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Anticipation of Future Interaction and Information Exchange in Initial Interaction
Abstract
Information exchange in initial interactions was examined across varying expectations for future contact with the conversational partner. Thirteen dimensions of information were employed to track conversational content over time, tap individuals’ desires, and obtain overall impressions of the information exchanged. The anticipation of future interaction had minimal effects on the actuality of and desire for information exchange, with its strongest effects concerning perceptual variables of conuersational coordination. The importance of anticipation of future interaction to uncertainty reduction theory was found to be misplaced and the theory itself was brought into question by the findings. The importance of the construct of anticipation of future interaction was questioned in terms of the relationship of its operationalization to its conceptualization.
... While evidence exists consistent with Hypothesis 3 that persons anticipating future interac- tion spend more time observing (monitoring) a target (Berscheid, Graziano, Monson, & Dermier, 1976), the evidence is less consistent in terms of the relationship between anticipation of future interaction and information seeking (Hypothesis 6). Some studies found that anticipation of future interaction leads persons to ask for and ex- change qualitatively different types of information (Calabrese, 1975;Leone & Leone, 1983), while other studies reported minimal to no effect of anticipation of future interaction on information quantity or quality (Donzella, 1988;Douglas, 1987;Kellermann, 1986). As ex- pected in Hypothesis 7, anticipation of future interaction did not affect initial uncertainty levels in one study (Kellermann, 1986), although another study (Berger & Douglas, 1981) found that it leads to percep- tions of similarity, which Axiom 6 of the theory indicates should affect uncertainty levels. ...
... Some studies found that anticipation of future interaction leads persons to ask for and ex- change qualitatively different types of information (Calabrese, 1975;Leone & Leone, 1983), while other studies reported minimal to no effect of anticipation of future interaction on information quantity or quality (Donzella, 1988;Douglas, 1987;Kellermann, 1986). As ex- pected in Hypothesis 7, anticipation of future interaction did not affect initial uncertainty levels in one study (Kellermann, 1986), although another study (Berger & Douglas, 1981) found that it leads to percep- tions of similarity, which Axiom 6 of the theory indicates should affect uncertainty levels. ...
... Whether anticipation of future interaction leads persons to de- crease their uncertainty more rapidly in comparison to persons not anticipating future interaction is also somewhat unclear. In one study, no such differential decreases in uncertainty were uncovered (Kellermann, 1986), although other studies reported that persons anticipating future interactionfelf that they had learned more and had gotten to know more about their conversational partners (Douglas, 1990a;Miller, Norman, & Wright, 1978). Persons anticipating future interaction also recalled more about their conversational partners, provided more elaborate descriptions of them, and made more attri- butions about them (Berscheid et a]., 1976;Douglas, 1990a;Harvey, Yarkin, Lightner, &Town, 1980). ...
Three studies were conducted with the goal to articulate and test models for integrating the concept of motivation to reduce uncertainty into the axiomatic structure of uncertainty reduction theory. Multiple models were considered, each model defining motivation to reduce uncertainty in a different way. Motivation to reduce uncertainty was defined as a scope condition (Model 2), as tolerance for uncertainty (Model 3), as a weighted function of uncertainty by its importance (Model 4), and as the difference between one's uncertainty level and one's tolerance for uncertainty (Models 5a and 5b). Each of these models was compared to the baseline model (Model 1) derived from the original presentation of the theory where level of uncertainty, by itself, serves as a determinant of various communication behaviors. Tests of these models in terms of their ability to predict information seeking and attraction reveal that none of the models provides a consistent integration of motivation to reduce uncertainty into uncertainty reduction theory. Rather, tolerance for uncertainty (Model 3) is one of three determinants of information seeking, while level of uncertainty (Model 1) is one of three determinants of attraction. This inability to integrate motivation to reduce uncertainty into uncertainty reduction theory can be attributed to the consistent failure to find support for deviance and incentive value as determinants of tolerance for uncertainty, the rejection of Axiom 3 in uncertainty reduction theory (which specifies a positive relationship between uncertainty and information seeking), and the rejection of Theorem 17 (which specifies a negative relationship between information seeking and liking).
... However, although self disclosure is an important component in building a relationship, many individuals reveal personal information online without thought as to who will read or access the message (Barnes, 2003). Kellermann (1986) proposes that the anticipation of future interaction acts as a motivational force that drives individuals to pursue relationship development. Subsequently, Altman and Taylor (1973) explain that once motivated, individuals desire to get to know one another, and thus, a social penetration process of interpersonal relations begins to take place. ...
... Walther (1994) explains that the anticipation of future interaction is an effect previously investigated in face-to-face interactions (e.g. Berger & Douglas, 1981;Kellermann, 1986;Kellermann & Reynolds, 1990) where individuals "present themselves more positively and with greater friendliness" based upon the possibility that they will encounter one another again at a later date (p. 480). ...
... Anticipation of future interaction was defined as a condition that occurs when individuals who have had an initial interaction expect to meet again in the future (Kellermann, 1986;Olaniran, 1994;Walther, 1994). Self disclosure, defined as message about the self communicated from one person to another (Wheeless & Grotz, 1976) was operationalized and subdivided into three components: 1) depth, or intimacy (Altman & Taylor, 1973), 2) breadth, or the amount and range of information exchanged (Parks & Floyd, 1996), and 3) honesty/accuracy, or the truthfulness and sincerity of the disclosive information provided (Jourard, 1971). ...
... While older people use online platforms to connect to existing networks, younger people use online communication to connect with new acquaintances (Valkenburg, Schouten, & Peter, 2005). Initial interactions can be viewed as an exchange of information (Kellerman, 1986). When social actors encounter other people for the first time they engage in the acts of information seeking and information provision (Kellerman, 1986;Douglas, 1990). ...
... Initial interactions can be viewed as an exchange of information (Kellerman, 1986). When social actors encounter other people for the first time they engage in the acts of information seeking and information provision (Kellerman, 1986;Douglas, 1990). Information provision through the sharing of photographs will influence initial interactions by providing cue-rich information to newly formed relationships. ...
This study examined photographic communication within the uses and gratifications framework. Several personality factors were tested as predictors of motives for communicating via photographs. Memory, relationship maintenance, self-expression and relationship formation motives positively predicted photographic communication. Extraversion positively predicted most photo messaging use motives, while Neuroticism was a negative predictor of photo messaging use. The remaining three personality predictors, Agreeableness, Openness to Experience, and Conscientiousness also provided significant findings.
