Article

Growling for food: Acoustic emissions during competitive feeding of the streaked gurnard

Wiley
Journal of Fish Biology
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Abstract

The streaked gurnard Trigloporus lastoviza produced only one sound type, a growl, lasting up to 3 s and consisting of repeated groups of typically one to three pulses. The foraging fish followed two different strategies. In the first, the fish circled the feeding area, grasped a food item and fled, sometimes displaying aggressively to competitors. With this foraging strategy, fish usually made sounds as they circled, grasped and fled. Fish that growled while circling were more likely to grasp a food item subsequently than were silent fish. The second feeding strategy occurred when a fish had already ingested food or failed to get any. In this case, typically fish searched for food on the substratum or approached and touched other individuals that were feeding, sometimes grabbing food that was spat out during food handling by the other fish. Although payback experiments would be needed to draw firm conclusions on the communicative function of growling during competitive feeding in the streaked gurnard, the results suggest that sound production confers advantages to individuals competing for limited food resources.

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... Many social animals produce repetitive vocalizations while competing for food within and between groups (Amorim & Hawkins, 2000;Marzlufi & Heinrich, 1991;Sazima & D'Angelo, 2012). These calls may indicate the signaller's competitive ability due to energy constraints (Vehrencamp, 2000). ...
... Consequently, call rate may provide information about the signaller's body quality, which helps intimidate potential rivals away from food sources. In streaked gurnards, Trigloporus lastoviza, for example, dominant foragers repeatedly growl to claim ownership of food (Amorim & Hawkins, 2000). In ringtailed lemurs, Lemur catta, high-ranking males frequently produce squeals while engaging in agonistic interactions and consequently gain preferred access to food (Bolt, 2013). ...
... In other animal taxa, vocal mediation of intraspecific food competition is also acknowledged. For example, streaked gurnards produce loud growls while foraging in groups, and active callers are more likely to grasp food than silent foragers (Amorim & Hawkins, 2000). In common ravens, Corvus corax, dominants utilize harsh screams to aggressively defend food resources (Marzlufi & Heinrich, 1991). ...
Article
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Why a variety of social animals vocalize during agonistic foraging interactions remains obscure. One possibility is that these signals advertise the signaller's competitive ability, playing a role in the defence of food resources, yet there is limited evidence in support of this idea. Here, we used adult female Asian particoloured bats, Vespertilio sinensis, to test whether individual variation in competitive ability when foraging can be explained by social calls. Using synchronized infrared video and audio recording, we monitored bat social vocalizations, dominance rank and weight gain in triads under controlled food conditions. Additionally, subsequent playbacks, consisting of experimental stimuli, echolocation pulses and silence, were presented to feeding bats in a laboratory. Analyses showed that females uttered low-frequency social calls composed of one to five syllable types during feeding competition. The rates of social vocalizations increased with reduced food availability. Interestingly, dominance score and weight gain correlated weakly with body size, but positively with call rate and associated parameters. Playback of social calls inhibited the visits of bats to the focal food dish compared to playback of silence and echolocation pulses. The amount of food consumed was greatly reduced in the presence of experimental stimuli versus controls. Collectively, these results highlight that acoustic signals serve as an honest indicator of bat competitive ability.
... In general, the vocal repertoire of a single species is limited to one or two types of sounds, though in some species it may be more extensive [10]. Members of families with extensive vocal repertoires include the toadfishes (Batrachoididae) [11][12][13], elephantfish (Mormyridae) [14,15], gobies (Gobiidae) [16], damselfishes (Pomacentridae) [17] and gurnards (Triglidaeae) [18][19][20][21]. Within a fish species, the extent of a vocal repertoire and the seasonal and daily use of vocalisation may reflect biological function in a way that is useful to the interpretation of acoustic soundscapes. ...
... The vocalisation activity and behavioural context of sound production for the bluefin gurnard is currently unknown. In other gurnard species, the grey (Eutrigla gurnadus), streaked (Trigloporus lastoviza), tub (Trigla lucerna), red gurnard (Aspitrigla cuculus), northern sea robin (Prionotus carolinus) and striped sea robin (Prionotus evolans) has been reported to produce agonistic vocalisation sounds [8,18,19,21]. During competitive feeding, the streaked gurnard, northern and striped sea robin only produced one type of sound (described as a growl, squawk and grunt, respectively) as opposed to the grey gurnard which produced three types of sound (knocks, grunts and growl). ...
... Bluefin gurnard has a relatively large sound repertoire in comparison to those reported for other Triglidae species, such as the European grey gurnard (three types of sound), tub gurnard (two types) and the streaked gurnard (two types) [8,19,21]. The acoustic features of bluefin gurnard vocalisation also showed some marked differences to these other Triglidaes. ...
Article
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Fish vocalisation is often a major component of underwater soundscapes. Therefore, interpretation of these soundscapes requires an understanding of the vocalisation characteristics of common soniferous fish species. This study of captive female bluefin gurnard, Chelidonichthys kumu, aims to formally characterise their vocalisation sounds and daily pattern of sound production. Four types of sound were produced and characterised, twice as many as previously reported in this species. These sounds fit two aural categories; grunt and growl, the mean peak frequencies for which ranged between 129 to 215 Hz. This species vocalized throughout the 24 hour period at an average rate of (18.5 ± 2.0 sounds fish-1 h-1) with an increase in vocalization rate at dawn and dusk. Competitive feeding did not elevate vocalisation as has been found in other gurnard species. Bluefin gurnard are common in coastal waters of New Zealand, Australia and Japan and, given their vocalization rate, are likely to be significant contributors to ambient underwater soundscape in these areas.
... Also, in these fishes, the large and brightly coloured pectorals often play an important role in agonistic displays during sound emission Amorim et al., 2004a). Triglids produce loud conspicuous sounds by drumming their sonic muscles (intrinsic and/or extrinsic) on to the swimbladder wall, both outside and during the reproductive season (Fish, 1954;Moulton, 1958a;Fish and Mowbray, 1970;Amorim and Hawkins, 2000;Amorim et al., 2004a). However, there are not many detailed studies of triglid sounds, especially during the breeding season, which is when they are most acoustically active (Moulton, 1956;Protasov, 1965). ...
... European gurnards and the American searobins readily increase the rate of sound production during competitive feeding (e.g. Amorim and Hawkins, 2000) or during disturbing situations (Amorim, 1996a;Connaughton, 2004). While the terminology and characteristics of the sounds emitted by searobins during competitive feeding are not very clear (e.g. ...
... gurnardus, red-A. cuculus, tub-Trigla lucerna, and streaked-Trigloporus lastoviza) gurnards varies among species (Amorim, 1996a;Amorim and Hawkins, 2000;Amorim et al., 2004a). The grey and the red gurnards emit three sound types (knocks, grunts and growls; Fig. 3.2) whereas only one sound type was heard from the streaked (growls; Fig. 3.2) and the tub gurnard (grunts; Fig. 3.2). ...
Article
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Fish sound characteristics are associated with different sound-generating mechanisms. Sounds produced by swimbladder-related mechanisms usually comprise low-frequency pulses produced at different rates. Fishes emit one to five sound types that do not show such outstanding variability as found in other taxa. However, closely related species show consistent differences in their sounds and in some species even individuality is found. Of particular interest are differences in courtship sounds made by closely related sympatric species that may promote reproductive isolation. Differences between individuals of the same species may in turn play a role in sexual selection through male-male competition and female mate choice. Other known sources of variability are related to context, including motivation and recent social status, season, time of day, ontogenetic changes and sexual dimorphism. Fish sound variability is mainly based on temporal patterning of sounds or pulses within a sound and on frequency variation (sometimes modulation). Such variability has been found to play a role in the social life of fishes.
... Sound production is widespread amongst species of the family Triglidae and the sound producing ability of these fishes was already known to fishermen in Aristotle's time (Moulton, 1963). Sound production and associated behaviour, however, has been poorly studied in this family (Amorim & Hawkins, 2000), perhaps because field work is greatly limited by the depths at which triglids live (Wheeler, 1969; Papaconstantinou, 1983). The grey gurnard Eutrigla gurnardus (L.), is a common benthic gregarious species in coastal waters of the eastern North Atlantic, typically found at depths down to 140 m (Wheeler, 1969), in small (Protasov, 1965) to occasionally extremely large shoals (H.J.L. Heesen & N. Daan, pers. ...
... The typical sequences of behavioural acts during feeding interactions were examined by determining which sequences of behaviours were more frequently observed than if they had occurred at random, using a first-order Markov chain analysis that tests for dependence of one act on the previous one. A simulation analysis for tests of independence of contingency tables that follows the rationale of a w 2 (programme ACTUS; Estabrook & Estabrook, 1989) was used to test the dependence of one behavioural act on the previous one (Amorim & Hawkins, 2000). ...
... patterns. Other triglids, such as the streaked gurnard Trigloporus lastoviza (Bonnaterre) and the American searobins Prionotus spp., are also known to increase the rate of sound production during competitive feeding (Fish, 1954; Amorim & Hawkins, 2000) but they seem to have a smaller repertoire of agonistic sounds than the grey gurnard. The streaked gurnard emits only one sound type (very long growls) during competitive feeding (Amorim & Hawkins, 2000), while the northern searobin Prionotus carolinus (L.) and the striped searobin Prionotus evolans (L.) emit at least one sound type, squawks and grunts respectively, when fed alone or competitively (Fish, 1954). ...
Article
Full-text available
The acoustic repertoire of captive grey gurnard Eutrigla gurnardus during competitive feeding consisted of three types of sound: knocks, grunts and growls. Knocks were audible as a single sound, whereas grunts and growls were perceived as longer, pulsed sounds to the human ear. Typically, knocks were composed of 1–2 pulses, grunts of 4–8 pulses and growls >10 pulses. Growls were longer and had shorter pulse periods than grunts. All sound types had peak frequencies of c. 500 Hz. The sequences of behaviours observed during feeding interactions suggest that grey gurnard obtain food both by scramble and contest tactics. Competing fish emitted knocks mainly while grasping a food item and also during other non-agonistic behav-iour, suggesting that knock production may reflect a state of feeding arousal but could also serve as a warning of the forager's presence to nearby competitors. Grunts were mainly emitted during frontal displays, which were the most frequent behavioural act preceding grasps, suggesting that they may play a role in deterring other fish from gaining access to disputed food items.
