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Use of Sulfur Dioxide in Winemaking
Abstract
Ten juices of common wine cultivars were studied to determine if pretreatment of the juice with air, blanketing the juice with nitrogen or pretreatment with sulfur dioxide (SO2) was the most satisfactory method to make the better wine. Further treatment with SO2 was made later at intervals. The pretreatment with aeration lowered the final color in the wine compared to nitrogen blanketing. SO2 pretreatment gave the lowest colored juice for the white wines. All juices treated with SO2 later had much lower color. Wines without SO2 were generally less liked. Pretreatment of juice with SO2 helped preserve good color and sensory attributes of the wines but later treatments with SO2 were more essential in improving and maintaining quality. Oxidation was probably the most important control exercised by SO2 additions.
... In the vineyard, copper-and sulfur-based sprays are applied to control both downy [1] and powdery mildews [2]. In the form of SO 2 , sulfur is used during grape processing to help protect harvested grapes, juice and must against unwanted microbial activity [3] and oxidation [4]. Likewise, it is used after fermentation to stabilise the finished wine. ...
... However, the trial did suggest a threshold concentration of SO 4 (20 mg/L, 208 μmol/L) below which growth was increasingly limited. This SO 4 threshold concentration is similar to the concentrations used in previous studies on SO 4 limitation [45,54]. ...
... Experiments were performed in a defined medium [7], the composition of which resembles a Chardonnay juice [7]. Briefly, the defined medium composition consisted of (per litre): glucose 100 g, fructose 100 g, citric acid 0.2 g, malic acid 3 g, tartaric acid 2.5 g, K 2 HPO 4 Fermentations were conducted in 100 mL vessels as described in [36] or in microtiter plates as described in [56]. Fermentation vessels were stirred at 250 rpm and incubated at 17˚C. ...
Copper tolerance and SO2 tolerance are two well-studied phenotypic traits of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The genetic bases of these traits are the allelic expansion at the CUP1 locus and reciprocal translocation at the SSU1 locus, respectively. Previous work identified a negative association between SO2 and copper tolerance in S. cerevisiae wine yeasts. Here we probe the relationship between SO2 and copper tolerance and show that an increase in CUP1 copy number does not always impart copper tolerance in S. cerevisiae wine yeast. Bulk-segregant QTL analysis was used to identify variance at SSU1 as a causative factor in copper sensitivity, which was verified by reciprocal hemizygosity analysis in a strain carrying 20 copies of CUP1. Transcriptional and proteomic analysis demonstrated that SSU1 over-expression did not suppress CUP1 transcription or constrain protein production and provided evidence that SSU1 over-expression induced sulfur limitation during exposure to copper. Finally, an SSU1 over-expressing strain exhibited increased sensitivity to moderately elevated copper concentrations in sulfur-limited medium, demonstrating that SSU1 over-expression burdens the sulfate assimilation pathway. Over-expression of MET 3/14/16, genes upstream of H2S production in the sulfate assimilation pathway increased the production of SO2 and H2S but did not improve copper sensitivity in an SSU1 over-expressing background. We conclude that copper and SO2 tolerance are conditional traits in S. cerevisiae and provide evidence of the metabolic basis for their mutual exclusivity. These findings suggest an evolutionary driver for the extreme amplification of CUP1 observed in some yeasts.
... Sulfur dioxide is the main and, until recently, only tool used by wineries to protect grape must from browning [12,13]. This additive (E-220) is widely used in winemaking, thanks to its well-known antioxidant, antioxidasic, and antimicrobial properties [14], which make it practically essential not only in winemaking but also in the manufacture of other foods [15]. However, the current trend in winemaking is to reduce and even eliminate this unfriendly additive owing to its negative effects on the environment [16], the increasing tendency toward minimal intervention [17] and health [18] since it could cause headaches in sensitive people [19]. ...
... To statistically compare these curves, a previously reported kinetic model [24,50] The results for TOCC are shown in Fig. 2, which confirms what was indicated in Fig. 1A, i.e., that the TOCC of the control sample (C) was significantly higher than that of the sample supplemented with sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ). These data confirm the well-known inhibitory effect of this additive on tyrosinase activity [8,[12][13][14][15]. Supplementation with glutathione (GSH) and with inactivated dry yeasts rich in glutathione (IDY-GSH) also led to a significant decrease in TOCC. ...
... As expected, supplementation with sulfur dioxide had a clear protective effect against browning since the values of A420 and b* were significantly lower than in the control sample. This effect was also observed when the samples were supplemented with laccase, which confirms that sulfur dioxide not only inhibits the polyphenol oxidase present in healthy grapes (tyrosinase) but also has a powerful inhibitory Fig. 3 Influence of laccase, SO 2 , ascorbic acid, glutathione, inactivated dry yeast rich on glutathione and M. pulcherrima on browning intensity action on the laccase present in the grapes infected with grey rot [8,[12][13][14][15]. ...
Sulfur dioxide is the most used additive today for preventing browning in grape musts and wines. However, since wine consumers are increasingly interested in healthier wines, the wine industry is keen to reduce its use. Some promising alternatives to sulfur dioxide have been proposed in recent years, including glutathione, both pure and in the form of inactivated yeasts, and Metschnikowia pulcherrima used as a bioprotective agent. Some information exists about the protective effect against oxidation of glutathione but there is very few about the use of bioprotection for that purpose. Supplementation with glutathione, regardless of the commercial form, reduced oxygen consumption and browning intensity when laccase was not present in the grape juice. Metschnikowia pulcherrima also reduced browning intensity in the absence of laccase but increased the total oxygen consumption. However, in the presence of laccase, glutathione and Metschnikowia pulcherrima were not effective enough to adequately prevent the grape juice from browning. Glutathione, both pure and in the form of inactivated yeasts, and Metschnikowia pulcherrima are interesting tools for protecting grape must against browning, and thus reducing the use of sulfur dioxide.
... Deliberate oxidation or hyperoxidation of grape juice is primarily employed as a technique for reducing phenolic content, either for stylistic reasons (Long and Lindblom, 1986;Wann, 1988;Nicolini, 1992) or more commonly for stability against wine browning (Singleton et ai, 1980;Long and Lindblom, 1986;Ough and Crowell, 1987;Nagel and Graber, 1988;Schneider, 1989;Cheynier et ai, 1989a;Cheynier et ai, 1991;Vaimakis and Roussis, 1993;,Ricardo-da-Silva et ai, 1993;Piracci et ai, 1994;Guedes de Pinho et ai, 1994). ...