... First, most have relied upon persons' recollections of past encounters (see, for example, the research of Gudykunst and his colleagues) and, thus leave some douht about actual conversation behavior. Second, interaction-based research has exsunined conditions designed to affect strangers' incentive to engage in uncertainty reduction (e.g., anticipation of future interaction; Douglas, 1987a;Donzella, 1988;Kellermann, 1986) rather than uncertainty and uncertainty reduction itself. Finally, analyses potentially relevant to uncertainty reduction theory, particularly those concerning informationseeking in observational (Berger & Douglas, 1981;Berger & Perkins, 1978,1979 and interactive contexts (Berger & Kellermann, 1983,1985Kellermann & Berger, 1984), have not included any measure of participants' attributional confidence and, therefore, provide no information about the connections among uncertainty, information-seeking, and relationship development. ...
... In contrast to previous studies of initial interaction (Donzella, 1988;Douglas, 1987a;Kellermann, 1986), the present analysis yielded broad support for uncertainty reduction theory. Participants' global uncertainty decayed across conversation segments and was associated with decreased use of question-asking. ...
This study examined interlocutors’ uncertainty, information‐seeking, and liking for each other during initial interaction. Strangers met with each other for 2, 4, or 6 minutes. Subsequent to each conversation, participants’ uncertainty (global and specific) and liking for their partner were assessed. The final two minutes of each conversation were transcribed and coded in order to generate measures of question‐asking and self‐disclosure. Analysis of these data showed that (1) uncertainty decayed across interaction segments, (2) uncertainty reduction was associated with decreased use of question‐asking but with increased levels of disclosure, and (3) uncertainty and social attraction were inversely correlated. Implications of these findings for the usefulness and development of uncertainty reduction theory are discussed.
... tions but also by altering their question asking to have others provide explanations for beliefs and actions as well as statements of goals and intentions (Berger & Kellermann, 1983). In a similar vein, when people anticipate meeting again in the future, they tend to exchange more biographic/demographic information (Calabrese, 1975) and focus on conversational topics about which they are personally knowledgeable (Kellermann, 1986). On those occasions when people wish to remain opaque to others, they typically reduce the clarity, specificity, and interest level of what they say (Berger & Kellermann, 1989). ...
... Thus, although people may desire to become more acquainted with others, the production of behavior may be regulated to follow the normal timing of the conversation MOP. Variations in expectation of future interaction, in particular, have been suggested to be vulnerable to this differentiation between what people might want to do versus what they actually do (Kellermann, 1986). In general, then, topical focus (as evidenced by subset occurrence) does vary as a function of people's acquaintanceship goals though with the caveat that desire to become acquainted may not always manifest itself in behavior. ...
The perspective of the conversation MOP (Memory Organization Packet) was used to generate predictions of how the routines of informal, initial interactions can be adapted to differing acquaintance goals. The conversation MOP groups topic-centered scenes into subsets; the subsets are arranged so that people tend to progress through them in an orderly fashion as they engage in initial encounters with others. One source of flexible adaptation of this routine comes in how subsets of topics are timed in the conversational stream to pursue various conversational goals. As a primary goal of initial interaction is to become acquainted, varying people's desire to get to know others was predicted to alter the timing of subsets of scenes in the conversation MOP. Support was obtained for the prediction that the more people wanted to become acquainted, the faster they would move through early subsets of scenes (topics) in the conversation MOP and the more slowly they would move through later subsets of scenes in the conversation MOP. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
... In several such efforts, the anticipated future interaction variable has been difficult to manipulate. For example, Kellermann (1986) indoctrinated research participants by telling some participants they would definitely interact with an assigned partner two different times, told others they might interact again, and told others they would meet their partners only once. On a manipulation check, those who were told they would meet more than once indicated a high anticipation of future interaction. ...
... They were further informed that they would receive full credit as if they had participated in three, rather than one, meetings; no complaints were registered. Although the dichotomous assignment into long-term/short-term teams should affect anticipation of future interaction, previous manipulation failures (see Douglas, 1987; Kellermann, 1986) and interest in specificity suggested that the wisest course was to tap participants' actual, rather than assigned, anticipation. The measure included items based on previous research on anticipation, including items designed to assess participants' expectation that they might recognize their partners during some later encounter at various locations (see Kellennann, 1986). ...
Previous research on the interpersonal tone of computer-mediated communication shows different effects using longitudinal computer-mediated groups than are found in research using one-shot groups, even before the developmental aspects associated with time can accrue. One factor distinguishing these approaches is the anticipation of future interaction experienced by longitudinal groups. This research reports an experiment assessing the relative effects of anticipated future interaction and different communication media (computer-mediated versus face-to-face communication) on the communication of relational intimacy and composure. Asynchronous and synchronous computer conferencing and face-to-face groups were examined. Results show that the assignment of long-term versus short-term partnerships has a larger impact on anticipated future interaction reported by computer-mediated, rather than face-to-face, partners. Evidence also shows that anticipation is a more potent predictor of several relational communication dimensions than is communication condition. Implications for theory and practice are identified.
... It also follows that the silence could be interpreted as evidence of expectancy violations (Burgoon & Aho, 1982;Burgoon & Hale, 1988;Burgoon et al., 1979). Persistent and intentional fieldwork, however, pointed to transience and the perceived lack of anticipation of future interaction (Kellermann, 1986) that influenced both sides of the table. For the University students, CKBU was a quick chance to accumulate service hours required by campus and fraternal organizations. ...
0000-0001-8099-4700 J. Dean Farmer https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1172-1335 This study explores the potential for application of the Positive Deviance Approach for social change in the rural United States. Through the lens of the Campus Kitchen at Ballard University (CKBU), the authors examine the issues of food insecurity and unobtrusive control structures present in rural communities and posit innovative ways to address these and other intractable social issues common in many rural communities in the United States. Using ethnographic methods, the authors probe the structure of the Campus Kitchens Project's national organization and Ballard University's student leadership team to uncover hindrances that constrain sustainable social change that often are engrained in conventional charity models of development.