... Screenshots from FishSounds Version 1.0(Looby et al., 2021a) of (a) an example Reference Details page about the streaked gurnard (Chelidonichthys lastoviza;Amorim and Hawkins, 2000) and (b) an example Recording page for the growl sound produced by the streaked gurnard(Amorim and Hawkins, 2000). ...
... Screenshots from FishSounds Version 1.0(Looby et al., 2021a) of (a) an example Reference Details page about the streaked gurnard (Chelidonichthys lastoviza;Amorim and Hawkins, 2000) and (b) an example Recording page for the growl sound produced by the streaked gurnard(Amorim and Hawkins, 2000). ...
... In the representatives of the family Pimelodidae from the order Siluriformes, the sonic muscles belong to the direct type, but, in the majority of other fishes from this order, they belong to the indirect type. 7 In many representatives of the order Siluriformes, the proximal end of the sonic muscle of the indirect type is attached to the narrow and flexible (directed anteriorly) protrusions of the parapophyses of the fourth centrum. These protrusions are called rami Mülleri, or (more often) elastic springs. ...
... Such species as the representatives of the family Carapodidae possess both direct and indirect extrinsic 7 In several catfish from the family Pimelodidae, the swim bladder is atrophied or totally reduced. In these cases, the sonic muscles are absent (Bridge and Haddon, 1893). ...
Article
Full-text available
The main information on the sounds and sound production in fishes is reviewed. The present systems of sound classification and specialized sound production in fishes with different taxonomic positions and ecology are described. The anatomy of sound generating organs is analyzed, and the mechanisms of production of different types of sounds (stridulation, drumming, cavitation, and percussion, as well as hydrodynamic, pneumatic, stringed, and respiratory sounds) are discussed. A brief characterization of the acoustic parameters of different sound types is given. Recent data on the anatomy and morphology of the sonic muscles (including their innervation, physiology, sexual dimorphism, and seasonal changes) are reviewed. The dynamics of the development of sound generating organs are described, and their capacity for sound production in the ontogeny of fishes is followed.
... According to Sorensen et al. (2004), the maturation-inducing steroid 17,20P and its sulfated metabolite, 17,20P-S, are the main components of the preovulatory pheromone that affect male fish through specialized olfactory receptors. The haddock (Melanogrammus aeglefinus), for example, has a complex courtship that includes visual displays by the male as well as vocalization (Amorim and Hawkins, 2000). Males and females often engage one-on-one in many fish species, including pelagic spawners. ...
... They typically create low-frequency sounds in the range of 50-2000 Hz, most often in the range of 100-300 Hz (Tricas and Boyle, 2014). Active sounds in the form of vocalization are used for communication such as to warn of stressful situations (Amorim and Hawkins, 2000;Tricas and Boyle, 2014). Not all fish species produce active sounds, but they all produce involuntary sounds which can be used as information sources (Kasumyan, 2008), and involuntary sounds have been observed for Atlantic salmon (Rountree, 2018). ...
Article
Full-text available
Crowding is a necessary operation for moving fish out of or between sea cages in Atlantic salmon farming. These operations consist of gradually reducing available volume in the nets to increase the biomass density. This is known to stress the fish, increase risk of injury, and can in extreme cases increase mortality rates. To reduce the negative impacts of crowding, the operation must be adjusted based on real-time monitoring of fish welfare. Today, this is mainly done by manually monitoring surface activity, as the high fish density limits the use of available tools. In this paper a new approach for monitoring was applied to crowding of meso-scale cages containing 40 fish each, using automatic detection of passive acoustic signatures. Four synchronised hydrophones were deployed and the acoustic signature was defined from the recordings. The automatic detection algorithm recorded an extreme increase in registered acoustic events during crowding, as high as 1000 events per 10 min period, compared to only 20 events per 10 min period on the day following crowding. Correlating the number of acoustic events to recorded heart rate and activity measures from implants in the salmon indicate that automatically registering acoustic events is a promising method for monitoring farmed fish.
... During my PhD, I studied several highly soniferous triglid species. Captive triglids grunted and growled while being fed, providing the opportunity to investigate the role of acoustic signals during competitive feeding (Amorim and Hawkins, 2000;Amorim et al., 2004). I described their sounds and associated behaviour in detail, and investigated the ontogeny and the temporal patterns of sound production (seasonal and daily), among other aspects (Amorim, 1997(Amorim, , 2005Hawkins, 2000, 2005;Amorim et al., 2004). ...
Article
Full-text available
This paper outlines my research path over three decades while providing a review on the role of fish sounds in mate choice and reproduction. It also intends to provide advice to young scientists and point toward future avenues in this field of research. An overview of studies on different fish model species shows that male mating acoustic signals can inform females and male competitors about their size (dominant frequency, amplitude, and sound pulse rate modulation), body condition (calling activity and sound pulse rate), and readiness to mate (calling rate, number of pulses in a sound). At least in species with parental care, such as toadfishes, gobies, and pomacentrids, calling activity seems to be the main driver of reproductive success. Playback experiments ran on a restricted number of species consistently revealed that females prefer vocal to silent males and select for higher calling rates. This personal synthesis concludes with the suggestion to increase knowledge on fish mating signals, especially considering the emerging use of fish sounds to monitor aquatic environments due to increasing threats, like noise pollution.
... Signal "type" Water-borne frequency ( Mulligan and Fischer (1977) Triglidae Growl, knocks, grunts <300 <130 Competitive feeding "Walks" on the bottom, produces sound when resting on bottom, "croaking similar to a frog" Amorim and Hawkins (2000) J. Acoust. Soc. ...
Article
Substrate-borne communication via mechanical waves is widespread throughout the animal kingdom but has not been intensively studied in fishes. Families such as the salmonids and sculpins have been documented to produce vibratory signals. However, it is likely that fish taxa on or close to the substrate that produce acoustic signals will also have a vibratory component to their signal due to their proximity to substrates and energy transfer between media. Fishes present an intriguing opportunity to study vibrational communication, particularly in the context of signal production and detection, detection range, and how vibratory signals may complement or replace acoustic signals. It is highly likely that the vibrational landscape, the vibroscape, is an important component of their sensory world, which certainly includes and overlaps with the soundscape. With the wide range of anthropogenic activities modifying underwater substrates, vibrational noise presents similar risks as acoustic noise pollution for fishes that depend on vibrational communication. However, in order to understand vibrational noise, more empirical studies are required to investigate the role of vibrations in the fish environment.
... The same behavior is characteristic of the Nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus, which has good eyesight but lives in groups in which neighboring fish-competitors can easily intercept prey (Levina et al., 2021). However, there are also fish species that seize food objects repeatedly before coming to a final decision on its ingestion or rejection (Morrill, 1895;Andriashev and Arnoldi, 1945;Andriashev, 1955;Lissmann, 1958;Ware, 1972;Kislalioglu and Gibson, 1976;Ibrahim and Huntingford, 1992;Ellis and Gibson, 1997;Amorim and Hawkins, 2000). In the ninespined stickleback Pungitius pungitius, pearl gourami Trichopodus leerii, and three spot gourami T. trichopterus, the number of repeated grasps may exceed 20-30 within The timeline of orosensory testing of food has previously been studied in detail in benthic-feeding cyprinids (tench Tinca tinca and carp Cyprinus carpio). ...
Article
Full-text available
Orosensory testing of agar-agar pellets containing L-cysteine or L-glutamine (bream Abramis brama) and L-alanine (bitterling Rhodeus sericeus amarus) has been studied in cyprinids. The fish perform multiple cycles of grasping, retention, and rejecting the pellet introduced into the aquarium before swallowing it or finally refusing to consume it; it may take up to 16 and 6 cycles in bream and bitterling, respectively. The fish holds the pellet for longest time after the first grasp; all subsequent retentions of the pellet are shorter; their duration naturally decreases. The intervals between grasps are short. The total time spent by fish for testing increases rapidly in the range of the first 3–5 grasps, but increases more slowly or stabilizes with a larger number of grasps. We propose upper limit of the time required for fish to assess the palatability of food (or the maximum duration of testing the palatability of food). For bream, this limit is ~45–50 s. The timeline of orosensory testing of food has common features for cyprinids and other fish species, despite their differences in diet and lifestyle. However, the absolute values of the parameters do not coincide in different fish. According to the duration of the latent period and the first retention of the pellet, it is presumably possible to predict the outcome of testing (whether the fish will swallow the pellet or will reject it).
... In shallow marine waters, biophonies are produced by fish, invertebrates, and marine mammals. Sound production by soniferous fish is associated with reproduction, and territorial behaviors (Takemura et al. 1978;Amorim & Hawkins 2000). Croaker chorus have been identified at a relatively higher frequency range of 1.2-2.4 ...
Article
Full-text available
The underwater soundscape is an important ecological element affecting numerous aquatic animals, in particular dolphins, which must identify salient cues from ambient ocean noise. In this study, temporal variations in the soundscape of Jiaotou Bay were monitored from February 2016 to January 2017, where a population of Indo‐Pacific humpback dolphins (Sousa chinensis) has recently been a regular sighting. An autonomous acoustic recorder was deployed in shallow waters, and 1/3‐octave band sound pressure levels (SPLs) were calculated with central frequencies ranging from 25 Hz to 40 kHz, then were grouped into 3 subdivided bands via cluster analysis. SPLs at each major band showed significant differences on a diel, fishing‐related period, seasonal, and tidal phase scale. Anthropogenic noise generated by passing ships and underwater explosions were recorded in the study area. The fish and dolphin acoustic activities both exhibited diel and seasonal variations, but no tidal cycle patterns. A negative significant relationship between anthropogenic sound detection rates and dolphin detection rates were observed, and fish detection rates showed no effect on dolphin detection rates, indicating anthropogenic activity avoidance and no forced foraging in dolphins in the study area. The results provide fundamental insight into the acoustic dynamics of an important Indo‐Pacific humpback dolphin habitat within a coastal area affected by a rapid increase in human activity, and demonstrate the need to protect animal habitat from anthropogenic noises.