... Disappearance of GOX-induced brownness in juices during fermentation was reported by Villettaz (1987), and Heresztyn (1987) also attributed brown precipitate formed during treatment with GOX to oxidised phenolic material settling out. A further 15% decrease in browning is observed during the cold settling period prior to bottling, and is probably due to a bleaching effect (Ough and Crowell, 1987) from S02 additions (Chapter 4) and ...
... The increased colour stability of the aeration wines relative to control in this study is expected -deliberate oxidation or hyperoxidation of grape juice has been employed as a technique for improving stability against wine browning, usually by reducing phenolic content and thus browning substrate (Singleton et ai, 1980;Long and Lindblom, 1986;Ough and Crowell, 1987;Nagel and Graber, 1988;Schneider, 1989;Cheynier et ai, 1989a;Cheynier et ai, 1991;Vaimakis and Roussis, 1993; Ricardo-da-Silva et ai, Piracci et ai, 1994;Guedes de Pinho et ai, 1994). Although total hydroxycinnamate and flavonoid content were essentially the same for both aeration and control wines during aging (Figures 4.1, 4.2) it is possible that the oxidisabie phenolic content was lower in the aeration wines due to prior oxidation during treatment of the juice. ...
In small scale trials, a process for the glucose oxidase (GOX) - catalysed oxidation of glucose in grape juice was developed and optimised. Up to 87% utilisation of glucose was achieved, producing wines of ca. 6.4% alcohol. This equates to a 40% reduction in alcohol content compared with conventionally processed wine. The effect of GOX -processing on the compositional, stability, and sensory properties of Müller-Thurgau and Riesling wines was investigated. Large amounts of gluconic acid are formed during GOX-treatment of juice, and a large portion of this is retained in the finished wine. In general GOX wines contained a higher concentration of esters and fatty acids, possibly due to alterations in juice amino acid composition. Relatively little change was observed in the concentration of the other volatile compounds. GOX wines show increased S0₂-binding power compared to control wines. GOX wines also had a more golden colour, possible due to increased quinone production and regeneration of oxidisable phenolic substrate. They were stable against browning after six months of bottle age, whereas control wines continued to brown throughout the two year period of monitored aging. GOX wine appeared to be stable with respect to 'pinking' reactions and other parameters examined. Although heat/cold tests suggest they are at more risk of developing a protein haze, no haze was observed. GOX-treatment of Riesling juice significantly modified the taste and appearance attributes of the resultant wine, while other flavour parameters were relatively unaffected. The exceptions were fruit aroma intensity and length of flavour, which were generally decreased in GOX wines primarily due to the juice aeration required during processing. Perceived viscosity and density were relatively unchanged in GOX wines, probably due to the high acidity which itself is a detracting characteristic. The effect of ethanol on the perception of fullness in white wine was investigated using a time-intensity methodology. A general pattern of increase in perceived viscosity and density occurs with increasing alcohol content up to 10 and 12% alcohol v/v respectively. The results support the anecdotal evidence that low-alcohol wines generally have reduced fullness compared with 'full-strength' wines, but this may not hold for wines above 12% and possibly 10% alcohol content. These findings raise some interesting questions on desirable alcohol levels for wine in general. In addition, the temporal parameters important in explaining perceived viscosity and density in white wine were determined.
... The antimicrobial activity of SO 2 decreases as wine pH becomes higher (Fig. 1), making it more difficult to microbiologically stabilize wines with low acidity. SO 2 is the additive most frequently employed to control LAB growth and malolactic fermentation (MLF) development during winemaking, because of its selective antimicrobial properties, especially against LAB (Ough & Crowell, 1987). The three main genera of LAB associated with the winemaking process are Oenococcus, Pediococcus and Lactobacillus. ...
... -30À50 mg/L free SO 2 may be ineffective against some microbial. Santos, 2012Pu ertolas et al., 2009Su arez et al., 2007Landete et al., 2007Costello & Henschke, 2002Ough & Crowell, 1987 Dissolving -Extraction of minerals, organic acids and phenolic compounds. ...
Sulphur dioxide seems indispensable in winemaking because of its properties. However, a current increasing concern about its allergies effects in food product has addressed the international research efforts on its replacement. This supposes a sufficient knowledge of its properties and conditions of use. Several studies compared SO2 properties against new alternatives that are supposed to overcome SO2 disadvantages. The question that lay on this review is how the efficiency of sulphur replacements in wine can be demonstrated. The state of the art and a deep revision of the parameters frequently determined in sulphur dioxide replacement studies in wine are summarized.
... For this reason, it is proposed that cold maceration should precede alcoholic fermentation in order for the yeast to reach its full potential to improve the aroma of wine [35]. As well as their thermotolerance, H. uvarum isolates were also resistant to SO 2 in concentrations much higher than those usually used in the winemaking industry [36]. In contrast, all isolates were sensitive to ethanol (Figure 1), which is in accordance with previously published results [37][38][39]. ...
The utilization of native yeast strains associated with a distinct terroir for autochthonous grape types represents a novel trend in winemaking, contributing to the production of unique wines with regional character. Hence, this study aimed to isolate native strains of the yeast H. uvarum from the surface of various fruits and to characterize its fermentation capability in Prokupac grape must. Out of 31 yeasts, 8 isolates were identified as H. uvarum. The isolates were able to grow at low (4 °C) temperatures, SO2 concentrations up to 300 ppm and ethanol concentrations up to 5%. Additionally, they provided a good profile of organic acids during the microvinification of sterile grape must. Although the content of acetic acid (0.54–0.63 g/L) was relatively high, the sniffing test proved that the yeast isolates developed a pleasant aroma characterized as fruity. All H. uvarum isolates produced twice the concentration of glycerol compared to commercial wine yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, contributing to the fullness and sweetness of the wine. The results for pure and sequential fermentation protocols confirmed that the selected S-2 isolate has good oenological characteristics, the capability to reduce the ethanol content (up to 1% v/v) and a potential to give a distinctive note to Prokupac-grape wines.
... Sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ) has been used in enology since the 1800s (Pasteur, 1866;Ladrey, 1871) for its antimicrobial, antioxidant (Waterhouse et al., 2016) and antioxydasic (Ough and Crowell, 1987;Son et al., 2001) properties, throughout the winemaking process, from vatting to bottling. During the winemaking process, free SO 2 has been reported to neutralize and eliminate spoilage microorganisms, delay growth of lactic acid bacteria, and limit growth of non-Saccharomyces yeast (Henick-Kling et al., 1998;Takahashi et al., 2014). ...