... As the uncertainty of interacting with new people or interacting in new contexts may lead to discomfort (Berger, 1979), uncertainty reduction refers to one's ability to accurately predict and explain how each conversant will behave in an interaction to reduce their own uncertainty (Rubin, 1977). This theory catalyzed a considerable research base examining personal interactions, including between strangers (e.g., Douglas, 1990;Kellermann, 1986), established relationships (e.g., Afifi & Metts, 1998;Siegert & Stamp, 1994), and between people of different cultural backgrounds with different communicative nuances (e.g., Gudykunst & Nishida, 1984;Gudykunst et al., 1985). ...
The research on teacher hiring at Charter Management Organizations (CMOs) offers a relatively singular story: thousands of applicants funneled through a rigorous network-aligned and information-rich realistic job preview to find a culture-fit for the school's distinctive approach. Yet, the bulk of this research was conducted almost a decade ago, prior to the COVID-19 "Great Resignation" and prior to growing criticism of no-excuses CMOs. Using interviews and focus groups, this qualitative multi-site case study examines a CMO's hiring preferences and practices in this new context through the lenses of uncertainty reduction theory (URT) and realistic job preview (RJP). Findings reveal that the CMO's principals are unable to be as selective as they have been historically and are less able to reduce uncertainty because of fewer candidates in the teacher labor market (TLM), both of which contrast the extant literature. Further, to reduce uncertainty amid these TLM shortages, principals have expanded hiring preferences beyond their historical patterns into the traditional TLM and engaged "upselling" tactics in job previews to meet hiring needs. These shifts in hiring may point to important changes in how CMOs recruit teachers, operate their schools, and respond to changes in the educational landscape.
... Lewat foto, informasi tentang orang baru dapat sangat mungkin didapatkan. Lewat foto juga perbincangan diantara para aktor sosial bisa dimulai (Kellerman, 1986;Valkenburg, Schouten, & Peter, 2005) Motif selanjutnya adalah ekspresi diri. Niat seseorang mengekspresikan dirinya akan memengaruhi seberapa sering dia mengambil, mengirim, dan berbagi foto. ...
ABSTRAK Berbagai penelitian yang membahas perilaku mengirim dan berbagi foto digital di media sosial mulai banyak bermunculan dalam rentang sepuluh tahun terakhir. Beberapa diantaranya memfokuskan pada kepribadian pengguna media sosial. Sebagian peneliti membuktikan bahwa kepribadian individu dapat memengaruhi motivasi mengirim dan berbagi foto digital. Tujuan penelitian ini adalah untuk mendapatkan pemahaman yang lebih baik tentang pengaruh faktor kepribadian pada komunikasi melalui foto digital di media sosial. Pendekatan penelitian yang dipilih adalah kualitatif dengan teknik conceputal review dan metode studi literatur. Total 14 literatur yang relevan dengan topik penelitian kemudian dianalisis dan disintaksis. Ditemukan bahwa faktor kepribadian dapat memengaruhi motif seseorang untuk mengirim dan berbagi foto digital di media sosial. Dua faktor kepribadian yang memiliki pengaruh yang signifikan adalah extraversion dan neuroticism. Penelitian terkait faktor kepribadian dan perilaku mengirim dan membagikan foto digital masih bisa diekspolarasi lebih dalam pada penelitian-penelitian yang akan datang. Kata Kunci : Foto Digital , Media Sosial , Komunikasi Fotografi , Extraversion , Neuroticism
... It also follows that the silence could be interpreted as evidence of expectancy violations (Burgoon & Aho, 1982;Burgoon & Hale, 1988;Burgoon, Stacks, & Woodall, 1979). Persistent and intentional fieldwork, however, points to transience and the perceived lack of anticipation of future interaction (Kellermann, 1986) that influences both sides of the table. For the University students, CKBU is a quick chance to accumulate service hours required by campus and fraternal organizations. ...
This paper explores the potential for application of the Positive Deviance Approach for social change in the rural United States. Through the lens of the Campus Kitchen at Ballard University (CKBU), the authors examine the issues of food insecurity unobtrusive control structures present in rural communities then posit innovative ways to address these and other intractable social issues common in many rural communities in the United States. Using ethnographic methods, the authors probe the structure of the Campus Kitchens Project's national organization and Ballard University's student leadership team to uncover hindrances that constrain sustainable social change that often engrained in conventional charity models of development.
... p = .50. Similar to previous research concerning anticipated future interaction (Douglas, 1987;Kellermann, 1986;Walther, 1994), this investigation was unable to manipulate anticipated future interaction successfully, and as a result, this variable was dropped from further analysis. ...
The current research investigated the process by which self-disclosure leads to liking in computer-mediated communication (CMC). Research has shown that CMC influences the attributions individuals make regarding self-disclosure as well as the affection they feel towards disclosers as a result of these attributions (Jiang et al., 2011). Even so, not much is known about the impact that attributions have on one’s own self-disclosure. In an original experiment, friend and stranger dyads disclosed to one another in text-based CMC. The results revealed that self-disclosure leads to interpersonal attributions, which further lead to liking towards the discloser, but interpersonal attributions do not lead to reciprocal disclosure. However, once people engage in reciprocal disclosure, it leads to partner liking. Together, the results corroborate Jiang et al.’s model that links self-disclosure and liking by way of interpersonal attributions, as well as demonstrate two disclosure-liking effects in CMC: we like those who self-disclose to us, and we like those to whom we self-disclose.
... Hence the expectancy violation should be a positive one and result in more favorable subsequent impressions of the target, which is what Darley et al. found: In the case of initial interactions with unfamiliar others, one pervasive goal is to have a pleasant interchange. Indeed, the general cultural expectation is for initial encounters to be smooth, pleasant, and moderately involving (Gendrin & Honeycutt, 1988;Hilton & Darley 1985;Honeycutt, 1989Honeycutt, ,1990Honeycutt, ,1991Kellermann, 1986;Thorngate, 1976). Thus if one anticipates, based on either indirect personal attribute knowledge or direct communication-relevant knowledge, that one's co-interactant is likely to be unpleasant, a perceiver should be motivated to attend to a target's communication, which is quite salient to the immediate interaction goal. ...