... While a large proportion of work concerning anthropogenic noise and aquatic organisms has focused on marine mammals (Cox et al., 2016), attention towards fishes has steadily grown over the years (Popper and Hawkins, 2019). This expansion is especially important given that acoustic perception is of great importance to spawning (Holt and Johnston, 2014a), predator detection (Mann et al., 1997), foraging (Holt and Johnston, 2011), competitive interactions (Amorim and Hawkins, 2000) and more in a number of fishes (Handegard et al., 2003;Vasconcelos et al., 2007;Purser and Radford, 2011;Sebastianutto et al., 2011;Bruintjes and Radford, 2013;Simpson et al., 2016). In addition to impacting critical behaviors in fishes, noise exposure has proven to affect certain physiological processes, most commonly observed through the increase of circulating glucocorticoids and energy substrates that are common indicators of a primary stress response (Wysocki et al., 2006;Buscaino et al., 2010;Celi et al., 2016). ...
Article
Full-text available
While the expansion of anthropogenic noise studies in aquatic habitats has produced conservation-based results for a range of taxa, relatively little attention has been paid to the potential impacts on stream fishes. Recent work has shown responses to road noise in single species of stream fish; however, assemblage-wide effects of anthropogenic noise pollution have not yet been investigated. By examining five metrics of disturbance across four ecologically and evolutionarily disparate species of stream fishes, a series of laboratory experiments aimed to describe the effects of and species susceptibility to anthropogenic noise playback. Each species studied represented a unique combination of hearing sensitivity and water column position. Physiological and behavioral metrics were compared across the presence and absence of rail-noise noise playback in four target species. Through repeated subsampling, the temporal dynamics of cortisol secretion in response to noise in two target species were additionally described. Rail-noise playback had no statistically significant effect on blood glucose or water-borne cortisol levels, with the exception of decreased cortisol in noise-exposed largescale stoneroller (Campostoma oligolepis). Time-course cortisol experiments revealed rapid secretion and showed minimal effects of noise at most observation points. The presence of noise produced significant changes in ventilation rate and swimming parameters in a portion of the four species observed representing the most conserved responses. Overall, effects of noise were observed in species contrary to what would be hypothesized based on theoretical hearing sensitivity and water column position demonstrating that predicting susceptibility to this type of stressor cannot be accomplished based off these course considerations alone. More importantly, we show that anthropogenic noise can disrupt a variety of behavioral and physiological processes in certain taxa and should be further investigated via measures of fitness in the wild.
... A recent study published a check-list of species at Bagnoli-Coroglio (Crocetta et al., 2020) and reported 42 species of fish. Among them, only six are documented in literature to produce sounds, namely Gobius niger (Rollo and Higgs, 2008), Scorpaena notata (Bolgan et al., 2019), Chelidonichthys lastoviza (reported as Trigloporus lastoviza in Amorim and Hawkins, 2000), Carapus acus (Parmentier et al., 2006), Uranoscopus scaber (Mikhailenko, 1973) and Zeus faber (Radford et al., 2018). In addition, 18 fish species from the check-list provided by Crocetta et al. (2020) are potential producers of sounds or belong to the same genus of other acoustically active species: Anthias anthias, Serranus cabrilla, Serranus hepatus, Boops boops, Diplodus annularis, Diplodus sargus, Diplodus vulgaris, Pagellus acarne, Pagellus bogaraveo, Pagellus erythrinus, Mullus barbatus, Trachurus sp., Blennius ocellaris, Conger conger, Ophichthus rufus, Merluccius merluccius, Phycis phycis and Trigla lyra (e.g., Carriço et al., 2019). ...
Article
Underwater noise is one of the most widespread threats to the world oceans. Its negative impact on fauna is nowadays well established, but baseline data to be used in management and monitoring programs are still largely lacking. In particular, the acoustic assessment of human-impacted marine coastal areas provides complementary information on the health status of marine ecosystems. The objective of our study was to provide a baseline of underwater noise levels and biological sounds at two sites within the Gulf of Naples (Italy), one of which is located in Bagnoli-Coroglio, a Site of National Interest (SIN) for its high contamination levels. Within the SIN, sounds were recorded both before and during sediment coring activities (vibrocorer sampling), in order to investigate the potential acoustic impact due to such operations. Acoustic recordings were analyzed following the European Marine Strategy Framework Directive indications as defined in the frame of the Descriptor 11. Results reported here show that the investigated area is characterized by a high anthropogenic noise pressure. Ambient noise levels were principally driven by shipping noise and biological sounds of invertebrates (e.g., snapping shrimps). Sounds referable to other biological activity were difficult to detect because heavily masked by shipping noise. Coring activity determined a substantial introduction of additional noise at a local spatial scale. This study expands underwater noise baseline data to be further implemented in future monitoring programs of coastal areas affected by anthropogenic impacts. In addition, it proposes new cues for using underwater acoustic monitoring tools to complement traditional methodologies for evaluating health status of ecosystems and for investigating recovery rates after restoration/reclamation programs.
... On the days with lower calling activity, fish acoustic activity showed a less pronounced diel rhythm. These observations suggest the existence of periods where the calls are used for nonreproductive behaviours such as feeding or agonistic behaviour [77]. ...
Article
Full-text available
Many species rely on acoustic communication to fulfil several functions such as advertisement and mediation of social interactions (e.g., agonistic, mating). Therefore, fish calls can be an important source of information, e.g., to recognize reproductive periods or to assess fish welfare, and should be considered a potential non-intrusive tool in aquaculture management. Assessing fish acoustic activity, however, often requires long sound recordings. To analyse these long recordings automatic methods are invaluable tools to detect and extract the relevant biological information. Here we present a study to characterize meagre (Argyrosomus regius) acoustic activity during social contexts in captivity using an automatic pattern-recognition methodology based on the Hidden Markov Model. Calls produced by meagre during the breading season showed a richer repertoire than previously reported. Besides the dense choruses composed by grunts already known for this species, meagre emitted successive series of isolated pulses, audible as ‘knocks’. Grunts with a variable number of pulses were also registered. The overall acoustic activity was concurrent with the number of spawning events. A diel call rhythms exhibit peak of calling activity from 15:00 to midnight. In addition, grunt acoustic parameters varied significantly along the reproduction season. These results open the possibility to use the meagre vocal activity to predict breeding and approaching spawning periods in aquaculture management.
... Sometimes these choruses can increase the rootmean-square intensity levels of the local ambient conditions by as much as 40 dB re 1 μPa where red drum (Sciaenops ocellatus) produce choruses centered around 128 Hz and weakfish (Cynoscion regalis) centered around 386 Hz. Other fishes, such as the plainfin midshipman fish (Porichthys notatus), will produce isolated sounds as warning calls (Amorim and Hawkins 2000;Amorim 2006) or nest guarding (Amorim 2006). More recently, research has shown that bigeyes (Pempheris adspersa) have the potential to produce sound as a contact call (van Oosterom et al. 2016). ...
Chapter
Biodiversity across the animal kingdom is reflected in acoustic diversity, and the evolution of these signals is driven by the ability to produce and hear sounds within the complex nature of soundscapes. Signals from the sender are attenuated and their structure is changed during propagation to receivers, and other sounds contributing to the soundscape can interfere with signals intended for the receiver. Therefore, the message encoded in the sender’s signal may be difficult or impossible for the potential receiver to decode unless the receiver adapts behaviorally. This chapter discusses the potential effects of sound propagation and environmental sound on communication both in air and underwater. First, the wave equation is defined; second, attenuation, absorption and scattering principles are discussed in relation to physical sound propagation effects on the sender’s signal; and third, abiotic, biotic, and anthropogenic sources of environmental noise are introduced and discussed. Environmental noise is present in all habitats, and soundscapes are getting louder, in part mostly due to increased anthropogenic noise inputs. Therefore, animals that rely on sound to communicate have to adapt and evolve to their local soundscape to get their message across.
... The complexity of the habitats, in terms of structure of the animal community, is connected with the complexity of its biophonical component (Kennedy et al., 2010). The food and shelters availability of the habitats can determine a different biophony, since the acoustic activity of fishes and crustaceans is related to feeding (Radford et al., 2008b), territorial and feeding competition (Myrberg, 1997;Amorim and Hawkins, 2000) and spawning behavior (Lugli et al., 1995;Aalbers and Drawbridge, 2008). These differences can be better observed during specific periods of the day and year. ...
Article
Soundscapes are strongly linked with the physical structure and biological features of the habitats and their study can reveal ecological processes of the underwater environment. Objective of this study is to characterize two Mediterranean habitats, the Posidonia oceanica meadow and the sandy bottom, and demonstrate their acoustic diversification basing on their soundscapes. Firstly, the habitats have been compared using two different acoustic metrics, the Power Spectral Density (PSD) and the Acoustic Complexity Index (ACI), measured in different frequency band. Then, the acoustic biological component of the habitats has been identified and characterized: five biological signals were described and their acoustic properties and temporal patterns were defined. Finally, the geophonical and anthropogenic components of the two habitats have been compared. In the low frequency (<0.5 kHz) the sandy habitat showed higher values of PSD and lower valuesof ACI. From 0.5–24 kHz the greatest values ofboth parameters were recorded in the Posidonia habitat due to the acoustic activity of snapping shrimps and fishes. The wind speed resulted significantly correlated with PSD from 0.1 to 2 kHz for both habitats, but the correlation is less intense in Posidonia habitat suggesting a noise attenuation phenomenon. The two habitats present biophonical component belonged to different fish species and invertebrates; they showed alternated temporal pattern and different frequency allocation. The Posidonia habitat resulted acoustically richer than sandy habitat, confirming the importance of ecoacoustic method to study ecological processes. Finally, a strong acoustic impact from the anthropogenic component was revealed: it achieves 60% of daytime during the summer, especially in sandy habitat. Results demonstrated not only the possibility to discriminate habitats through the sound information but also the need to protect marine ecosystems from the human noise.
... Within the order Scorpaeniformes (mail-checked fishes), sound production is known in several families, in particular in the families Scorpaenidae (rockfishes), Triglidae (searobins and gurnards) and Cottidae (sculpins). Sexes have not been distinguished in studies on sound production in scorpaenids and triglids, which indicates that both sexes behave similarly and vocalise during agonistic encounters, in particular when foraging for food (Miyagawa and Takemura 1986;Amorim and Hawkins 2000;Amorim et al. 2004a, b). In contrast, sound production during agonistic encounters has been described in detail in male and female river bullhead Cottus gobio (Cottidae) (Ladich 1989). ...