Changes are currently being made to winemaking processes to reduce chemical inputs [particularly sulfur dioxide (SO 2 )] and adapt to consumer demand. In this study, yeast growth and fungal diversity were investigated in merlot during the prefermentary stages of a winemaking process without addition of SO 2 . Different factors were considered, in a two-year study: vintage, maturity level and bioprotection by the adding yeast as an alternative to SO 2 . The population of the target species was monitored by quantitative-PCR, and yeast and filamentous fungi diversity was determined by 18S rDNA metabarcoding. A gradual decrease of the α-diversity during the maceration process was highlighted. Maturity level played a significant role in yeast and fungal abundance, which was lower at advanced maturity, while vintage had a strong impact on Hanseniaspora spp. population level and abundance. The presence of SO 2 altered the abundance of yeast and filamentous fungi, but not their nature. The absence of sulfiting led to an unexpected reduction in diversity compared to the presence of SO 2 , which might result from the occupation of the niche by certain dominant species, namely Hanseniaspora spp. Inoculation of the grape juice with non- Saccharomyces yeast resulted in a decrease in the abundance of filamentous fungi generally associated with a decline in grape must quality. Lower abundance and niche occupation by bioprotection agents were observed at the overripened stage, thus suggesting that doses applied should be reconsidered at advanced maturity. Our study confirmed the bioprotective role of Metschnikowia pulcherrima and Torulaspora delbrueckii in a context of vinification without sulfites.
... In particular, flowery cultivars of the Muscat family-for example, Muscat Canelli, Muscat of Alexandria, or Orange Muscat-need to be fruit-forward to match consumers' stylistic expectations [2]. Enological practices to achieve this goal include gentle processing of the grapes to minimize shearing forces [3], stabilizing juice with sulfur dioxide to prevent aroma and phenolic oxidation [4], the use of technical enzymes to increase clarity prior to fermentation [5], and rapid onset of fermentation with a specialized yeast strain that develops and preserves the typical aroma character [6]. Studies have shown that the clarification step, in particular, is essential for aroma development and flavor preservation [7,8]. ...
Winemakers use technical enzymes to assist with clarification, extraction, and other processes in winemaking. In some cases, enzyme mixes are found to be ineffective for a variety of reasons. This study characterizes difficult-to-clarify juices from the Muscat family, examines the effects of pasteurization, and classifies these juices based on cultivar, harvest date, geographical location, and harvesting technique. In addition to studying the chemical compositions of different Muscat juices, enzyme testing was performed by creating enzyme cocktails and evaluating their functionality. The data suggest a distinct matrix effect on juice clarification that can be influenced during juice processing. Berry proteins, polysaccharides, and native enzymes play an important role during the clarification process, influencing the efficiency of technical enzymes. On the other side, high macromolecule extraction from the grape material, through excessive shearing forces in machine-harvested and processed fruit, for example, can have a negative effect, especially in ripe and overripe grape material. Based on these findings, the winemaking strategy and use of technical enzymes need to be adapted to the incoming grapes. Besides adjusting the mechanical forces to the level of ripeness, avoiding native fermentation prior to clarification should be prioritized. The enzyme mixes developed and tested in these experiments show a high degree of efficiency in the majority of juices that were evaluated.
... Traditional methods of combating unwanted microflora involve the use of natural or synthetic antiseptics, such as organic acids (citric, benzoic, ascorbic, etc.) and salts (potassium sorbate, sodium benzoate, etc.) [47]. A common way to combat the microbial wine contamination is to treat it with sulfur dioxide, which many wine strains are resistant to [48]. However, sulfite excess is undesirable in wine. ...
Modern industrial winemaking is based on the use of starter cultures of specialized wine strains of Saccharomyces cerevisiae yeast. Commercial wine strains have a number of advantages over natural isolates, and it is their use that guarantees the stability and reproducibility of industrial winemaking technologies. For the highly competitive wine market with new demands for improved wine quality, it has become increasingly critical to develop new wine strains and winemaking technologies. Novel opportunities for precise wine strain engineering based on detailed knowledge of the molecular nature of a particular trait or phenotype have recently emerged due to the rapid progress in genomic and “postgenomic” studies with wine yeast strains. The review summarizes the current achievements of the metabolic engineering of wine yeast, the results of recent studies and the prospects for the application of genomic editing technologies for improving wine S. cerevisiae strains.
... Some reports [6,17,21,44,75] refer to less aroma intensity and less varietal aroma in the hyperoxidized lots, depending on cultivar. Several European grape varieties showed an increase of acetates and higher aldehydes (C3-C10), and a decrease in higher alcohol after hyperoxidation. ...
When white grape juice is processed without sulfur dioxide, enzymatically induced oxidation occurs and leads to a precipitation of phenolic compounds as insoluble brown pigments. Wines obtained from oxidized must are reported to display more resistance against oxidative quality degradation during aging. Hyperoxidation makes use of deliberate oxidation prior to fermentation in order to improve wines' shelf-life. Sensory results are derived basically from the flavonoid removal involved. This review deals with the reactions involved, technical applications, analytical control, chemical and sensory consequences, and the reasons for conflicting results of hyperoxidation. KEY WORDS: hyperoxidation, oxygen consumption, flavonoid phenols, oxidative aging, browning, flavor stability The very first experiments on must hyperoxidation were reported in the 1970s [37,38,39]. Traditionally, careful protection of must against oxidation has been recommended to avoid browning. Thus, the purpose of these experiments was to demonstrate that oxidation of must prior to fermentation was not so detrimental to white wine quality as expected. In many instances, however, wines made from oxidized musts were rated even better than those obtained from non-oxidized or sulfited musts. Consequently, there was a tendency in several European countries to reduce or omit the use of sulfur dioxide during pre-fermentation operations. The development of mechanical harvesting, associated with early crushing and longer pomace contact time, often led to an increase of phenol content and resulted in bitter, coarse wines. This was when systematic studies on hyperoxidation were instigated in order to precipitate phenols responsible for bitterness, astrin-gency, and browning during wine aging [22]. The technique was based on the assumption that oxidation of must is different from oxidation of wine. When phenols are eliminated from must by enzymatic oxidation, they do not affect wine quality when undergoing chemical oxidation. Must processing with oxygen fastens the transformation of phenolic precursors to brown, insoluble polymers which are easily removed during the normal clarification process. Thus, although oxidized musts are very dark, the resulting wines are lighter and more stable in sensory parameters than those produced by conventional technology. Enological interest of flavonoid removal: The two major classifications of phenolic compounds in grapes are non-flavonoids and flavonoids. Non-fla-vonoids are concentrated in the pulp cell vacuoles and are present in all juices. The flavonoid phenols reside in the firmer tissues of the skin, seeds, and stems. White wines are usually made from juices pressed from the skins quickly and, therefore, contain relatively low levels of total phenols, almost all of which are non-fla-vonoids in nature. The extent to which the total phenols......