The current investigation addressed (a) the perseverance of preinteraction expectancies in the face of actual communication behavior, (b) the separate effects of personal attribute and communication expectancies, and (c) the role of expectancy confirmation or disconfirmation on postinteraction evaluations. Participant perceivers were induced to hold positive or negative expectancies regarding a target partner's general personal attributes and specific communication behavior prior to a problem-solving discussion. They then interacted with a confederate target who communicated in a pleasant, involved fashion or its opposite, after which perceivers evaluated target personal attributes and communication behavior. All three hypotheses received at least partial support. Preinteractional expectancies, especially personal attribute ones, caused perceivers to evaluate targets and their communication behavior differently, with negatively valenced expectancies serving as negative violations. Relative to a pleasant, involved communication style, unpleasant, uninvolved communication was less expected and evaluated negatively, thus functioning as a negative violation; it also reduced credibility, attraction, and perceived rewardingness of the target. Finally, disconfirmatory communication altered target evaluations relative to confirmatory communication, especially for high-valence targets. These results lend support to the premises and predictions of expectancy violations theory.
... However, Cappella and Greene (1982) do make the argument that size of the discrepancy should monotonically predict the size of the arousal change and that the discrepancy.size is a function of observed relative to expected behavior, with expected behavior determined by social and cultural norms for the situation. It is therefore possible to rely on a plethora of previous research that indicates that expectations for interaction with unfamiliar partners are for moderately involving interaction ( Burgoon & Le Poire, 1993;Gendrin & Honeycutt, 1988;Hilton & Darley, 1985;Honeycutt, 1989;Kellermann, 1986;Thomgate, 1976). DA theory, therefore, would argue that extreme deviations from that expectation would be highly discrepant (e.g., extremely involved/extremely uninvolved), and produce high arousal change, although moderate variations from the societal expecta-tion would be moderately discrepant (e.g., highly involved/uninvolved), and produce moderate arousal change. ...
Among the theories that address the impact of variations in immediacy behaviors during ongoing interactions are expectancy violations (EV) and discrepancy arousal (DA) theories. This study of the effects of violations of expectations on arousal, reciprocity, and compensation in the medical practitioner-patient relationship contrasts EV predictions with DA predictions. EV theory predicts that given a communicator with high reward valence, high and very high involvement (including touch and close proximity) should be met with reciprocation (increased involvement), and low and very low involvement should be met with compensation (increased involvement). DA theory predicts compensating very high involvement with decreased involvement, reciprocating high involvement with increased involvement, compensating low involvement with increased involvement, and reciprocating very low involvement, with decreased involvement. Results supported neither theory as all involvement changes were met with reciprocity. Additionally, although all violations/discrepancies were followed by changes in arousal, size of arousal change was not monotonically related to size of involvement change, as predicted by DA theory. Finally, although positive versus negative emotional experiences were not related to physiological indicators of arousal change, size of involvement change was directly related to the experience of positive and negative emotions. Thus, it appears that involvement change size directly predicts emotional experience and is not mediated by arousal change.
Increasingly social media are being used to learn about job applicants. Supplementing and sometimes replacing traditional materials (e.g., applications, cover letters, resumes), social media offer information of a unique nature to employers that can affect perceptions and attributions of applicants. This chapter approaches information seeking in employment through the lens of uncertainty reduction theory, exploring the affordances of extracting information from social media, the value of information therein, and the effects of the relational contexts, social media can isolate and span. With some noted limitations, social media reflect new tools for employers to obtain or supplement information to predict an individual’s potential to perform job-related tasks and compliment the social structure of the organization.
This study proposed several hypotheses predicting a deficit in the ability of alexithymic individuals to present themselves as attractive to a relational partner during an initial interaction. Both alexithymic and nonalexithymic individuals participated in a 10‐min interpersonal exercise with a stranger of the opposite gender. Relational partners were more attracted to nonalexithymics than alexithymics. Partners perceived higher levels of several relational messages from nonalexithymics than alexithymics and lower levels of formality and dominance. Finally, the relational message of intimacy fully mediated the relationship between group membership (alexithymic or nonalexithymic) and social attraction. The authors suggest several implications and directions for future research, such as the need to include psychological traits in theoretical examinations of communication competence.
The effects of participant and observer perspectives on the quantity and quality of information recalled from conversations were examined. The observers were exposed to the conversation through videotape, audiotape, or transcript. No differences were found between participants and observers on measures of recall quantity. However, analysis of the composition of recall protocols indicated that participants reported more thematic and evaluative statements while observers produced more errors and elaborations. Observers of videotaped conversations also reported more descriptions and made more references to motives. Instruction set was also found to influence subjects’ recollections.
This report reviews the construct of expectancy and its relevance to understanding communication phenomena. Given the shortage of empirically based knowledge about what constitute expected and unexpected interpersonal behaviors and how they are evaluated, a two-part experiment was conducted to determine the expectedness and evaluation of three nonverbal variables: touch, conversational distance, and posture. The possible moderating effects of communicator attractiveness, status, and gender were also examined. Respondents (N = 622) viewed photographs of an attractive or unattractive male or female stimulus interacting with a male or female partner, attributed to be of same, higher, or lower status, who displayed one of seven forms of touch or one of nine combinations of posture and proximity. Respondents rated the appropriateness, typicality, and desirability of the observed behavior. Results demonstrated that several behaviors are expected and positively valenced, while others qualify as positive or negative violations of expectations. Attractiveness influenced expectancies and evaluations; gender and status had limited effects. Implications for information processing and nonverbal expectancy violations theory are discussed.
This study, guided by information theory and uncertainty reduction theory, proposed and tested a model of perceived information adequacy and uncertainty reduction in doctor‐patient interactions. Fifty‐six patients in a cardiology clinic participated in the study which included a pre‐visit and a post‐visit survey. The results confirmed the existence of illness uncertainty, relational uncertainty, and medical setting uncertainty as perceptually related, but relatively distinct constructs. Results also indicated that perceived information adequacy is a valid predictor of post‐visit illness uncertainty. The model generally was supported. In addition, this study provides evidence for the reliability and validity of scales that were developed to measure sources of uncertainty and perceptions of information adequacy in doctor‐patient interactions. Discussion highlights consideration of practical implications, limitations, and directions for future research.