Book
This volume examines fish sounds that have a proven signal function, as well as sounds assumed to have evolved for communication purposes. It provides an overview of the mechanisms, evolution and neurobiology behind sound production in fishes, and discusses the role of fish sounds in behavior with a special focus on choice of mate, sex-specific and age-specific signaling. Furthermore, it highlights the ontogenetic development of sound communication and ecoacoustical conditions in fish habitats and the influence of hormones on vocal production and sound detection. Sound Communication in Fishes offers a must-have compendium for lecturers, researchers and students working in the fields of animal communication, fish biology, neurobiology and animal behavior.
... However, it is unclear whether the sounds generated by gouramies upon grasping the food from the bottom are specialized and meant for communication. Sound communication during feeding or competition over food resources is known only for certain fish species (Ladich, 1988;Amorim and Hawkins, 2000;Amorim et al., 2004). The examples of generation of nonspecialized sounds by fish during feeding, when they grasp food objects, and during their destruction, grinding, etc., are more numerous (Kasumyan, 2009). ...
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It has been found that the pearl gourami Trichopodus leerii evaluates the quality of food objects (agar–agar pellets with standard size, shape, and color but having different composition) by touching them with their lips without using its long filamentous ventral fins. Orosensory testing is accompanied by repeated grasps−rejections−grasps of the pellets (up to 28 times). Such manipulations become significantly more frequent and the pellet is retained several times longer if the trial ends with ingestion rather than final refusal of the object by the fish. It has been found for the first time that pearl gourami produces clicking sounds while grasping the pellets. The number of sounds is directly related to the number of grasps of the object performed by the fish. Only two (alanine, serine) of 21 amino acids (L-isomers) were attractive to pearl gourami, another 13 acids turned out to be indifferent stimuli, and six acids had a repulsive taste. Pearl gourami was attracted to the taste of sucrose and Chironomidae larvae extract. The addition of citric acid, calcium chloride, and sodium chloride to the pellets did not influence their consumption by the fish. The more attractive the substances contained by the pellets, the longer time is spent by the fish on orosensory testing of the pellet quality.
... obs.), in juveniles of Pelobates fuscus (ten Hagen et al. 2016; see also Nöllert 1984) and in metamorphs of Phyllomedusa burmeisteri (Toledo et al. 2015a). Such calls might be emitted in a competitive context as has been hypothesized in fishes (Amorim & Hawkins 2000;Amorim et al. 2004;Polgar et al. 2011). Alternatively, calls emitted by metamorphs or juveniles while foraging could be related to group aggregation, as an ecological strategy of defense. ...
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Vocalizations of anuran amphibians have received much attention in studies of behavioral ecology and physiology, but also provide informative characters for identifying and delimiting species. We here review the terminology and variation of frog calls from a perspective of integrative taxonomy, and provide hands-on protocols for recording, analyzing, comparing, interpreting and describing these sounds. Our focus is on advertisement calls, which serve as premating isolation mechanisms and, therefore, convey important taxonomic information. We provide recommendations for terminology of frog vocalizations, with call, note and pulse being the fundamental subunits to be used in descriptions and comparisons. However, due to the complexity and diversity of these signals, an unequivocal application of the terms call and note can be challenging. We therefore provide two coherent concepts that either follow a note-centered approach (defining uninterrupted units of sound as notes, and their entirety as call) or a call-centered approach (defining uninterrupted units as call whenever they are separated by long silent intervals) in terminology. Based on surveys of literature, we show that numerous call traits can be highly variable within and between individuals of one species. Despite idiosyncrasies of species and higher taxa, the duration of calls or notes, pulse rate within notes, and number of pulses per note appear to be more static within individuals and somewhat less affected by temperature. Therefore, these variables might often be preferable as taxonomic characters over call rate or note rate, which are heavily influenced by various factors. Dominant frequency is also comparatively static and only weakly affected by temperature, but depends strongly on body size. As with other taxonomic characters, strong call divergence is typically indicative of species-level differences, whereas call similarities of two populations are no evidence for them being conspecific. Taxonomic conclusions can especially be drawn when the general advertisement call structure of two candidate species is radically different and qualitative call differences are thus observed. On the other hand, quantitative differences in call traits might substantially vary within and among conspecific populations, and require careful evaluation and analysis. We provide guidelines for the taxonomic interpretation of advertisement call differences in sympatric and allopatric situations, and emphasize the need for an integrative use of multiple datasets (bioacoustics, morphology, genetics), particularly for allopatric scenarios. We show that small-sized frogs often emit calls with frequency components in the ultrasound spectrum, although it is unlikely that these high frequencies are of biological relevance for the majority of them, and we illustrate that detection of upper harmonics depends also on recording distance because higher frequencies are attenuated more strongly. Bioacoustics remains a prime approach in integrative taxonomy of anurans if uncertainty due to possible intraspecific variation and technical artifacts is adequately considered and acknowledged.
... Sounds of Malagasy Gephyromantis and Neotropical Ceratophrys tadpoles (Reeve et al. 2011) also were mostly heard during feeding and/or during physical contact with conspecifics. Also for some fishes, sound emission during competitive feeding has been observed (Amorim and Hawkins 2000;Amorim et al. 2004;Polgar et al. 2011). According to a recent review (Clay et al. 2012), there is convincing evidence for such foodassociated calls being in some cases functionally referential, i.e. conveying specific information about food availability and quality. ...
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Acoustic communication is prominent in adult anuran amphibians, in reproductive, territorial and defensive contexts. In contrast, reports on vocalizations of juvenile anurans are rare and anecdotal, and their function unstudied. We here provide conclusive evidence for vocalizations in juvenile spadefoot toads (Pelobates fuscus) in very early terrestrial stages. While the aquatic tadpoles did not emit sounds, first vocalizations of metamorphs were heard as early as in stages 42-43, and calls were regularly emitted from stage 44 on, often from specimens still bearing extensive tail stubs. Three main types of calls could be distinguished, of which one consists of a series of short notes, one of a typically single longer and pulsed note, and one of a single tonal note. In experimental setups, the number of calls per froglet increased with density of individuals and after feeding, while on the contrary calls were not elicited by playback. The function of these juvenile calls remains unclarified, but they might reflect a general arousal in the context of feeding. Further evidence is necessary to test whether such feeding calls could confer a signal to conspecifics and thus might represent intraspecific acoustic communication in these immature terrestrial amphibians.
... Within the order Scorpaeniformes (mail-checked fishes), sound production is known in several families, in particular in the families Scorpaenidae (rockfishes), Triglidae (searobins and gurnards) and Cottidae (sculpins). Sexes have not been distinguished in studies on sound production in scorpaenids and triglids, which indicates that both sexes behave similarly and vocalise during agonistic encounters, in particular when foraging for food (Miyagawa and Takemura 1986;Amorim and Hawkins 2000;Amorim et al. 2004a, b). In contrast, sound production during agonistic encounters has been described in detail in male and female river bullhead Cottus gobio (Cottidae) (Ladich 1989). ...
Chapter
Sound production in female fish has only seldom been mentioned, which is in contrast to the vast literature on male sound production. This lack of information is surprising because sound-generating mechanisms are present in females of (almost) all vocal species. Typically, female sonic organs are smaller than those of the males, for example in batrachoidids or callichthyids. Moreover, female sonic muscles do not hypertrophy during the reproductive season, such as they do in male gadids and sciaenids. The sexual dimorphism in sonic organs indicates that males are more active sound producers than females. In most species, males emit advertisement and mating sounds. The exceptions are one osphronemid species in which only females vocalise prior to spawning, and seahorses in which both sexes produce courtship sounds. At the same time, agonistic behaviour and aggressive sounds are rather similar in males and females, indicating that both sexes defend feeding and breeding sites. In numerous cichlids, females are even the more aggressive sex while defending their brood. This resembles the situation in hermaphroditic clownfish, in which females are the larger sex and primarily defend their host sea anemones. Sounds have very rarely been recorded under standardised conditions in both sexes, and sound characteristics have therefore seldom been analysed and compared in detail. Female agonistic sounds may differ in frequency and sound level from male sounds, reflecting differences in body and sonic organ size between sexes. Furthermore, sex-specific differences in pulse length and number of pulses have been described. Differences between female mating and female agonistic sounds have been described in one species. Overall, the assumption is that sex-specific differences in acoustic signalling during agonistic behaviour are minor in vocal species. These differences seem to depend on morphological differences. Furthermore, a more detailed analysis of reproductive behaviour in fish is expected to show more teleost species in which females are vocal during courtship and spawning.
... Nevertheless, visual signals may convey only part of the story in piscine duels. Acoustic (Lugli, 1997;Ladich, 1998;Amorim & Hawkins, 2000;Thorson & Fine, 2002), chemical (Waas & Colgan, 1992;Giaquinto & Volpato, 1997) and electrical (McGregor & Westby, 1992) stimuli have all been implicated as potential modes of communication in aggressive contests in fishes. Whether these signals elicit similar changes in bystander behaviour as visual signals has yet to be tested. ...
Article
We are both spectators and actors in this great drama of existence, Niels Bohr, Introduction, Poeciliid fishes such as green swordtails Xiphophorus helleri and guppies Poecilia reticulata aggregate in social groups called shoals. In addition to reducing predation risk and increasing foraging efficiency (e.g. Magurran & Pitcher, 1987; Ranta & Juvonen, 1993), fish shoals promote the transfer of social information within the group. For instance, information about foraging routes is transmitted from trained individuals to naive fish in guppy shoals (Laland & Williams, 1997; Swaney et al., 2001; Brown & Laland, 2002). The type of information transfer demonstrated in the social learning and foraging literature involves the transmission of signals from one or more individuals to the remaining group members. Investigations of social foraging and anti-predator behaviour have demonstrated that poeciliids attend to a variety of cues emitted by both conspecifics and heterospecifics (e.g. predators: Brown & Godin, 1999; Mirza et al., 2001; Brosnan et al., 2003). Although social learning and anti-predator responses constitute important aspects of group living in poeciliids, this chapter focuses more on how individuals gain information from observing interactions that occur in their social environment. Indeed, the concept of communication networks was founded on the premise that the information exchanged during social interactions (e.g. agonistic or courtship displays) may be available not only to the participants but also to bystanders within signal detection range (McGregor, 1993; McGregor et al., 2000).
... At present, sound production is documented in over 800 species of fish representing 109 families [3]. In many fishes, sound production accompanies numerous crucial behaviors including: courtship, spawning, agonistic interactions, and competitive feeding [4][5][6]. Many species utilizing acoustic cues, including those in the series Otophysi, also possess ancillary hearing adaptations to detect these signals. ...