... Sulphur dioxide (SO 2 ) is the chemical additive mainly used in wineries as antioxidant and preservative to control bacteria, moulds and spoilage yeasts [11,27] considering that its antiseptic property depends on the pH of the media [28]. However, in the last decades, its use is ...
... The scores for items Q13-8 and Q15-4, which are scientifically incorrect statements, were reversed 5 to 1 and 4 to 2, respectively, to make their order comparable to other items. The above list contains only the indicator variables used in the analysis Antioxidants have long been known as an antimicrobial agent with antioxidant properties (Ough and Crowell 1987). Respondents aware of this information tend to avoid antioxidant additive-free wine. ...
Consumers have recently become more concerned about food additives and food safety. Since its first meeting on September 17, 2003, the Risk Communication Expert Committee has studied and discussed the ideal methods to communicate risk related to food safety issues in response to a Food Safety Commission request. However, there are only a few case studies that actually apply to risk communications. This study aims to analyze consumer preferences for antioxidant-free wine and suggest a tool for risk communications. The study uses a two-stage method: in the first, the analysis identified different types of consumers according to their views of antioxidant-free labels using structural equation model (SEM) analysis; the second stage incorporated the consumer attributes identified by the SEM into a conjoint analysis to calculate willingness to pay (WTP) for each attribute. The WTP results show that the antioxidant-free label has a significant influence on consumer preferences. Notably, consumers who recognize food additive dangers placed significant additional value on wine without antioxidants. On the other hand, consumers who have knowledge of wine and food processing tended to view antioxidant-free wine as low in quality compared to wines made with the original manufacturing process. These results indicate that “adverse selection” has occurred in the wine market in Japan. The results suggest significant differences between consumer groups in terms of awareness of the dangers of food additives and knowledge of wine and food processing. This implies that some consumers are sensitive to food additives. Our research can help regulators create effective means to communication risk related to food additives. In addition, this implies that government guidelines related to wine labels are important, so that Japanese wine may approach international level quality.
... Some reports [6,17,21,44,75] refer to less aroma intensity and less varietal aroma in the hyperoxidized lots, depending on cultivar. Several European grape varieties showed an increase of acetates and higher aldehydes (C3-C10), and a decrease in higher alcohol after hyperoxidation. ...
When white grape juice is processed without sulfur dioxide, enzymatically induced oxidation occurs and leads to a precipitation of phenolic compounds as insoluble brown pigments. Wines obtained from oxidized must are reported to display more resistance against oxidative quality degradation during aging. Hyperoxidation makes use of deliberate oxidation prior to fermentation in order to improve wines' shelf-life. Sensory results are derived basically from the flavonoid removal involved. This review deals with the reactions involved, technical applications, analytical control, chemical and sensory consequences, and the reasons for conflicting results of hyperoxidation.
... An interesting application of such supramolecular films is in the detection of sulfur dioxide and its source compounds, such as the sulfite salts, which are added to foods and beverages in order to inhibit bacterial growth, to prevent oxidation and inhibit discoloration, thus improving the final appearance of the products 12,81,87,152,[156][157][158] . Only SO 2 exhibits antiseptic properties [159][160][161][162][163][164][165][166] but, at high levels it produces an unpleasant aroma and taste, besides being hazardous to human health. The analysis of free and total sulfur dioxide in wine has been carried out using a diffusion cell on line with the FIA (flow injection analysis) amperometric detector based on the M(TRPyP) and M(TCPyP) films ( Figure 14). ...
Supramolecular chemistry, also known as the chemistry beyond the molecules, provides the best route for molecular nanotechnology, allowing the design of versatile functional nanomaterials conveying the remarkable characteristics of the molecular centers, including their electronic, optical and chemical properties. Synthetic strategies have been successfully developed for the assembly of supramolecular systems encompassing porphyrins, porphyrazines, clusters and polyimine complexes. Their many applications in nanotechnological devices, such as amperometric sensors, smart windows, photoelectrochemical cells and logic gates are dealt with in this article.
... Sulfite has long been recognized as an antimicrobial agent and been used in breweries. The oxidation of sulfite to sulfate is known to involve free radical formations, however, the anti-microbial mechanism of sulfite has not been elucidated [81,82,99]. In an attempt to evaluate sulfite and hydrogen peroxide as bacterial contamination control agents, Chang et al. [57] investigated the use of sulfite and hydrogen peroxide in cell-recycled ethanol fermentation. ...
... When added to wine, KMS produces approximately half its weight in sulfur dioxide (Conde et al. 2007). Sulfur dioxide in solution can exist in multiple forms as the chemical equilibrium is dependent on the pH of the solution (Ough and Crowell 1987): ...
The introduced biological control agent Harmonia axyridis (Pallas) (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) has attained pest status in North America as its presence in vineyards during harvest may compromise the quality of the resulting wine. Control of H. axyridis in vineyards is difficult as their populations may fluctuate daily, and there are few products registered to control this pest. Sulfur dioxide, in the form of potassium metabisulfite (KMS), is commonly used in wine as both an antimicrobial and an antioxidant. In this study, the effectiveness of KMS as a repellent against H. axyridis was measured. In a Y-tube olfactometer, H. axyridis spent significantly less time in the treatment arm (KMS 2.5, 5, and 10 g/liter) than in the control arm during a 10-min period. When sprayed in a vineyard, KMS significantly reduced the number of H. axyridis on grape vines. KMS is an effective repellent against H. axyridis and may be suitable for use in vineyards to control this pest. KMS (5 g/liter) applied to Riesling grapes at 2 wk, 1 wk, 3 d, or 1 d before harvest did not affect free sulfur dioxide in either freshly processed or settled juice. This study lays the foundation for the development of a pest management strategy incorporating repellents for H. axyridis in vineyards.
... Undoubtedly sulfur dioxide is the most widely spread additive in winemaking and essential as well. Antioxidant [1], antioxidasic [2], and antimicrobial [3,4] effects turn sulfur dioxide into a practically essential additive not only in winemaking but also in other food production [5]. Sulfur dioxide may be found free or bound to phenols, for example, gallic acid, aldehydes, and other organic compounds [6]. ...
In the present work, known concentration of sulfite aqueous solutions in the presence and absence of gallic acid was measured to corroborate the validity of modified Monier-Williams method. Free and bound-sulfite was estimated by differential pulse voltammetry. To our surprise, the modified Monier-Williams method (also known as aspiration method) showed to be very inaccurate for free-sulfite, although suitable for bound-sulfite determination. The differential pulse approach, using the standard addition method and a correction coefficient, proved to be swift, cheap, and very precise and accurate.