For interactants to build a relationship over the course of several encounters they must be able to remember at least some of what transpired in earlier interactions. This study investigated two questions: do expectations about future interactions influence conversational memory, and do conversational participants remember more than observers? Subjects with a choice about whether to interact with their partner again (or about whether to interact with one of the persons they observed) remembered less in general than those expecting to interact with the same person or expecting to interact with a different person. This may be because interactants with a choice focused on securing non‐discursive information in order to reduce uncertainty, rather than on remembering details of what was said in the conversation. Participants remembered significantly more conversational information using cued recall than observers. They also remembered more than observers using recognition items for actual communication behavior. Participants are likely to have stronger memory traces than observers, which explains generally superior memory performance.
The purpose of this study was to investigate a theoretical explanation of the mechanism of sharing negative attitudes and how it can have an impact on forming attitudes toward the targets and impressions about partners who engage in sharing attitudes. One hundred and fourteen university students were assigned to dyadic interactions with strangers and were asked to share positive, negative, or equally valenced aspects of a target topic. Findings indicated that sharing a negative attitude had significantly more capacity to change attitudes about a target in a negative direction than did sharing a mixed or a positive attitude. Sharing a negative attitude did not increase liking of one's partner. The practical implications and future directions of studying the Negativity Effect and interpersonal behavior are discussed.
Identifying the cognitive activities that occur as individuals interact is critical to understanding conversational processes. Previous attempts to explore people's thoughts as they converse are inherently limited by an inability to tap into concurrent cognitions: those thoughts that occur simultaneously with listening and speaking. We propose and test a procedure to capture these concurrent thoughts by using netwoiied computers where individuals communicate with one another over terminals and simultaneously talk aloud their thoughts. Results demonstrate that this technique can offer evidence of cognitive activities such as inferencing and planning in conversation, as well as bolster the validity of certain conversational maxims that, up to now were assumed, but never actually demonstrated in collaborative discourse.
This study examined state‐receiver apprehension and uncertainty as they relate to each other and to information seeking and confirmation of relational predictions in initial interactions. Participants consisted of 381 college students enrolled in basic communication classes at a Southwestern university. One‐hundred and ninety‐one (N = 191) pairs interacted for various time intervals and were tested at various times. When interactants had prior information about each other, state‐receiver apprehension was positively related to uncertainty and both were negatively related to information‐seeking and confirmation of relational predictions. Results also suggested that state‐receiver apprehension may possibly lead to uncertainty. Finally, a thirteen‐item test of conversational state‐receiver apprehension was developed.
This investigation examined how computer-mediated communication (CMC) partners exchange personal information in initial interactions, focusing on the effects of communication channels on self-disclosure, question-asking, and uncertainty reduction. 158 unacquainted individuals (79 males and 79 females, aged 17-24 yrs) met either face-to-face or via CMC. Computer-mediated interactants exhibited a greater proportion of more direct and intimate uncertainty reduction behaviors than unmediated participants did, and demonstrated significantly greater gains in attributional confidence over the course of the conversations. The use of direct strategies by mediated interactants resulted in judgments of greater conversational effectiveness by partners. Results illuminate some microstructures previously asserted but unverified within social information processing theory (J. B. Walther, 1992), and extend uncertainty reduction theory (C. R. Berger and R. J. Calabrese, 1975) to CMC interaction. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This research tests several contrasting predictions from uncertainty reduction and predicted outcome value theories. Pairs of college classmates engaged in initial conversations with one another on the first day of classes. Research participants then reported on each pair's behavior during these conversations and their reactions to their partner and relationship. With few exceptions, predicted outcome value theory proposals were consistently supported by the results of this investigation. However, results failed to support uncertainty reduction theory's original axioms and theorems when predicted outcome value was taken into account. These findings are interpreted as strongly supporting the predicted outcome value perspective and its claim that uncertainty reduction processes are subservient to outcome maximization goals in initial interactions.
The present analysis examined interlocutors’ question-asking under high, moderate, and low levels of anticipated future interaction. Anticipated future interaction with another is presumed to increase persons'motivation to reduce their uncertainty. Prior to conversation, for example, observers engage in higher levels of information-seeking when they expect to meet the target. However, examination of subjects’ use of question-asking strategies suggested this effect does not extend to ongoing interaction. Instead, highest levels of mutual interrogation occurred at moderate levels of anticipated future interaction, in dyads required to negotiate a second encounter. The extent to which interlocutors control subsequent interaction has not been previously identified as a determinant of either uncertainty or uncertainty reduction. Such increased question-asking may be a function of actors’ desire to avoid negative conversational outcomes, a desire that becomes especially salient when actors are allowed to select their social partners.
Based on traditional theories of interpersonal relationship development and on the hyperpersonal communication theory, this study examined predictors of relationship satisfaction for individuals involved in online romantic relationships. One hundred-fourteen individuals (N ¼ 114) involved in online romantic relationships, and who had only engaged in computer-mediated communication (CMC) with their partners, com-pleted an online questionnaire about their relationships. Intimacy, trust, and communi-cation satisfaction were found to be the strongest predictors of relationship satisfaction for individuals involved in online romances. Additionally, perceptions of relationship variables differed depending on relationship length and time spent communicating. Implications for interpersonal and hyperpersonal communication theories, and future investigation of online relationships, are discussed. More people are becoming involved in computer-mediated romantic relationships. These individuals inhabit an interesting relational niche because they engage in rela-tionships that are perceived by some scholars as either nontraditional or understu-died (Emmers-Sommer, 2005). Given these atypical relational circumstances, such individuals might also lack information about online romantic relationships and social support networks from which to gain confirmation about their relationship.
Conversations with visibly disabled strangers entail unequivocally higher uncertainty and relatively more negative predicted outcome values compared to conversations with able-bodied strangers. Contrasting derivations from uncertainty reduction and predicted outcome value theories were tested by comparing observations associated with respondents’ separate conversations with able-bodied and visibly disabled partners. Four hypotheses were cast to favor predicted outcome value interpretations with respect to information seeking, three global features of the respondent's awareness of the partner's behavior, and the association of information seeking with nonverbal affiliative expressiveness and amount of verbal communication. Statistically significant differences in information seeking and awareness of the partner's behavior favored the predicted outcome value interpretation. Implications for predicted outcome value theory and interaction with visibly disabled conversational partners are discussed.