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Noise pollution from anthropogenic sources is an increasingly problematic challenge faced by many taxa, including fishes. Recent studies demonstrate that road traffic noise propagates effectively from bridge crossings into surrounding freshwater ecosystems; yet, its effect on the stress response and auditory function of freshwater stream fishes is unexamined. The blacktail shiner (Cyprinella venusta) was used as a model to investigate the degree to which traffic noise impacts stress and hearing in exposed fishes. Fish were exposed to an underwater recording of traffic noise played at approximately 140 dB re 1 μPa. Waterborne cortisol samples were collected and quantified using enzyme immunoassay (EIA). Auditory thresholds were assessed in control and traffic exposed groups by measuring auditory evoked potentials (AEPs). After acute exposure to traffic noise, fish exhibited a significant elevation in cortisol levels. Individuals exposed to 2 hours of traffic noise playback had elevated hearing thresholds at 300 and 400 Hz, corresponding to the most sensitive bandwidth for this species.
... Sciaenids are commonly called croakers or drums because of their propensity to produce sounds using sonic muscles and swim bladder (Tower, 1908;Ramcharitar et al., 2006). These sounds might be species-or sex-specific and are used for communication (Mok and Gilmore, 1983;Myrberg, 1997;Amorim and Hawkins, 2000;Ladich, 2004;Gannon, 2007;Kasumyan, 2009;Mok et al., 2009). This particular feature makes sciaenids attractive models for acoustic-related research focusing on the behaviors, mate choice, and evolution (Connaughton et al., 2000;Gannon, 2007;Aalbers, 2008). ...
... Sciaenids are commonly called croakers or drums because of their propensity to produce sounds using sonic muscles and swim bladder (Tower, 1908; Ramcharitar et al., 2006). These sounds might be species-or sex-specific and are used for communication (Mok and Gilmore, 1983; Myrberg, 1997; Amorim and Hawkins, 2000; Ladich, 2004; Gannon, 2007; Kasumyan, 2009; Mok et al., 2009). This particular feature makes sciaenids attractive models for acoustic-related research focusing on the behaviors, mate choice, and evolution (Connaughton et al., 2000; Gannon, 2007; Aalbers, 2008). ...
... Sciaenids are commonly called croakers or drums because of their propensity to produce sounds using sonic muscles and swim bladder (Tower, 1908;Ramcharitar et al., 2006). These sounds might be species-or sex-specific and are used for communication (Mok and Gilmore, 1983;Myrberg, 1997;Amorim and Hawkins, 2000;Ladich, 2004;Gannon, 2007;Kasumyan, 2009;Mok et al., 2009). This particular feature makes sciaenids attractive models for acoustic-related research focusing on the behaviors, mate choice, and evolution (Connaughton et al., 2000;Gannon, 2007;Aalbers, 2008). ...
... It may be that the locally high abundance of mysids in the coastal area off Aveiro allows these two species to have more similar trophic preferences. Triglids such as C. obscurus and C. lucerna are active bottom dwellers and feed mostly on suprabenthic prey (Moreno-Amich, 1992;1996;Amorim & Hawkins, 2000). Specimens of E. vipera preyed on several species, some of which inhabit the sediment but also others associated with the water column as observed in other Portuguese coastal areas (Vasconcelos et al., 2004). ...
Article
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The diets and trophic ecology of the dominant fish species from the marine coastal region of Aveiro (north-western Portugal) caught during a summer survey were studied. Mysids were the most important prey group for the fish assemblage analysed. As a consequence, there was a high dietary overlap between species and a low incidence of piscivory. Nevertheless, a clear segregation of trophic niches was observed, with one group (comprising the species Chelidonichthys cuculus, Callionymus lyra, Dicologlossa cuneata and Pomatoschistus lozanoi) showing a stronger preference for infaunal epibenthic prey, such as polychaetes and amphipods, another group (including Arnoglossus imperialis, Arnoglossus laterna, Chelidonichthys obscurus, Chelidonichthys lucernus, Echiichthys vipera, Pagellus acarne and Trisopterus luscus) preying mostly upon suprabenthic prey, mainly mysids, and a third group (Engraulis encrasicolus and Trachurus trachurus) feeding largely on planktonic prey like copepods. Some species, including A. imperialis, C. lyra, E. vipera, T. trachurus and T. luscus, showed ontogenic diet shifts that may be related to the habitat occupied by different size-classes and/or to their ability to capture prey of different size.
... Activation of mechanoreceptors of walls of the ova ries and of mechanoreceptors situated in epidermis frequently occurs due to actions of the male-touch ing, trituration, and thrusts or blows of belly and body 16 Ability of animals to feed on hard food objects is termed durophagy (Allaby, 1999). 17 Highly sensitive to dilation proprioreceptors are present in fish not only in walls of the ovary but also, e.g., in envelopes of the swimming bladder. ...
Article
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Available fragmentary data on tactile sensie of fish are summed up for the first time. Data are presented on morphology and distribution of tactile receptors (free nerve endings, Merkel cells, Rohon-Beard cells, etc.) and on their innervation. Main tactile organs of fish are considered—barbels and various other cutaneous outgrowths, free rays of fins, rostrum, breeding tubercles, dermal teeth. Information is presented on functional parameters of tactile reception and its significance in orientation and in manifestation by fish of reproductive, defensive, social, exploratory, and food searching behavior. An important role is shown of the intraoral tactile reception in estimation by fish of texture and attractiveness of food objects. Time of formation of tactile sensitivity in fish ontogenesis is indicated and dynamics of its formation is analyzed. A low level of knowledge of structure and function of the tactile system is noted. The majority of the available data are mostly facts indicating the importance of tactile sense in various life manifestations of fish but not disclosing the functional potential of the system.
... Many species of fish use sound to attract mates, perform courtship displays, defend territory, convey distress, show aggression, and sense obstacles (Myrberg 1997; Zelick et al. 1999; Amorim and Hawkins 2000; Ladich 2004). For communication to work, the receiver must be able to obtain salient information from a signal given the presence of ambient noise or competing signals. ...
Article
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The teleost family Sciaenidae, collectively known as the croakers and drums because of their propensity for making sound, includes roughly 70 genera and 270 species worldwide. Although many other groups of fish also communicate using sound, the sciaenids are unique in the diversity of their sound production mechanisms, variety of sounds produced, and structural variation in sound-detecting structures. This paper reviews the bioacoustics of sciaenid fishes, including mechanisms involved in the production and reception of sound, the types of sounds produced, and the functions of these sounds. We propose the hypothesis that the unusual diversity in the design of the structures associated with sound production and detection is correlated with a similar diversity in how these structures function. Production and detection of sound appear to be important aspects of sciaenid behavior. But despite the vast literature on sciaenid sound production, we know relatively little about the biological significance of their sounds. This lack of understanding leaves plenty of room for research by physiologists, bioacousticians, behavioral ecologists, and fisheries scientists.
... Field and laboratory studies have shown that sounds function in courtship (Spanier, 1979;Myrberg et al., 1986;Lugli et al., 1997), agonistic interactions (Ladich, 1997;Amorim et al., 2003;Parmentier et al., 2003) and competitive feeding (Amorim & Hawkins, 2000). Moreover, these behaviours are associated with different calls in the pomacentrids Stegastes partitus (Poey) (Myrberg, 1972(Myrberg, , 1986Myrberg & Spires, 1972;Myrberg et al., 1993), Dascyllus albisella Gill (Mann & Lobel, 1995 and different species of clownfishes (Takemura, 1983;Chen & Mok, 1988). ...
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Agonistic sounds of two pomacentrid species, Plectroglyphidodon lacrymatus and Dascyllus aruanus, were recorded in captivity. Plectroglyphidodon lacrymatus produced trains of 2–5 pops, each composed of 18–25 cycles, with an average duration of 56 ms; most energy ranged from c. 100 to 1000 Hz. Dascyllus aruanus produced pops and chirps. Pops were generally composed of a single pulse, with 2–14 peaks and an average duration of 6Á7 ms. Pops contained energy >4 kHz, and peak frequency ranged from 680 to 1300 Hz. Chirps consisted of trains of 12–42 short pulses of three to six cycles, with durations varying from 0Á6 to 1Á27 ms; peak frequency varied from 3400 to 4100 Hz. Sound production in P. lacrymatus suggested that pomacentrids are derived from an ancestral taxon capable of sound production and that this capacity is a synapomorphy for the family. Although in the Pomacentridae, pops are typically composed of a single pulse, which is longer and higher pitched than chirps composed of a series of shorter pulses, D. aruanus chirps were higher pitched than its pops. Thus, acoustic variation in the genus Dascyllus is probably not more restricted than in the Pomacentridae.
... Field and laboratory studies have shown that sounds function in courtship (Spanier, 1979;Lugli et al., 1997), agonistic interactions (Ladich, 1997;Amorim et al., 2003;Parmentier et al., 2003) and competitive feeding (Amorim & Hawkins, 2000). Moreover, these behaviours are associated with different calls in the pomacentrids Stegastes partitus (Poey) Myrberg & Spires, 1972;Myrberg et al., 1993), Dascyllus albisella Gill ( Mann & Lobel, 1995) and different species of clownfishes (Takemura, 1983;Chen & Mok, 1988). ...
Article
Agonistic sounds of two pomacentrid species, Plectroglyphidodon lacrymatus and Dascyllus aruanus, were recorded in captivity. Plectroglyphidodon lacrymatus produced trains of 2–5 pops, each composed of 18–25 cycles, with an average duration of 56 ms; most energy ranged from c. 100 to 1000 Hz. Dascyllus aruanus produced pops and chirps. Pops were generally composed of a single pulse, with 2–14 peaks and an average duration of 6Á7 ms. Pops contained energy >4 kHz, and peak frequency ranged from 680 to 1300 Hz. Chirps consisted of trains of 12–42 short pulses of three to six cycles, with durations varying from 0Á6 to 1Á27 ms; peak frequency varied from 3400 to 4100 Hz. Sound production in P. lacrymatus suggested that pomacentrids are derived from an ancestral taxon capable of sound production and that this capacity is a synapomorphy for the family. Although in the Pomacentridae, pops are typically composed of a single pulse, which is longer and higher pitched than chirps composed of a series of shorter pulses, D. aruanus chirps were higher pitched than its pops. Thus, acoustic variation in the genus Dascyllus is probably not more restricted than in the Pomacentridae.