... Sulphur dioxide is the main preservative, antiseptic and antioxidant used in winemaking for the protection of wine from alterations. It has long been used in winemaking to inhibit oxidation (free SO 2 ) and growth of undesirable micro-organisms including wild yeast, and acetic and lactic bacteria (molecular SO 2 ) (Ough and Crowell, 1987;Fugelsang, 1989;Kourakou-Dragona, 1998). ...
An alternate to sulphur dioxide natural antioxidant was tested during 2005 harvest on four different red vinifications, and was applied in each winemaking batch in combination with sulphur dioxide and on its own. Responses measured and analysed with uni- and multivariate statistics were: anthocyanin content, antioxidant capacity and classic oenological parameters. ANOVA revealed no significant effect of treatment in the antioxidant values of RA or diphenylpicrylhydrazyl (DPPH) of wines, but a paired t-test could differentiate wines treated only with SO2 from those treated only with the novel product according to their RA values. Principal component analysis (PCA) of anthocyanin content of the treated wines gave five significant components, explaining 100% of variance and differentiating products treated only with SO2 from those treated only with new product. PCA of oenological data explained 72% of variance in the first two components and wines were clearly differentiated on the basis of SO2 or alternative treatment. In all cases, commercially acceptable red wines were produced, giving a possibility for partial substitution of SO2 by a natural product.
... The main influence of other LAB species such as Lactobacillus hilgardii and Pediococcus pentosaceus, on wine quality is to cause alterations to the wine, including the so-called "lactic disease", and the production of off-flavor compounds (Chatonnet et al., 1995;Costello and Henschke, 2002), and biogenic amines (Landete et al., 2005;Marcobal et al., 2006). Sulphur dioxide (SO 2 ) is the additive most frequently employed to control LAB growth and MLF development during winemaking, because of its antioxidant and selective antimicrobial properties, especially against LAB (Kourakou-Dragona, 1998;Ough and Crowell, 1987). However, nowadays there is a growing tendency to reduce the use of SO 2 in wine processing, since high doses can cause organoleptic alterations in the final product, and especially because of the risks to human health of consuming this substance (Romano and Suzzi, 1993;Taylor et al., 1986). ...
This paper reports a comparative study of the inhibitory potential of 18 phenolic compounds, including hydroxybenzoic acids and their derivatives, hydroxycinnamic acids, phenolic alcohols and other related compounds, stilbenes, flavan-3-ols and flavonols, on different lactic acid bacteria (LAB) strains of the species Oenococcus oeni, Lactobacillus hilgardii and Pediococcus pentosaceus isolated from wine. In general, flavonols and stilbenes showed the greatest inhibitory effects (lowest IC₅₀ values) on the growth of the strains tested (0.160-0.854 for flavonols and 0.307-0.855 g/L for stilbenes). Hydroxycinnamic acids (IC₅₀ > 0.470 g/L) and hydroxybenzoic acids and esters (IC₅₀ >1 g/L) exhibited medium inhibitory effect, and phenolic alcohols (IC₅₀ > 2 g/L) and flavanol-3-ols (negligible effect) showed the lowest effect on the growth of the LAB strains studied. In comparison to the antimicrobial additives used in winemaking, IC₅₀ values of most phenolic compounds were higher than those of potassium metabisulphite for O. oeni strains (e.g., around 4-fold higher for quercetin than for potassium metabisulphite), but lower for L. hilgardii and P. pentosaceus strains (e.g., around 2-fold lower for quercetin). Lysozyme IC₅₀ values were negligible for L. hilgardii and P. pentosaceus, and were higher than those corresponding to most of the phenolic compounds tested for O. oeni strains, indicating that lysozyme was less toxic for LAB than the phenolic compounds in wine. Scanning electron microscopy confirmed damage of the cell membrane integrity as a consequence of the incubation with antimicrobial agents. These results contribute to the understanding of the inhibitory action of wine phenolics on the progress of malolactic fermentation, and also to the development of new alternatives to the use of sulphites in enology.
... Wines produced with moderate amounts of initial SO 2 (around 50 mg·L −1 for a good sanitary state of grapes) were found to exhibit better overall sensory characteristics. Ough and Crowell (1987) also compared the effect of pretreatment of the juice of various common cultivars used for white wines with air, with nitrogen or with sulfur dioxide, and found that the best wines, as evaluated by sensory analysis, were made using SO 2 both in the juice and in the wine. ...
The present review aims to show the state of the art of oxidation mechanisms occurring especially in white wines by taking into account knowledge from different fields in relation to the subject. It is therefore divided into three main parts. First, the mechanisms of oxidation relevant to white wine are discussed in the light of recent scientific literature. Next, the phenomenon of oxygen solubility in wine during the winemaking process, and in particular during bottling is stated theoretically as well as practically. Finally, the aspect of wine conservation after bottling is examined with respect to mass transfers which may occur through the closure, with a special emphasis on cork. Currently, specific physico-chemical properties still make cork closures the most important closure type used for the wine market, and especially for high quality wines. This final section will also include a review of studies performed on this subject, which have been analyzed in detail from a theoretical mass transfer point of view, in order to assess the extent to which the proposed scientific tools and the observed tendencies are relevant to progress in the understanding of the impact of this parameter on the behavior of a wine.
This communication studies some possible strategies to reduce or even to replace sulfur dioxide in winemaking. Specifically, the aim of this work was to study the protective effect against oxidation of a commercial inactivated dry yeast (IDY) with very high level of glutathione, and of a selected non-Saccharomyces yeast, Metschnikowia pulcherrima strain in comparison with sulfur dioxide.
This chapter provides a short introductory description of issues related to the geographical authenticity of wine, followed by examples of wine contamination and adulteration. In addition, bioanalytical and biochemical methods are described, which allow uncovering of fraudulent products. These methods include stable isotope ratio analysis via nuclear magnetic resonance or isotope-ratio mass spectrometry and compound analysis by liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry or mass spectrometric fingerprinting. Finally, the most relevant wine proteins are described, which originate from grapes, yeasts or pathogenic microorganisms. Protein identification analysis may reveal both a low initial quality of infected grapes and imperfections of the fermentation process. Grape pathogenesis-related proteins have been associated with the formation of haze (turbidity) in bottled wine.
Although sulfur dioxide (SO2) finds widespread use in the food industry as its hydrated form, sulfite, a number of aspects of SO2 biology remain to be completely understood. Among the tools available for intracellular enhancement of SO2, most suffer from poor cell permeability and a lack of control over SO2 release. We report 1,2‐cyclic sulfite diesters as a new class of reliable SO2 donors that dissociate in buffer through a nucleophilic displacement to produce SO2 with tuneable release profiles. We provide data in support of the suitability of these SO2 donors to enhance intracellular levels of SO2 at an efficiency superior to sodium bisulfite, the most commonly used SO2 donor for cellular studies.