This article reports the results of an intercultural study that examined the relationship between the use of personal cultural examples by an international teaching assistant (ITA) and uncertainty reduction, student attitude, student recall, and ethnocentrism. The experimental design included two conditions in which the same ITA was videotaped giving a lecture. In one condition, personal cultural examples were used to illustrate the major points in the lecture, whereas in the other, hypothetical examples were used. American university students (N = 160) viewed the 10-minute videotape and then completed a recall of lecture material and questionnaires on uncertainty, attitude, and ethnocentrism. Results demonstrated that the use of personal examples by the ITA significantly reduced student uncertainty and improved student attitude toward the ITA, and increased student recall of lecture material. In addition, certainty correlated positively with attitude, thus providing support for Berger and Calabrese's 1975 Axiom 7 of uncertainty reduction theory ... decreases in uncertainty levels produce increases in liking. Ethnocentrism did not correlate significantly with attitude or recall.
Objectives:
This review sought to systematically review the available literature on health information exchange (HIE), the electronic sharing of clinical information across the boundaries of health care organizations. HIE has been promoted as an important application of technology in medicine that can improve the efficiency, cost-effectiveness, quality, and safety of health care delivery. However, HIE also requires considerable investment by sponsors, which have included governments as well as health care organizations. This review aims to synthesize the currently available research addressing HIE effectiveness, use, usability, barriers and facilitators to actual use, implementation, and sustainability, and to present this information as a foundation on which future implementation, expansion, and research can be based.
Data sources:
A research librarian designed and conducted searches of electronic databases, including MEDLINE® (1990 to February 2015), PsycINFO® (1990 to February 2015), CINAHL® (1990 through February 2015), the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (through January 2015), the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (through January 2015), the Database of Abstracts of Reviews of Effects (through the first quarter of 2015), and the National Health Sciences Economic Evaluation Database (through the first quarter of 2015). The searches were supplemented by reviewing reference lists and the table of contents of journals not indexed in the databases we searched.
Review methods:
Two investigators reviewed abstracts and the selected full-text articles for inclusion based on predefined criteria. Discrepancies were resolved through discussion and consensus, with a third investigator making the final decision as needed. Data were abstracted from each included article by one person and verified by another. All analyses were qualitative, and they were customized according to the topic.
Results:
We included 136 studies overall, with 34 on effectiveness, 26 of which reported intermediate clinical, economic, or patient outcomes, and 8 that reported on clinical perceptions of HIE. We also found 58 studies on the use of HIE, 22 on usability and other facilitators and barriers to actual use of HIE, 45 on facilitators or barriers to HIE implementation, and 17 on factors related to sustainability of HIE.
No studies of HIE effectiveness reported impact on primary clinical outcomes (e.g., mortality and morbidity) or identified harms. Low-quality evidence somewhat supports the value of HIE for reducing duplicative laboratory and radiology test ordering, lowering emergency department costs, reducing hospital admissions (less so for readmissions), improving public health reporting, increasing ambulatory quality of care, and improving disability claims processing. In studies of clinician perceptions of HIE, most respondents attributed positive changes to HIE, such as improvements in coordination, communication, and knowledge about the patient. However in one study clinicians reported that the HIE did not save time and may not be worth the cost.
Studies of HIE use found that HIE adoption has increased over time, with 76 percent of U.S. hospitals exchanging information in 2014, an 85-percent increase since 2008 and a 23-percent increase since 2013. HIE systems were used by 38 percent of office-based physicians in 2012, while use remains low, less than 1 percent, among long-term care providers.
Within organizations with HIE, the number of users or the number of visits in which the HIE was used was generally very low. The degree of usability of an HIE was associated with increased rates of use but was not associated with effectiveness outcomes. The most commonly cited barriers to HIE use were lack of critical mass electronically exchanging data, inefficient workflow, and poorly designed interface and update features. Information was insufficient to allow us to assess usability by HIE function or architecture.
Studies provided information on both external environmental and internal organizational characteristics that affect implementation and sustainability. General characteristics of the HIE organization (e.g., strong leadership) or specific characteristics of the HIE system were the most frequently cited facilitators, while disincentives such as competition or lack of a business case for HIE were the most frequently identified barriers.
Limitations:
The scope of studies identified was limited compared with the actual uses and capabilities of HIE. The outcomes measured and methods of measurement and analysis, for example, were limited and narrowly defined; the issue of potential confounders was not addressed in most studies of effectiveness, and harms were not adequately studied. There was a high degree of heterogeneity in study designs, outcomes, HIE types, and settings across the studies, limiting the ability to synthesize the evidence; no quantitative analyses were possible. The applicability of this evidence base is uncertain because the HIE systems studied were so diverse, and many in existence have not contributed to research in this field.
Conclusions:
The full impact of HIE on clinical outcomes and potential harms is inadequately studied, although evidence provides some support for benefit in reducing use of some specific resources and achieving improvements in quality-of-care measures. Use of HIE has risen over time, and is highest in hospitals and lowest in long-term care settings. However, use of HIE within organizations that offer it is still low. Barriers to HIE use include lack of critical mass participating in the exchange, inefficient workflow, and poorly designed interface and update features. Studies have identified numerous facilitators and barriers to implementation and sustainability, but the studies have not ranked or compared their impact. To advance our understanding of HIE, future studies need to address comprehensive questions, use more rigorous designs, use a standard for describing types of HIE, and be part of a coordinated systematic approach to studying HIE.
Tactics by which individuals withhold information from inquisitive others were explored by inducing individuals to achieve varying goals in conversational encounters. Persons were told to reveal as little as they could about themselves (low revealers), as much as they could about themselves (high revealers), or to have a typical conversation (normals). These individuals were paired in conversation with persons told to find out as much as they could about their conversational partner (high seekers). Information-quality, self-presentation, conversational-management, behavioral, content-focus, and utterance-form tactics were explored. Information-quality and content-focus tactics are the most important tactics for evasion plans, whereas pausal phenomena seem to be indicative of on-line planning of evasiveness. Implications for the study of the negativity effect and disclosure research are discussed.