... For example, the dominant frequency of sounds may give indication of body size in fish and in other animals (Davies & Halliday 1978;Clutton-Brock & Albon 1979;Myrberg et al. 1993). Little is known about agonistic sound production outside territorial defence (Ladich 1997), but sound production has been observed in competitive feeding contests in triglids and other fishes, and may signal feeding arousal and different levels of aggression (Hawkins 1993;Amorim & Hawkins 2000;Amorim et al. 2004). ...
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Although sound production in teleost fish is often associated with territorial behaviour, little is known of fish acoustic behaviour in other agonistic contexts such as competitive feeding and how it changes during ontogeny. The grey gurnard, Eutrigla gurnardus, frequently emits knock and grunt sounds during competitive feeding and seems to adopt both contest and scramble tactics under defensible resource conditions. Here we examine, for the first time, the effect of fish size on sound production and agonistic behaviour during competitive feeding. We have made sound (alone) and video (synchronized image and sound) recordings of grey gurnards during competitive feeding interactions. Experimental fish ranged from small juveniles to large adults and were grouped in four size classes: 10–15, 15–20, 25–30 and 30–40 cm in total length. We show that, in this species, both sound production and feeding behaviour change with fish size. Sound production rate decreased in larger fish. Sound duration, pulse duration and the number of pulses increased whereas the peak frequency decreased with fish size, in both sound types (knocks and grunts). Interaction rate and the frequency of agonistic behaviour decreased with increasing fish size during competitive feeding sessions. The proportion of feeding interactions accompanied by sound production was similar in all size classes. However, the proportion of interactions accompanied by knocks (less aggressive sounds) and by grunts (more aggressive) increased and decreased with fish size, respectively. Taken together, these results suggest that smaller grey gurnards compete for food by contest tactics whereas larger specimens predominantly scramble for food, probably because body size gives an advantage in locating, capturing and handling prey. We further suggest that sounds emitted during feeding may potentially give information on the motivation and ability of the individual to compete for food resources.
... A human that stands on the shore near spawning fish, together with sounds, distinctly feels vibration passing through the ground. Spawning sounds immediately attract other males that are downstream that rapidly swim to the spawning site from a distance of 3- 6 The same sounds are emitted by males when they stay separately from spawning fish, at some dis tance from them, and as if imitate spawning by typical movements of caudal fin and release of a portion of sperm (Bruch and Binkowski, 2002). The acoustic characteristics of males of A. fulvescens remain unstudied. ...
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The paper lists basic data on the role of sounds in fish behavior. The involvement of acoustic signaling in the control of reproductive, territorial, agonistic, aggressive, social, and feeding behavior in fish that differ in the systematics and mode of life is considered. Species and population specifics and individual sound variation in fish, diurnal and seasonal cyclicity of sound activity, and behavior that accompany acoustic signaling and the effects upon it of different environmental factors are considered. Evidence on the formation of acoustic signaling in ontogenesis of fish is provided; the range of sound signaling and correspondence between sound spectra and auditory sensitivity are discussed. Possible applied aspects of results of study of fish bioacoustics are analyzed.
... Many fish communicate with acoustic signals mostly in mating and agonistic contexts. [1][2][3][4][5] These signals are often pulsed low frequency sounds with fast transients. 6,7 Playback experiments, a widespread tool to study the function of animals' acoustic signals, 8 have been hampered in fish due to limitations of commercially available underwater loudspeakers, which do not reproduce fish sounds appropriately. ...
Article
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This article reports on a new type of system for high fidelity underwater sound generation (patent pending PT105474). The system includes an underwater sound actuator and the corresponding electronic driver. The sound is generated by a rigid plate that is actuated (both for positioning/dumping and excitation) using purely electromagnetic forces, thus, avoiding the use of any elastic membrane. Since there is no compressible air inside the device, which is flooded by water, the operation of this device is independent from depth, broadening its applications to any water pressure. Characterization of the frequency response, the radiation characteristics, and the dynamic range of this new device for underwater sound generation is presented.
... Tadpoles of G. azzurrae regularly emitted calls that we hypothesize are aggressive signals towards conspecifics during prey capture. A similar behavior is known from competitive feeding of fish (Amorim and Hawkins 2000;Amorim et al. 2004). The more complex type of call, a series of up to five pulsed notes (and in rare cases more), was emitted most frequently by tadpoles interacting with conspecifics, and only rarely during capture of invertebrate prey or attacks on tadpoles of other species. ...
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Acoustic communication is widespread among adult stages of terrestrial animals and fish and has also been observed in insect larvae. We report underwater acoustic communication in the larvae of a frog, Gephyromantis azzurrae, from Isalo, a sandstone massif in western Madagascar. According to our field data, these tadpoles live in streams and prefer habitats characterized by comparatively low temperatures, shallow water depth, and a relatively fast current. Feeding experiments indicated that the tadpoles are carnivorous and macrophagous. They consumed insect larvae and, to a lesser extent, small shrimps, and conspecific as well as heterospecific tadpoles. Calls of these tadpoles consisted either of single click notes or of irregular series of various clicks. Some complex calls have a pulsed structure with three to nine indistinct energy pulses. Production of the pulses coincided with rapid closure of the jaw sheaths and often with an upward movement of the body. Calls were emitted while attacking prey and occurred significantly more often when attacking conspecifics. Tadpoles that had not been fed for some time emitted sounds more frequently than those that had been regularly fed. The spectral frequency of the calls differed in tadpole groups of different size and was higher in groups of smaller tadpoles, suggesting that spectral frequency carries some information about tadpole size which might be important during competitive feeding to assess size and strength of competitors. This report differs from those for the larvae of South American horned frogs, Ceratophrys ornata. These are the only other tadpoles for which sound production has reliably been reported but the calls of Ceratophrys tadpoles occur mainly in a defensive context.
... Many species of fish use sound to attract mates, perform courtship displays, defend territory, convey distress, show aggression, and sense obstacles (Myrberg 1997;Zelick et al. 1999;Amorim and Hawkins 2000;Ladich 2004). For communication to work, the receiver must be able to obtain salient information from a signal given the presence of ambient noise or competing signals. ...
Article
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We investigated how morphological differences in the auditory periphery of teleost fishes may relate to hearing capabilities. Two species of western Atlantic sciaenids were examined: weakfish (Cynoscion regalis, Block and Schneider) and spot (Leiostomus xanthurus, Lacepede). These species differ in the anatomical relationship between the swim bladder and the inner ear. In weakfish, the swim bladder has a pair of anterior horns that terminate close to the ear, while there are no extensions of the swim bladder in spot. Thus, the swim bladder in spot terminates at a greater distance from the ear when compared to weakfish. With the use of the auditory brainstem response technique, Cynoscion regalis were found to detect frequencies up to 2000 Hz, while Leiostomus xanthurus detected up to 700 Hz. There were, however, no significant interspecific differences in auditory sensitivity for stimuli between 200 and 700 Hz. These data support the hypothesis that the swim bladder can potentially expand the frequency range of detection.
Article
Continuous data on the condition of fish is necessary to monitor, control and document biological processes in fish farms in real-time, yet acquiring it from a large net-pen environment is challenging. Tools to rapidly detect change in the entire net-pen population are lacking. Automated passive acoustic monitoring is emerging as an effective monitoring tool in wildlife monitoring but has not before been tested in an aquaculture setting. Here, we explore the possibilities for passive acoustic monitoring in an aquaculture perspective. We investigated whether the soundscape of a net-pen could infer information on the condition of the whole net-pen population. In three cases, conducted at two different fish farms, we tested whether Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) influence the soundscape of the net-pen. We provide evidence that Atlantic salmon alter the acoustic environment when compared to an empty net-pen. We observe from a 24-h recording that the acoustic fingerprint of the net-pen varies over time and mirrors the feeding status of the fish. Our results demonstrate the potential for passive acoustic monitoring in fish farms and provide a new direction for data-driven management in aquaculture to improve fish welfare and operational feeding routines.
Article
Scientists need statistics. Increasingly this is accomplished using computational approaches. Freeing readers from the constraints, mysterious formulas and sophisticated mathematics of classical statistics, this book is ideal for researchers who want to take control of their own statistical arguments. It demonstrates how to use spreadsheet macros to calculate the probability distribution predicted for any statistic by any hypothesis. This enables readers to use anything that can be calculated (or observed) from their data as a test statistic and hypothesize any probabilistic mechanism that can generate data sets similar in structure to the one observed. A wide range of natural examples drawn from ecology, evolution, anthropology, palaeontology and related fields give valuable insights into the application of the described techniques, while complete example macros and useful procedures demonstrate the methods in action and provide starting points for readers to use or modify in their own research. Reviews: "The book uses fascinating examples from diverse disciplines to illustrate the power and ease of this approach. The examples, along with clear, step-by-step programming instructions, are described in chapters on programming techniques, test statistics, random variables, resampling, parametric probability distributions, linear models, goodness of fit, and contingency." Keith Hunley & Jessica Gross, Journal of Anthropological Research.
Article
Sciaenid fishes are well known for their ability to make sound. These sounds are produced by the interaction between the sonic muscles and swim bladder, and are often associated with disturbance or reproduction. From experiments conducted in captivity and observations made in the field, I characterized another acoustic behavior of Atlantic Croaker (Micropogonias undulatus), termed “knock” calling, and explored hypotheses regarding its function. Knock calls consisted of one to six transient pulses, with two pulses being most common. Mean call duration was 97 msec (SD = 56, 95% C.I. = 88–106) msec. Dominant frequencies varied inversely with fish size. Knock calling occurred at all times of day, but calling rates peaked at night for Atlantic Croaker stocked in a research pond. In the pond, per capita calling rate (calls/fish/min) was negatively correlated with the stocking density of Atlantic Croaker. In the field, overall calling rates (calls/min) were positively correlated with Atlantic Croaker density. Knock calling was not associated with either distress or reproductive behaviors. Knock calls differed from disturbance calls with regard to the number of pulses and the temporal spacing between pulses. In captivity, knock calls were recorded when adult and juvenile fish were stocked together, as well as when only juvenile fish were stocked. This study suggests that Atlantic Croaker may use acoustic communication more extensively than believed previously. Further, it reveals a discrepancy between the dominant frequencies produced by juvenile Atlantic Croaker and the known frequency range of this species' hearing, prompting questions about possible changes in frequency sensitivity with ontogeny, the ecological costs of sound production, and juvenile behavior.