A new water-soluble, highly fluorogenic 3-formylBODIPY dye that enables the sensing of SO 2 derivatives in aqueous buffers and cancer cells is reported. The quaternary ammonium group appended through the meso-position of the BODIPY dye ensures water solubility. The probe exhibits high specificity for cytosolic (bi)sulfites and fluoresces brightly in human lung adenocarcinoma cells (A549).
Sulfur metabolism is integral to cellular growth and survival. The presence of a wide range of oxidation states of sulfur in biology coupled with its unique reactivity are some key features of the biology of this element. In particular, nearly all oxidation states of sulfur not only occur but are also inter-convertible. In order to study the chemical biology of reactive sulfur species, tools to reliably detect as well as generate these species within cells are necessary. Herein, an overview of strategies to generate certain reactive sulfur species is presented. The donors of reactive sulfur species have been organized based on their oxidation states. These interesting small molecules have helped lay a strong foundation to study the biology of reactive sulfur species and some may have therapeutic applications in the future as well.
High concentrations of ethanol, low pH, the presence of sulfur dioxide and some polyphenols have been reported to inhibit Oenococcus oeni growth, thereby negatively affecting malolactic fermentation (MLF) of wine. In order to generate superior O. oeni strains that can conduct more efficient MLF, despite these multiple stressors, a continuous culture approach was designed to directly evolve an existing ethanol tolerant O. oeni strain, A90. The strain was grown for ∼350 generations in a red wine-like environment with increasing levels of stressors. Three strains were selected from screening experiments based on their completion of fermentation in a synthetic wine medium with 15.1% (v/v) ethanol, 25 mg/L SO2 at pH 3.3 within 160 h, while the parent strain fermented no more than two thirds of l-malic acid in this medium. These superior strains also fermented faster and/or had a larger population in four different wines. A reduced or equivalent amount of the undesirable volatile, acetic acid, was produced by the optimised strains compared to a commercial strain in Mouvedre and Merlot wines. These findings demonstrate the feasibility of using directed evolution as a tool to generate more efficient MLF starters tailored for wines with multiple stressors.
Several wild yeasts were isolated from Korean grape varieties before and during spontaneous fermentation. Among them, four strains were isolated based on the alcohol content and flavor production in wine after fermentation of apple juice. In this study, the four yeast strains were identified and characterized. PCR-restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis of ITS I-5.8S-ITS II region with restriction endonuclease Hae III and Hinf I resulted in that all the strains showed a typical pattern of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Pulse field gel electrophoresis showed three different chromosome patterns with a same band between strains SS89 and SS812. When ITS I-5.8S-ITS II sequences of the four strains were compared with one another, they were similar to those of Saccharomyces cerevisiae CBS 4054 type strain. Identity of the sequences was higher than 97% with those of the type strain. Phylogenetic analysis showed based on the sequences showed they were genetically closed to the type strain. The four identified strains were tested in a medium containing 200 ppm potassium metabisulfite, and the MM10 and WW108 inhibition rates resulted at up to 24 h. The four strains were tested at an incubation temperature of 30^{\circ}C. The 30% sugar concentration in the medium (w/v) showed the highest growth in 36 h, especially in the case of SS89, which was close to growth 40. The four strains were tested in an 8% ethanol medium (v/v). Alcohol tolerance was initially kept in the incubation process. The strains began to adapt, however, to the exceeded resistance. The four strains showed the lowest inhibition rate at 24 h.
Drug resistant infections are becoming common worldwide and new strategies for drug development are necessary. Here, we report the synthesis and evaluation of 2,4-dinitrophenylsulfonamides, which are donors of sulfur dioxide (SO2), a reactive sulfur species, as methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) inhibitors. N-(3-Methoxyphenyl)-2,4-dinitro-N-(prop-2-yn-1-yl)benzenesulfonamide (5e) was found to have excellent in vitro MRSA inhibitory potency. This compound is cell permeable and treatment of MRSA cells with 5e depleted intracellular thiols and enhanced oxidative species both results consistent with a mechanism involving thiol activation to produce SO2.
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Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is a gaseous environmental pollutant which is routinely used in industry as a preservative and antimicrobial. Recent data suggests that SO2 may have value as a therapeutic agent. However, due to its gaseous nature, localizing SO2 generation is challenging. Herein, various 1,3-dihydrobenzo[c]thiophene 2,2-dioxides (benzosulfones) were prepared as candidates for photochemically activated sulfur dioxide (SO2) generators. These compounds were found to be stable in buffer but were photolysed upon irradiation with UV light to generate SO2. Our data indicates that photolysis of benzosulfones depended on substituents and the presence of electron donating groups resulted in enhanced yield of SO2.
Several indigenous sulfite-resistant yeasts were isolated at the microbial succession stage of yeast flora during spontaneous fermentation of Campbell Early grapes using a YPD plate that contained 200 mg/L or 500 mg/L potassium metabisulfite. When they were applied to the wine fermentation using the Campbell Early grape and apple juices, strains S13 and D8 showed strong alcohol fermentation and good flavor production. They were identified as Saccharomyces cerevisiae in the phylogenetic analysis based on their ITS 1-5.8S-ITS II DNA sequences. The two yeast strains grew to a high cell density in the YPD media supplemented with 40%(w/v) glucose. They also grew rapidly in the YPD media at . While strain S13 showed some differences in cell density at the two temperatures, no marked difference was observed during the culture of strain D8. The strains grew relatively well at pH 5.0 and 9.0 compared with pH 7.0, which was the optimum pH for their growth. Especially, strain S13 cultivated in the YPD media at pH 9.0 grew to 93% of the growth of strain D8, which was obtained at pH 7.0.
The Chemistry of Food Additives and Preservatives is an up-to-date reference guide on the range of different types of additives (both natural and synthetic) used in the food industry today. It looks at the processes involved in inputting additives and preservatives to foods, and the mechanisms and methods used. The book contains full details about the chemistry of each major class of food additive, showing the reader not just what kind of additives are used and what their functions are, but also how they work and how they can have multiple functionalities. In addition, this book covers numerous new additives currently being introduced, and an explanation of how the quality of these is ascertained and how consumer safety is ensured.