The pattern of individual affective accommodation to no-choice relationships with others was examined in 2 studies on the effects of anticipated interaction. From F. Heider's (1946, 1958) concept of unit–sentiment balance it was predicted that the anticipation of no-choice interaction with other individuals would lead to increased liking for individuals who initially had ambiguous or dislikable characteristics, but not for those who were initially likable. This pattern of accommodation was tested in 2 experiments in which 219 female undergraduates indicated liking for likable, ambiguous, or dislikable individuals with whom they anticipated interaction. In Exp I, information about the person with whom interaction was anticipated was presented in written form, while in Exp II, Ss actually interacted with the stimulus person prior to indicating their impression of her. In both studies the balance-predicted pattern of accommodation was found: Anticipated interaction increased liking for initially dislikable or ambiguous people but not for those who were initially likable. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Conducted 4 experiments with a total of 246 undergraduates to examine the variables that influence interpretations and cued recall of interpersonal events. In Exp I, Ss were given a set to empathize with or to be detached from a couple who were shown having an intimate discussion on videotape. The discussion culminated in either a seriously or a moderately negative outcome (SO or MO). A greater amount of attribution (AT) and more accurate recall were found for the empathy set vs the detached set. Greater AT was also found for SO vs MO conditions. In Exp II with a different videotaped event, an SO version and a set to remember the event led to more AT than did an MO version or no set, respectively. Memory-set Ss showed greater recall than no-memory set Ss. In Exp III, Ss given a set to anticipate interaction with 1 of the stimulus persons showed more AT and more accurate recall (R) than did Ss given no such set and an SO led to more AT than did an MO. In Exp IV, Ss given a set about the emotional condition of a stimulus person before observing the event exhibited greater AT and more accurate recall than did Ss given the same set after observing the event or Ss given no set at all. (34 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Analyzed the social perception process to determine whether selectivity of available stimuli is based on the informativeness of person attributes, the properties of which are the evaluative extremity (distance from the scale midpoint) and the evaluative valence (positive or negative). In a preliminary scaling study and a main weighting study, 126 undergraduates independently rated the likability of the 16 stimuli persons portrayed on slides. Negativity and extremity were manipulated on the slides across 2 behavioral dimensions: sociability and civic activism. Ss saw 2 prescaled behavior photographs for each stimulus person and controlled a slide changer switch, providing a measure of attention as looking time. Likability ratings provided a measure of relative weight derived from N. H. Anderson's (1968) information integration model. Results show that Ss preferentially weighted behaviors that were extreme or negative, and the behavioral measure of attention (looking time) replicated the predicted pattern. (58 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Describes a method for determining the effects of sex (or any other dichotomous characteristic) from the individual correlated behavioral responses observed in dyadic interactional situations. In the illustration used, the dyads are of 3 types: girl–girl, girl–boy, and boy–boy. Main effects of sex of S and of sex of partner and interaction effects are estimated and tested, using a generalization of the matched-pair
t-test approach. Intragroup correlations between paired responses are examined separately. Alternative procedures of analysis are discussed and compared. The present method is extended to interacting groups larger than dyads when the S characteristic remains dichotomous (e.g., boys and girls in groups of 3, 4, etc). In these cases there are 3 intragroup correlations of interest for responses within the same interacting groups: boys vs boys, boys vs girls, and girls vs girls. (12 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Theoretical and empirical work on the processes by which dispositional characteristics are attributed to others has focused almost exclusively on how such processes proceed once the perceiver has been motivated to initiate them. The problem of identifying the factors which prompt the perceiver to engage in an attributional analysis in the first place has been relatively ignored. It was hypothesized that high outcome dependency upon another, under conditions of high unfamiliarity, is associated with the initiation of an attributional analysis as evidenced by (a) increased attention to the other, (b) better memory of the other's characteristics and behavior, (c) more extreme and confidently given evaluations of the other on a variety of dispositional trait dimensions, and (d) increased attraction to the other. These hypotheses were tested within the context of a study of heterosexual dating relationships in which 27 male and 27 female 18-22 yr old volunteers anticipated varying degrees of dependence upon another for their dating outcomes. Findings support the view that the data processing operations of the social perceiver--from attention to memory to attribution--are part of a unified whole and may be viewed as manifestations of an underlying motivation to predict and control the social environment. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Examined the effects on person perception of varying levels of observer-actor engagement using 60 undergraduates. Ss observed a male actor (confederate) responding to interview questions on a prerecorded videotape under 3 conditions of interpersonal engagement: Ss in a detachment condition knew that they were simply observing a tape; Ss in an anticipated-interaction condition knew that they were observing a tape but expected to interact subsequently with the actor; Ss in an actual-interaction condition thought that they were interacting with the actor over a video hook-up. Half of the Ss observed the actor preface his responses with a positive comment regarding the interviewer's question (positive actor); the other half observed the actor preface his responses with a negative comment (negative actor). It was predicted that anticipated-interaction Ss would demonstrate hopefulness by attributing the positive actor's behavior dispositionally and the negative actor's behavior situationally but that actual-interaction Ss would show the opposite causal attribution pattern in an attempt to protect or enhance their own self-esteem. Results confirm these predictions. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Conducted 2 experiments to assess the impact of the need for effective control on attributions made in a conflict situation. In the 1st experiment with 32 undergraduates, it was hypothesized that the prospect of future interaction with a target person would lead observers to exaggerate the degree of dispositional information they believed could be inferred from the target person's behavior. Results confirm the hypothesis. In the 2nd experiment with 90 undergraduates, it was hypothesized that Ss scoring high on Rotter's Internal–External Locus of Control Scale would draw more dispositional inferences from a target person's behavior than would Ss scoring low on this scale. This prediction was also supported. The overall pattern of results is construed as supporting the position that the attributional differences found between the various types of observers were due, at least in part, to motivational as opposed to information-processing factors. (30 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The degree to which the self is implicated in processing personal information was investigated. Subjects rated adjectives on four tasks designed to force varying kinds of encoding: structural, phonemic, semantic, and self-reference. In two experiments, incidental recall of the rated words indicated that adjectives rates under the self-reference task were recalled the best. These results indicate that self-reference is a rich and powerful encoding process. As an aspect of the human information-processing system, the self appears to function as a superordinate schema that is deeply involved in the processing, interpretation, and memory of personal information.