Article
An extremely wide variety of fish taxa produce sound. Sound production behavior provides an opportunity to study various aspects of fish biology, such as spawning behavior and habitat selection, in a noninvasive manner. Passive acoustics is an active area of ichthyological research. However, fish bioacousticians have generally not published their research in the fisheries literature. Therefore, fisheries scientists may not be fully aware of progress being made in this field or of potential uses for passive acoustic techniques. In this paper, I discuss the evolutionary, physiological, and behavioral aspects of sound production by fishes; investigate the publication patterns of research on fish sound production; review the literature on the application of passive acoustic methods to fisheries research; and suggest ways of designing passive acoustic surveys to optimize the quantity and quality of information obtained. Passive acoustic methods can be an attractive alternative or supplement to traditional fisheries assessment techniques because they are noninvasive, can be conducted at low cost, and can cover a large study area at high spatial and temporal resolution. However, as in all fisheries surveys, research questions should be defined clearly at the outset and careful planning is necessary to obtain the data required to address those questions.
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Most passive acoustics studies focus on daily and seasonal timing and location of choruses of calling fish, particularly sciaenids. Because male toadfish Opsanus spp. are stationary for extended periods, it is possible to extract detailed information about their calls and interactions, making them a powerful model for passive acoustics studies on commercially important species. Toadfishes of both sexes produce a short, pulsatile agonistic grunt, and males produce a “boatwhistle” advertisement call for male-male competition and to attract females. We identify unseen vocal individuals (oyster toadfish O. tau and Gulf toadfish O. beta) near a stationary hydrophone and describe call variability and changes over short- and long-term periods, source levels, call propagation, and directionality. Calls exhibit a directional pattern related to the heart-shaped swim bladder morphology, generating a maximal level behind the fish; grunt frequency spectra allow differentiation of individual callers over multiweek periods. Boatwhistle parameters of oyster toadfish calls change geographically, seasonally, and with temperature, and males call day and night. The Gulf toadfish call rate increases during twilight, when individuals produce shorter and simpler calls. Finally, nearby calling males compete acoustically by increasing their calling rates or producing a grunt (an acoustic tag) during another male's boatwhistle. Toadfishes have been successful models for addressing numerous questions in unseen fish by means of passive acoustics.
Article
Des sons ont été enregistrés sur la côte atlantique française, dans des bassins de terre alimentés en eau de mer. Ils sont caractérisés par des séries continues de sons espacés très régulièrement. Chaque son est composé de un à quatre pulses, chaque pulse ayant une durée de 7,8 ms. Les fréquences principales de ces sons se situent en dessous de 350 Hz. En raison des caractéristiques très particulières de ces sons, de leur modulation temporelle en séries continues, de leur provenance et de leur très grande similitude avec les sons produits par l'anguille américaine (Anguilla rostrata), nous les attribuons à l'anguille européenne (Anguilla anguilla). Pour citer cet article : J.P. Lagardère, B. Ernande, C. R. Biologies 327 (2004).
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Sounds were produced by the topmouth minnow Pseudorasbora parva, a common Eurasian cyprinid, during feeding but not during intraspecific interactions. Feeding sounds were short broadband pulses with main energies between 100 and 800 Hz. They varied in their characteristics (number of single sounds per feeding sequence, sound duration and period, and sound pressure level) depending on the food type (chironomid larvae, Tubifex worms and flake food). The loudest sounds were emitted when food was taken up at the water surface, most probably reflecting ‘suctorial’ feeding. Auditory sensitivities were determined between 100 and 4000 Hz utilizing the auditory evoked potentials recording technique. Under laboratory conditions and in the presence of natural ambient noise recorded in Lake Neusiedl in eastern Austria, best hearing sensitivities were between 300 and 800 Hz (57 dB re 1 μPa v. 72 dB in the presence of ambient noise). Threshold-to-noise ratios were positively correlated to the sound frequency. The correlation between sound spectra and auditory thresholds revealed that P. parva can detect conspecific sounds up to 40 cm distance under ambient noise conditions. Thus, feeding sounds could serve as an auditory cue for the presence of food during foraging.
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The role of sound production of the Mozambique tilapia Oreochromis mossambicus in agonistic and mating interactions observed during hierarchy formation and in established groups was examined. Only territorial males produced sounds, during male–female and male–male courtship interactions and during pit-related activities (e.g. dig, hover and still in the nest). Sound production rate was positively correlated with courting rate. Although sounds in other cichlids are typically emitted in early stages of courtship, O. mossambicus produced sounds in all phases, but especially during late stages of courtship, including spawning. It is suggested that the acoustic emissions in this species may play a role in advertising the presence and spawning readiness of males and in synchronizing gamete release.
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This paper discusses the nonlinearity of fish acoustic signals by using the surrogate data method. We compare the difference of three test statistics—time-irreversibility T rev, correlation dimension D 2 and auto mutual information function I between the original data and the surrogate data. We come to the conclusion that there exists nonlinearity in the fish acoustic signals and there exist deterministic nonlinear components; therefore nonlinear dynamic theory can be used to analyze fish acoustic signals.
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Sciaenid fishes (Family Sciaenidae) could potentially serve as models for understanding the relationship between structure and function in the teleost auditory system, as they show a broad range of variation in not only the structure of the ear but also in the relationship between the ear and swim bladder. In this study, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used to investigate inner ear ultrastructure of the Atlantic croaker (Micropogonias undulatus), spotted seatrout (Cynoscion nebulosus), kingfish (Menticirrhus americanus) and spot (Leiostomus xanthurus). These species reflect the diversity of otolith and swim bladder morphology in sciaenids. The distribution of different hair cell bundle types, as well as hair cell orientation patterns on the saccular and lagenar maculae of these fishes were similar to one another. The rostral ends of the saccular sensory epithelia (maculae) were highly expanded in a dorsal-ventral direction in the Atlantic croaker and spotted seatrout as compared to the kingfish and spot. Also, ciliary bundles of the saccular maculae contained more stereocilia in the Atlantic croaker and spotted seatrout as compared with kingfish and spot. The shapes of the lagenar maculae were similar in all four species. In the Atlantic croaker and spotted seatrout lagenar maculae, the number of stereocilia per bundle was greater than those for the kingfish and spot. Given that saccular macula shape and numbers of stereocilia per bundle correlate with swim bladder proximity to the ear in the studied species, it is possible that inner ear ultrastructure could be indicative of auditory ability in fishes.
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A foraging model was developed to predict the optimal diet breadth and maximum energetic intake of a given-sized fish foraging in each of three aquatic habitats: the open water, vegetation, and bare sediments. Model parameters of prey encounter rates and prey handling times were quantified as functions of fish size, prey density, and prey size through a series of laboratory feeding experiments using the bluegill sunfish (Lepomis macrochirus). Results of these experiments show both searching ability and prey handling efficiency to increase with increasing fish size. Predictions of prey size selection and optimal habitat use based upon maximizing energetic gain were then examined in a small Michigan lake for three size classes of bluegills. Bluegills > 100 mm standard length were highly size selective in their feeding and their diets closely matched predictions of an optimal diet model. From two estimates of relative prey visibilities I show that these fish selected larger prey items than would be predicted if prey were consumed "as encountered." Habitat use of large bluegills was also shown to maximize foraging return as fish switched from utilizing vegetation-living prey to utilizing open-water zooplankton as relative foraging profitabilities in the two habitats changed across the summer. Bluegills
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The ecology of gurnards was investigated from a series of collections in the Greek seas (Saronikos, Thermaikos and Pagassitikos gulf). A total of 190 operations took place every three months in the above areas between spring 1977 and winter 1978. Shining gurnard (Aspitrigla obscura) is the only species which was not found during our research study. Grey gurnard (Eulrigla gurnardus) was fished almost exclusively in Pagassitikos, yellow gurnard (Trigla lucema) in Thermaikos while all the other species presented their maximum abundance in Saronikos. Large scaled gurnard (I.epidutrigla cavillonel was caught in large quantities in all the sampling areas, wh·ile I.epidolrigla dieuzeidei was found in Saronikos and Thermaikos. Abundance, length-frequency, vertical distribution data, biology of selected species (time of reproduction and recruitment, sex ratio etc) for each sampling area wereanalysed
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The distribution patterns and feeding habits of 2 triglids, Trigloporus lastoviza and Lepidotrigla cavillone, were investigated for fish collected in experimental trawl surveys carried out along the Cretan continental shelf over 4 yr. Despite their distribution overlap, depth and temperature selection differs considerably between species. T. lastoviza tended to select shallow depths and warm temperatures among those available, whereas L. cavillone was distributed throughout the exploited area and no significant temperature selection was found. Furthermore, no evidence of any size-depth relationship in either fish species was detected. Stomach content analysis revealed that both species were carnivores, feeding mainly on benthic invertebrates, and that each species consumed a narrow range of prey species with no significant dietary overlap. Classification and ordination of the gravimetric and numerical contributions of prey species in their diets demonstrated that the dietary samples of the 2 species were distinct. Interspecific dietary overlap was less than intraspecific overlap between size classes and between months. Trophic diversity was higher for T. lastoviza and increased significantly with fish size, while no effect of size on the low dietary breadth of L. cavillone was found. Species differences in preference and utilization of prey are related to their distribution patterns. In particular, T. lastoviza exhibited the most restricted distribution and appeared to have a broader trophic niche than L, cavillone, which occurs in a wider depth range. The results suggest that the ability of these species to exploit particular habitats and/or specific prey characteristics is an important feature of predator foraging that allows them to segregate their feeding niche at the depth range at which they co-occur.
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Previous work has shown that neurons in the sonic motor nucleus of the oyster toadfish, Opsanus tau, grow larger in males than in females and increase in size and number for 7–8 years. In order to correlate postnatal motoneuron development with growth of target muscle fibers, we examined the ontogeny of sonic muscle growth. Both the swim bladder and attached sonic muscles increased in size for life and were, respectively, 20 and 44% larger in males than in females. The muscle and swim bladder grew at an equivalent rate in males, whereas in females, muscle growth did not keep up with bladder growth. The number of muscle fibers increased about 16-fold (31 000 to 488 000), and mean minimum fiber diameter increased almost 3-fold (11.5 to 28.6 μm) as fish grew. Fibers were 15.3% larger in females than in males (adjusted means of 21.9 and 19.0 μm, respectively), but males had 47% more fibers per muscle (adjusted means of 307 000 and 209 000). Muscle fibers also exhibited morphological changes. Most of the fibers in two juveniles had yet to differentiate the core of sarcoplasm characteristic of sonic muscle, whereas the largest cells in mature males and females tended to have multiple pockets of sarcoplasm and a contractile cylinder split into fragments. Multiple pockets in large fibers and the presence of smaller fibers in males than females are interpreted as adaptations for increased speed and fatigue resistance.