The aim of this work is to study the sulfite oxidation mediated by glassy carbon electrodes modified with copolymers formed by ortho-phenylenediamine (OPD) and Co(II)-tetrakis(para-aminophenyl)porphyrin (CoTAPP). The copolymer was obtained through continuous cycling of potential of a glassy carbon electrode in acid medium containing each respective homopolymer in 1:1 feeding volume, in which the ortho-phenylenediamine concentration was 110-1 M and the CoTAPP concentration was 110-4 M. The film obtained is thin, stable and contains a low amount of porphyrin in comparison to the amount in ortho-phenylenediamine. Its electrocatalytic activity was tested toward the sulfite oxidation. In this case, this film is more electrocatalytic than the modified electrode modified with the CoTAPP electropolymer, even though ortho-phenylenediamine is inactive in this reaction. In this work the electrocatalysis process, the morphology of the film, and the difference of electrocatalytic behavior between the ortho-phenylenediamine and cobalt porphyrin homopolymers and the ortho-phenylenediamine-porphyrin copolymer were studied. The morphologic studies were done using Au electrodes since the electrocatalytic activity on Au and on glassy carbon are quite similar.
The difference in microbiota including non-lactic acid bacteria, non-acetic acid bacteria, and wild yeast during winemaking and in the end-products between sulfite-added and sulfite-free wine, was investigated using polymerase chain reaction-denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (PCR-DGGE) and a culture-dependent method. There were differences between the microorganisms detected by PCR-DGGE and those detected by the culture-dependent method, probably because of the selectivity of culture medium and the characteristics of PCR-based method. In both the red wine and white wine, the microbial diversity of the sulfite-added wine was lower than that of the sulfite-free wine during fermentation. Tatumella terrea was detected from the fermenting must by PCR-DGGE and by the culture-dependent method, even though sulfite inhibited its growth to some extent. We confirmed that the addition of sulfite plays an important role in winemaking by inhibiting the growth of unexpected microorganisms, but on the other hand, it was revealed that some microorganisms can survive and grow in sulfite-added fermenting must. We also analyzed 15 samples of commercial wines by the PCR-DGGE method and detected various microorganisms. Among them, Sphingomonas sp., Pseudozyma sp., Ochromonas sp. and Methylophilus sp. were found for the first time in wine as far as we know. We did not identify a specific microorganism that was detected only from wines without sulfite addition. Thus, the microbiota of end-products seemed to be influenced by other factors, such as filtration before bottling, the production equipment and the storage environment.
This article emphasises the importance of making quantitative measurements of the growth of yeast species during wine fermentations. Although such studies confirm Saccharomyces cerevisiae as the principal wine yeast, they show that indigenous species of Kloeckera and Candida make a more significant contribution to the fermentation than previously thought. Inoculation of grape juice with S. cerevisiae does not necessarily suppress growth of these indigenous species, nor does it ensure that the inoculated strain will become dominant over indigenous strains of S. cerevisiae. Factors that affect growth of yeasts during fermentation are examined along with the related aspects of stuck fermentations, killer‐yeast activity and yeast autolysis. The contribution of non‐Saccharomyces yeasts to wine quality warrants more serious consideration.
In order to understand precise biological roles of sulfur dioxide (SO), reliable SO donors, compounds that produce SO under physiological conditions, are necessary. The design and development of 1-phenyl-benzosultine as an efficient SO donor is reported. This compound undergoes cycloreversion to generate SO upon dissolution in aqueous buffer at 37 °C with a yield of 89% and a half-life of 39 min and shows SO-like biological activity in a DNA cleavage assay.
A kinetic study of the inhibition of the catecholase activity of polyphenol oxidase by metabisulfite has been made. Metabisulfite affected enzymatic browning in two different ways: (a) it reacted with the quinones produced by catalytic activity, and (b) it had a direct effect on the enzyme by irreversibly binding to both "met" and "oxy" forms of the enzyme, with different inactivation rate constants. Kinetic data obtained by varying the substrate concentration showed a positive kinetic cooperativity effect. These results indicate that metabisulfite is an example of an irreversible enzyme inhibitor rendered unstable in the reaction medium by enzymatic catalysis. The kinetic model proposed for its action mechanism was simulated in the computer, and a good agreement with the experimental results was obtained.
Hydroxycinnamic acids and their derivatives occur naturally in grape juice and wine. To assess their potential as natural preservatives the effect of caffeic, coumaric and ferulic acids on the growth of three wine-spoilage strains of Lactobacillus collinoides and one of Lact. brevis was studied in acid tomato broth containing 5% ethanol at pH 4.8. At concentrations of 500 and 1000 mg l-1, all three compounds markedly inhibited growth; coumaric and ferulic acids were more effective than caffeic acid. At a concentration of 100 mg l-1, all compounds stimulated growth. In general, the strains of Lact. collinoides were more susceptible both to inhibition and stimulation by the hydroxycinnamic acids than was the strain of Lact. brevis. The possible influence of hydroxycinnamic acids on the malolactic fermentation of wine is discussed.
Abstract Minimization of color degradation in blush wines was investigated. Cabernet Sauvignon wines produced with sulfur dioxide (SO2) at different levels (0, 30, 60, and 120 mg/L) added at crush and bottling were evaluated during 12 months of storage at 16C. Addition of SO2 at crush did not affect browning (absorbance at 420 nm) but increased red color (absorbance at 520 nm). As SO2 levels at bottling increased, browning and red color decreased. Prefermentation treatments (hyperoxidation, nitrogen sparging, and SO2 addition) and tannic acid addition at bottling in Cabernet Sauvignon, Delaware, and Noble blush wines stored at 16 and 37C were evaluated. Prefermentation treatments did not affect red color. Browning differences were observed in Cabernet Sauvignon but not in Delaware and Noble wines. In blush wines from all cultivars, as tannic acid levels increased, browning and red color increased. The prefermentation treatments can be used to minimize color degradation in the cultivars evaluated.
Wine and beer are traditional beverages, the consumption and production of which date back many centuries. Winemaking and brewing may no longer be regarded simply as an art, but the consequence of both scientific and intuitive input. To produce a wine or beer of high, or at least good, quality is the objective of every winemaker or brewer. The perception of quality can be both tangible and intangible. There are specific regulations and requirements, which, if followed, indicate that a wine or beer of good quality has been produced. The specific regulations governing the making of a quality wine versus table wine in the European Community (EC) are an example of this. In Australia, a wine satisfies certain basic parameters of quality if it is made according to the Food Standards Code (section P4) pertaining to wine and wine products, in the USA according to the Code of Federal Regulations of the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms, and in the EC according to specific wine regulations such as 822/87 (of 16 March 1987, on the common organisation of the market in wine).