2 actor Ss at a time engaged in a brief, unstructured conversation while 2 observer Ss looked on. A total of 120 male undergraduates participated. Later a questionnaire measured the actors' attributions of their own behavior in the conversation either to dispositional, internal causes or to situational, external causes. Similarly, each O attributed his matched actor's behavior. Videotapes of the conversation, replayed to Ss before the attribution questionnaire, provided an experimental manipulation of visual orientation. Some actors and Os saw no videotape replay, while other Ss saw a tape that merely repeated their original visual orientations. Results show that the actors attributed relatively more to the situation than the Os. A 3rd set of actors saw a tape of themselves, while some Os saw the other participant with whom their matched actor had been conversing. With this reorientation, self-viewing actors attributed relatively more to their own dispositions than Os. Results indicate the importance of visual orientation in determining attributional differences between actors and Os. (21 ref.)
Reviews literature on the influence of speaker's expressive behaviors on another's behavioral response in adult–adult and infant–adult dyads. Expressive behaviors include noncontent speech variables; indicators of affiliation such as gaze, distance, orientation, and question intimacy; verbal disclosure; body movements; and general indices of involvement. Interspeaker influence includes both interspeaker matching and compensation in overt behavior. Matching predominates in noncontent speech, verbal disclosure, and gaze. Compensatory responses are prompted by question intimacy and proximity. Both reciprocal and compensatory responses show limits, and are attenuated and even reversed by moderator variables associated with person differences and social-normative expectations. Continuities between adult–adult and infant–adult dyads are found for vocalization and gaze. Explanations of expressive social interaction must be flexible enough to account for both compensation and matching as well as the limits to and moderators of these responses. (5½ p ref)
This chapter discusses the social psychologists study “top of the head” phenomena in their experimental investigations. Attention within the social environment is selective. It is drawn to particular features of the environment either as a function of qualities intrinsic to those features (such as light or movement) or as a function of the perceiver's own dispositions and temporary need states. These conditions are outlined in the chapter. As a result of differential attention to particular features, information about those features is more available to the perceiver. Relative to the quantity of information retained about other features, more is retained about the salient features. When the salient person is the self, the same effects occur, and the individual is also found to show more consistency in attitudes and behaviors. These processes may occur primarily in situations which are redundant, unsurprising, uninvolving, and unarousing. They seem to occur automatically and substantially without awareness, and as such, they differ qualitatively from the intentional, conscious, controlled kind of search which characterizes all the behavior.
The negativity effect occurs in the formation of judgments when disproportionate weight is given to negative information in contrast to equidistantly valenced positive information. While multiple explanations for such an effect exist, the extremity hypothesis advanced by Fiske (1980) can be modified and expanded not only to provide a thorough understanding of the negativity effect, but to explain positivity effects (where disproportionate weight is given to positive information when forming a judgment) as well. These negativity and positivity effects, taken to be manifestations of informativeness effects, are examined in the areas of vocal productivity, disclosure, and initial interaction. Informativeness effects appear to be widespread phenomena affecting, guiding, and resulting from interpersonal interaction. Data reveal that both negativity and positivity effects are possible in social interaction due to skews in the underlying distributions of social actors’ expectations about themselves and others. Rather diverse lines of research can be integrated under the rubric of informativeness effects for which the modified extremity hypothesis provides an encompassing explanation.
In a recognition memory study involving personal adjectives, the number of false alarms was found to increase with degree of self-reference of the adjectives. This was interpreted as: (1) evidence that the self is an important aspect of processing personal information, and (2) that the self functions as a cognitive prototype. The self can be seen to be a large and complex prototype that imparts a bias in processing personal information. This bias to perceive new, self-descriptive adjectives as being previously seen, has import for a theory of self and other-referent information processing.
Conversational topics among same‐sex adult friends, co‐workers, siblings, parents and children were studied. A self‐report questionnaire revealed that women's talk tends to focus on family, relationship problems, men, health, pregnancy and menstruation, food, things they've read, movies, television, clothing, and rape. Men talk more about women, sex, money, news, sports, hunting and fishing. No sex difference was found in the most frequent topic of conversation in each context. Same‐sex friends of either sex are most likely talk about the other sex, co‐workers most frequently discuss work, and sisters, brothers, mothers and daughters, fathers and sons, talk most often about family.
Reviews research from psychoanalysis, clinical and personality psychology, social psychology, and sociology on the social penetration process. Verbal, nonverbal, and environmentally oriented behaviors are described. States in the development and dissolution of social bonds are discussed. (14 p. ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Research has shown that high self-monitors outperform their low self-monitoring counterparts in initial interactions. This analysis examined the initial interaction scripts of high and low self-monitors in order to assess the likelihood that cognitive differences accompany the behavioral differences across levels of self-monitoring. Because script theory argues that persons may define scripts from either a participant or an observer perspective, and because self-monitoring is properly viewed as an interaction (i.e., participant) skill, script perspective was also manipulated. Examination of subject protocols revealed meaningful interaction effect differences regarding participants' inclusion of conversation. These differences are discussed in relation to self-monitoring and the study of social cognition.
This paper provides a theoretical perspective for dealing with the initial entry stage of interpersonal interaction. The seven axioms and 21 theorems presented suggest a set of research priorities for studying the development of interpersonal relationships. The paper concludes with a discussion of some of the problems to be considered if the theory is to be extended beyond the initial stages of interaction.
The purpose of the present series of studies was to investigate the process of proactive and retroactive attribution in ongoing communication transactions. This objective was accomplished by studying the ways in which information disclosed early in the relationship is used (1) to form predictions concerning the probable attitudes of the other person, and (2) to explain subsequent communication behavior as the relationship progresses. Experiment I revealed that perceived background similarity led to predictions of attitude similarity. Experiments II and III found that consistency between early information and later behavior led to the utilization of early information to explain later behavior. These findings were discussed in terms of uncertainty reduction during initial interaction.
Two experiments examined the influence of script deviance and self-monitoring on recall of conversation and interaction entry techniques. While no differences were found in regard to recall, response repertoire was seen to vary systematically in both studies as a function of a self-monitoring × interaction type interaction. Moreover, the techniques of high self-monitors were judged to be more likely to promote friendly interaction with a target than were those of low self-monitors, regardless of interaction type. These findings were discussed in terms of script theory.
This paper attempts to clarify the conceptualization of interpersonal power dimensions and offers a relational-level definition and measure of dominance. A distinction is made between control movements indicating domineering message behavior and control patterns of dominance. The findings support (1) that domineeringness and dominance are separate control variables, and (2) that different dyadic patterns of satisfaction and interaction style are associated with these two dimensions.
Ph. D. (Communication Studies)--Northwestern University, 1984. Vita.
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