, because of research design constraints.
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Situational Leadership Theory (SLT) embodies one of the more widely known and, at the same time, least researched views of managerial effectiveness. SLT focuses on the effectiveness of nominal heads rather than on emergent or incremental forms of power and influence. The theory is often cited in academically oriented management textbooks. However, little advice can be offered to students or to practicing managers on the utility of the theory. In this article, the origins and central elements of the theory, the available evidence of the theory's validity, and the requirements for a rigorous test of the theory's propositions are considered. The purpose of the present investigation was (a) to test SLT in a study that was designed to capture the critical variables proposed by the theory and (b) to explore SLT with analytic techniques that reflect traditional practice in organizational research (i.e., regression) as well as accommodate the need to study leadership as a situation-specific phenomena (i.e., subgroup analysis). Ss were 303 high school teachers. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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Responds to R. R. Blake and J. S. Mouton's (1981) comments on the Managerial Grid. The present authors maintain that the differences between the grid and situational leadership are in the areas of attitudes and behavior. The grid emphasizes concern for production and concern for people, which are attitudinal dimensions. Situational leadership emphasizes task behavior and relationship behavior, which are dimensions of observed behavior. The difference between self-perception and leadership style for the 2 approaches is compared. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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It has become a truism that “leadership depends upon the situation,” but few behavioral scientists have attempted to go beyond that statement to examine the specific ways in which leaders should and do vary their behavior with situational demands. Vroom and Yetton select a critical aspect of leadership style-the extent to which the leader encourages the participation of his subordinates in decision-making. They describe a normative model which shows the specific leadership style called for in different classes of situations. The model is expressed in terms of a “decision tree” and requires the leader to analyze the dimensions of the particular problem or decision with which he is confronted in order to determine how much and in what way to share his decision-making power with his subordinates. Other chapters discuss how leaders behave in different situations. They look at differences in leadership styles, and what situations induce people to display autocratic or participative behavior.
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Theoretical issues undermining the robustness of the situational leadership theory and the utility of its prescriptive model are discussed. More specifically, conceptual ambiguity associated with the mechanics of applying the concept of job-relevant maturity and other problems with the normative model are seen as seriously limiting its pragmatic utility. In addition, problems with the LEAD instrument are identified and discussed.
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Preliminary findings from the administration of the Leader Effectiveness and Adaptability Description (LEAD) instrument provide some support for situational leadership theory--the idea that flexible and balanced use of task and relationship behaviors is beneficial for both organizational productivity and personal satisfaction. (Author/MLF)
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A series of papers utilizing the Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire is presented, most of the experimental work being done by members of the Ohio State leadership studies group. The development of the questionnaire using nine hypothesized dimensions is discussed and the results of a factorial study on it are presented in which two leadership dimensions emerged—Consideration and Initiating Structure. The experimental studies apply these dimensions to military and school settings, Air Force crews, liberal arts college departments, school systems, and industrial situations. References for each paper and a copy of the original list of questionnaire items are included. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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Describes the Leader Adaptability and Style Inventory (LASI), consisting of 12 multiple choice questions and designed to measure self-perception of 3 aspects of leader behavior: style, style range, and style adaptability. Self-perception may differ from reality, the most important style being that perceived by those the leader attempts to influence. Hence, companion inventories are offered to reflect the views of the leader held by subordinates and others. The extent to which the leader is able to vary the approach defines style range, and style adaptability is an estimate of the appropriateness of matching situation and leader behavior. Life-cycle theory provides a rationale for planning changes in a group's maturity level, as illustrated by analysis of the basic 12 situations summarized in the scale. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Article
Considers initiating structure (task) and consideration (relationships) as the 2 most important leadership dimensions in describing how a leader performs. The managerial grid has popularized the task and relationship dimensions of leadership. High ratings on both dimensions characterize effective or desirable leadership. Fiedler "concluded that both directive task-oriented leaders and non-directive, human relations-oriented leaders are successful under some conditions . . . . Korman . . . concluded that what is needed is a systematic conceptualization of situation variance as it might relate to leadership behavior . . . ." The life cycle theory of leadership postulates that as the group matures, appropriate leader behavior varies from high task and low consideration to both high to high consideration and low task to both low. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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Thesis (Ph. D.)--United States International University, 1981. Includes bibliographical references (p. 104-107). Photocopy. s
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Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Minnesota, 1988. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 229-249). Photocopy. s
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Thesis (Ed. D.)--Northern Arizona University. Bibliography: leaves 111-116.
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Thesis (Ed. D.)--University of Northern Colorado, Dept. of Educational Administration, summer quarter, 1984. Major advisor, Donald M. Luketich. Includes bibliographical references (leaves [201]-205).
Beyond the grid and situationalism: A living systems view
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Beck, D. E. (1982). Beyond the grid and situationalism: A living systems view. Training and Development Journal, 36(8), 76-83.
Leadership in education: A field test of Hersey and Blanchard's situational leadership theory (Doctoral dissertation
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Beck, J. D. (1987). Leadership in education: A field test of Hersey and Blanchard's situational leadership theory (Doctoral dissertation, University of Massachu-setts, 1987). Dissertation Abstracts International, 39(3), 1202A.
An investigation of situational leadership model in college housing administration (Hersey and Blanchard) (Doctoral dissertation, Uni-versity of Florida, 1985) Leadership and decision making
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Vetter, M. K. (1985). An investigation of situational leadership model in college housing administration (Hersey and Blanchard) (Doctoral dissertation, Uni-versity of Florida, 1985). Dissertation Abstracts International, 47( I), 49A. Vroom, V. H., and Yetton, P. W. (1973). Leadership and decision making. Pitts-burgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press.
The relationship between elementary school teachers' per-ceptions of principal leadershiplstyle adaptability and teacher job satisfaction/ satisfaction with supervision (Doctoral dissertation
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Winkler, A. L. (1983). The relationship between elementary school teachers' per-ceptions of principal leadershiplstyle adaptability and teacher job satisfaction/ satisfaction with supervision (Doctoral dissertation, Catholic University of America, 1983). Dissertation Abstracts International, 45( 3), 720B. 225-242. Barry-Craig P. Johansen is administrative fellow at the National Center for Research in Vocational Education, University of Minnesota, St. Paul.
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Educational leadership: A field test of Hersey and Blanchard's situational leadership theory (Doctoral dissertation, University of Massachusetts, 1981)
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Situational leadership: Its relationship to the innovative performance of selected secondary school principals (Washington) (Doctoral dissertation, Washington State University, 1986)
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Leadership and maturity—a test of Hersey and Blanchard's situational leadership theory (Doctoral dissertation, University of Washington, 1983)
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The relationship between elementary school teachers' perceptions of principal leadership/style adaptability and teacher job satisfaction/ satisfaction with supervision (Doctoral dissertation, Catholic University of America, 1983)
  • Winkler A. L.
Leadership in education: A field test of Hersey and Blanchard's situational leadership theory (Doctoral dissertation, University of Massachusetts, 1987)
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A field test of Hersey and Blanchard's situational leadership theory (principals training) (Doctoral dissertation, Loyola University of Chicago, 1985)
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An investigation of situational leadership model in college housing administration (Hersey and Blanchard) (Doctoral dissertation, University of Florida, 1985)
  • Vetter M. K.
The effect of the congruence of leadership style and task‐relevant ability on leadership effectiveness: A field test of situational leadership theory (Doctoral dissertation, Ohio State University, 1980)
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