The loss of free sulphite in meat products, and thereby preservative potential, is associated with an increase in bound sulphite resulting in part from acetaldehyde production by yeasts. A medium containing Schiff's reagent was devised to detect sulphite-binding yeasts. Yeast colonies that caused red colouration were recorded as acetaldehyde producers. Initially acetaldehyde-producing strains (as enumerated on the detection medium) represented 60% of the yeast flora of preserved minced lamb but, as the free sulphite level diminished, non-sulphite-binding yeasts increased in number.
The ability of different wine yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) to inhibit malolactic bacteria (Oenococcus oeni) and the influence of nitrogen were studied using a synthetic grape juice. Malolactic fermentation was induced in fermenting synthetic grape juice or synthetic wines inoculated with different commercial strains of S. cerevisiae. O. oeni was generally inhibited in wines that contained higher concentrations of total SO2 although many yeast strains only inhibited the bacteria during fermentation under high nitrogen conditions. Yeast produced higher amounts of SO2 during fermentation under high nitrogen conditions suggesting that nitrogen affected the malolactic fermentation by influencing yeast SO2 production. However, the production of SO2 by yeast did not always account for the inhibition of O. oeni, suggesting the presence of other inhibitory mechanisms.
Here, we synthesized and studied a library of 2,4-dinitrophenylsulfonamides that closely resembled N-benzyl-2,4-dinitrophenylsulfonamide (1), a thiol-activated prodrug of sulfur dioxide (SO(2)) which has shown high potency as a Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) inhibitory agent. The ability of these compounds to generate SO(2) in the presence of a thiol was evaluated. A good correlation between pK(aH) of the corresponding amine and reactivity with thiols to generate SO(2) was found suggesting that the rate determining step of SO(2) generation involved protonation of the amine. Amongst analogues with measurable MICs, we also found a correlation between ability to generate SO(2) and Mtb growth inhibitory activity. Together, we report several thiol-mediated prodrugs of SO(2) which strongly inhibited Mtb growth (MIC <1 μg mL(-1)) with potential for further development as tuberculosis drug candidates.
This study was performed to examine the use of NaOCl as an alternative antimicrobial compound in winemaking because of the potential health problems that may arise as a result of the use of SO2. For this, the blank (non-treated), control (SO2-added), and sample (NaOCl-treated) wines were made, and microbial and chemical changes including sensory characteristics were analyzed during the fermentation periods. Treatment of grapes with NaOCl decreased the initial contaminating microbial population in grape must, resulting in higher growth of yeast and lactic acid bacteria. After 200 days of fermentation, the chemical analysis of sample wine revealed that it had higher ethanol content, redness (a*), and concentrations of fruity ester compounds and lower total acidity than the control. In the sensory analyses, the sample wine obtained a higher overall acceptability score (5.70) than the control (4.26). This result reveals that NaOCl can be used as an alternative to SO2 in winemaking for inhibiting the growth of contaminating microorganisms.
Here, 2,4-dinitrophenylsulfonamides with tunable cysteine-activated SO(2) release profiles with half-lives of SO(2) release varying from 2 to 63 min are reported. N-Benzyl-2,4-dinitrobenzenesulfonamide (6), which is prepared in one step from commercial sources, had a potency (MIC = 0.15 μM) of inhibiting Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) higher than the clinical agent isoniazid (MIC = 0.37 μM).
Lactic acid bacteria isolated from an industrial-scale ethanol fermentation process were used to evaluate sulfite as a bacterial-contamination control agent in a cell-recycled continuous ethanol fermentation process. The viabilities of bacteria were decreased by sulfite at concentrations of 100 to 400 mg liter-1, while sulfite at the same concentrations did not change the viability of the Saccharomyces cerevisiae strain used in this process. Sulfite was effective only in the presence of oxygen. Bacteria showed differences in their susceptibilities to sulfite. Facultatively heterofermentative Lactobacillus casei 4-3 was more susceptible than was obligatory heterofermentative Lactobacillus fermentum 7-1. The former showed higher enzyme activities involved in the production and consumption of hydrogen peroxide than did the latter. The viability of L. fermentum 7-1 could be selectively controlled by hydrogen peroxide at concentrations of 1 to 10 mM. Based on these findings, it is hypothesized that the sulfur trioxide radical anions formed by peroxidase in the presence of hydrogen peroxide are responsible for the control of contaminating bacteria. Sulfite did not kill the yeast strain, which has catalase to degrade hydrogen peroxide. A cell-recycled continuous ethanol fermentation process was run successfully with sulfite treatments.
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Very probably sulfur dioxide (SO2) is analyzed in wines more often than any other component. For the best product the careful and judicious use of SO2 is required. Most well-run wineries will check before and after the addition of SO2 to first determine if it should be added, then to be sure the correct amount has been added. The usefulness of SO2 in grape juice and wines has been reviewed many times. A few reviews are Kielhöfer 1963; Wucherpfennig 1975; Ough 1983; Schopfer and Aerny 1985. SO2 performs several functions in the preservation of a grape juice or wine. It inhibits the polyphenol oxidase enzymes of the grape (White and Ough 1973; Ribéreau-Gayon et al. 1976b; Traverso-Rueda and Singleton 1973), prevents oxidation of the wine by binding with aldehydes and ketones (Lafon-Lafourcade 1985), preventing Maillard-type reactions, and reacts with phenols to prevent their further oxidation such as wine pinking (Simpson et al. 1983). The addition of SO2 to a wine decreases the red color by adding to the 2- or 4-position on the anthocyanin.
Sulfites are widely used as preservatives in the food and pharmaceutical industries. In the United States more than 250 cases of sulfite-related adverse reactions, including anaphylactic shock, asthmatic attacks, urticaria and angioedema, nausea, abdominal pain and diarrhea, seizures and death, have been reported, including 6 deaths allegedly associated with restaurant food containing sulfites. In Canada 10 sulfite-related adverse reactions have been documented, and 1 death suspected to be sulfite-related has occurred. The exact mechanism of sulfite-induced reactions is unknown. Practising physicians should be aware of the clinical manifestations of sulfite-related adverse reactions as well as which foods and pharmaceuticals contain sulfites. Cases should be reported to health officials and proper advice given to the victims to prevent further exposure to sulfites. The food industry, including beer and wine manufacturers, and the pharmaceutical industry should consider using alternative preservatives. In the interim, they should list any sulfites in their products.
Einfluss der Motoxidation auf den Wein
- Bach H.P.
“Traite D'Oenologie. Sciences et Techniques du Vin. Tome 3. Vinifications Transformation du Vin
- J. Ribereau-Gayon
- E. Peynaud
- P. Ribereau-Gayon
- P. Sudraud