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The juveniles of several species of freshwater fish search for zooplankton prey using a strategy intermediate between cruise and ambush: "saltatory search" (SS) or "pause–travel" search. Unlike ambush or cruise search, saltatory search involves scanning for prey throughout the search space and only during the brief stationary periods that punctuate repositioning movements. If no prey are located, these fish swim a short distance, stop, and scan again. In this paper, we describe the ontogeny of prey search in a cyprinid, the golden shiner (Notemigonus crysoleucas), a species whose search pattern has not been examined. Swimming and pursuit speeds and prey location distances increased with fish size. Golden shiner larvae searched for prey throughout the search space and only during the pauses that punctuated swimming movements. Only 1–10% of all of the stationary pauses that punctuated swimming movements were followed by attacks on prey. We conclude that golden shiner larvae employ a saltatory-search strategy similar to that described in other zooplanktivorous fish and their larvae.
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The acoustic repertoire of captive grey gurnard Eutrigla gurnardus during competitive feeding consisted of three types of sound: knocks, grunts and growls. Knocks were audible as a single sound, whereas grunts and growls were perceived as longer, pulsed sounds to the human ear. Typically, knocks were composed of 1–2 pulses, grunts of 4–8 pulses and growls >10 pulses. Growls were longer and had shorter pulse periods than grunts. All sound types had peak frequencies of c. 500 Hz. The sequences of behaviours observed during feeding interactions suggest that grey gurnard obtain food both by scramble and contest tactics. Competing fish emitted knocks mainly while grasping a food item and also during other non-agonistic behav-iour, suggesting that knock production may reflect a state of feeding arousal but could also serve as a warning of the forager's presence to nearby competitors. Grunts were mainly emitted during frontal displays, which were the most frequent behavioural act preceding grasps, suggesting that they may play a role in deterring other fish from gaining access to disputed food items.
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We investigated acoustic and visual communication concurrently in wild caught adult and captive-born, first generation offspring of the East African Rift Lake cichlid fish Tramitichromis intermedius. Only males emit sound during courtship. Sound production is always accompanied by quivering, but quiver behavior is not always accompanied by sound. This separation of quivering and sound supports the hypothesis that sound production is intentional serving a communicative role. As spawning nears, both sound production and quiver behavior increase. In terms of the ontogeny of sound production, the first observation of courtship occurs just days before the first spawning event and the first sound emission accompanies the first courtship activity. The accompaniment of quivering with sound as well as the escalation of the two behaviors with the approach of spawning follows similar patterns in wild caught and captive-born males. The tight correlation between behavior and sound production in both groups indicates their simultaneous performance plays an important role in reproduction. It is probable that the ability to produce sound and perform quiver behavior at the same time may be a measure of mate quality.
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Optimality models designed to explain the occurrence of feeding territoriality predict that the frequency or intensity of aggression will peak at intermediate levels of food abundance. To test whether this prediction applies to the competition for ephemeral patches of food, we manipulated food abundance over a broad range of values in two separate experiments (24- and 64-fold, respectively) while monitoring the aggressive behaviour of juvenile convict cichlids,Archocentrus nigrofasciatum , competing for the food. In both experiments, the rate of aggression was low when food was scarce, increased as food abundance increased, and decreased when food was provided in excess. This dome-shaped pattern of aggression was caused partly by higher encounter rates between fish and partly by a higher proportion of encounters resulting in aggression, when food was at intermediate levels of abundance. Our results suggest that convict cichlids display behavioural flexibility: in response to changes in food abundance, they appear to change both their likelihood of using aggression when encountering a conspecific and their willingness to enter an occupied patch.
Chapter
A most intriguing aspect of social behavior is that eventually the topic of communication must be addressed. This is understandable because specific acts performed by one individual often alter the likelihood that specific acts will be performed by another. An appropriate question then arises: Did such a performance involve communication? Here, the thoughtful worker often encounters a most elusive concept since “communication” means quite different things to different people.
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Vocalization during agonistic behaviour is widespread in fishes and has been described in representatives of about 30 families. Many species utter sounds when disturbed or caught, probably to startle predators. During aggressive intraspecific encounters fishes mainly vocalize while attacking or fighting, and only rarely in defense situations or when fleeing. Acoustic signals are typically accompanied by visual displays which complicates analysis of sound function. Sounds are mostly short and composed of a series of low frequency pulses. Different types of agonistic acoustic signals as in Polypterus are rare. Males are often more vocal than females but in some species e.g. cottids and gouramis sexual differences in agonistic calls are small. Agonistic vocalizations may affect outcome of contests, defense of territories, and inhibit or increase aggression. Correlation between several sound characteristics and outcome of encounters in Trichopsis vittata indicates that sound parameters are used for assessing fighting ability or motivation of rivals.
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The sound-producing mechanism of Chelidonichthys kumu (Lesson and Garnot) is described. Descriptions are also given of sounds produced among groups of fish of different sizes, as well as the sound of each individual in the group. Sound patterns and peaks of dominant frequency do not change with size of the fish or of its swim-bladder. The dominant frequency range varies slightly in fish of very different sizes.
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Evidence is provided that the ''chirp,'' a sound commonly produced by males of the bicolor damselfish (family: Pomacentridae) possesses an anatomical constraint: The peak frequency within its power spectrum reflects a clear inverse relationship to body size. For every 1-mm change in the standard length of a male (range: 50-69 mm), the peak frequency of its sounds shifts by approximately 20 Hz. The ultimate constraint appears to be the volume of an individual's gas bladder. This provides an individualistic feature to the sounds of different sized colony members, all of whose sounds possess an otherwise extremely stereotyped temporal pattern of their included pulses. This finding may aid in clarifying the mechanism that provides the clue for the already established acoustical recognition of individuals within colonies of the species.
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It has long been known that sounds are important to fish. Isaac Walton advised anglers ‘to be patient and forbear swearing, lest they be heard’. A wide range of species, including many that are commercially valuable, emit sounds as part of their social behaviour (Tavolga 1976), and several species have been shown to be acutely sensitive to underwater sounds. However, before we consider the acoustical behaviour of fish in more detail, we need to understand what sound is, how sounds are created, and how they are transmitted through water.
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In this study a detailed analysis of acoustical parameters of sounds produced by male Trichopsis vittatus, T. schalleri and T. pumilus during agonistic behaviour is reported. The calls consist of croaks which are composed of double pulses generated by modified pectoral fins. Calls of the three species are different in main frequency, number of double pulses within a croak and double pulse period. Croaks are uttered in series only in T. vittatus. Sound pressure levels are highest in T. pumilus, the smallest species. Amplitude of individual pulses of a double pulse are similar in T. pumilus and T. schalleri. Main frequency is negatively correlated with body mass in all species, but there is no correlation between sound pressure level and body mass. Differences in the calls of the three species suggest that T. schalleri is a distinct species. Furthermore, results indicate spectral characteristics and sound intensity could be of biological importance in fish.
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In many large animals, changes in fighting ability within breeding seasons or across the lifetime of individuals are related to changes in body condition but not to obvious changes in size. In situations where a conflict of interests is likely to lead to a fight, we might consequently expect opponents to assess each other on traits which are related to variation in body condition. This appears to be the case among red deer stags. Competing stags engage in roaring ‘contests’ in situations where fights are likely. Observation combined with playback experiments showed that stags answered each others’ roars and that their roaring rate was related to that of their opponent. Both individual differences and temporal changes in roaring rates were correlated with changes in fighting ability and roaring contests usually occurred only where there was no obvious size discrepancy between opponents. The study suggested that assessment procedures probably continued during the parallel walks which commonly succeed roaring contests.
Article
The Chirp-sound, produced by males of the bicolor damselfish Pomacentrus partitus, plays an important role in influencing the behavior of conspecific females during the pre-spawning period. Evidence is provided here that the same sound possesses another function, i.e., it is a vocal, territorial "keep-out" signal. A field-study, conducted on a reef off southern Florida, showed that such sounds, when transmitted by an underwater loudspeaker from unguarded territories (residents removed), can inhibit territorial intrusion by neighboring male conspecifics for a significantly longer time than when such sounds are not transmitted from a territory. Evidence was also obtained that the visual presence of the resident was a more effective deterrent to intrusion, however, than sound-transmission. Finally, a significant relationship was found between the size of a given territory and the time of territory-intrusion by a neighboring conspecific male, suggesting that neighbors are aware of the resource-holding potential of territorial residents. A brief laboratory study also indicated that the Chirp-sounds of a resident were a more effective deterrent to territorial intrusion than Chirp-sounds of non-residents. Transmission of other sounds from unguarded territories, including random noise and feeding stridulations by residents and non-residents, showed no deterrent effect on territorial intrusion.
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A brief history of the development of underwater bioacoustics (from the early 1960s on) is provided, particularly as it relates to the theoretical problems confronting directional hearing in fishes and its experimental resolution as well as the resulting change that occurred in the interests of many workers, i.e., from understanding the acoustical and associated functional problems confronting the whole animal to understanding the neural and sensory mechanisms of hearing. Several topics are then discussed: (1) functional aspects of acoustical communication (interplay among sensory modalities and sound structure), (2) functional aspects of interception (some insights into old problems), and (3) orientation in space (independent of animal interactions) by fishes and marine mammals. The author concludes that although studies are demonstrating an expanding functional role of sound in the lives of fishes and marine mammals, speculation continues to play a large role. Such speculation has strong heuristic value, however, when based on careful observation and an awareness of the often complex nature of underwater acoustics.
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ANIMALS often settle disputes by means of conventional displays. It has been suggested that this enables the contestants to assess each other's strength without resorting to a serious fight1. If this is true then we would expect natural selection to favour displays which give reliable information about fighting potential; assessment signals that are easily mimicked by weak individuals will not be evolutionary stable2,3. Often the outcome of a contest will depend simply on who is the larger, and many displays seem to involve assessment of body size1,4. In this paper we show experimentally that male toads, Bufo bufo, settle contests for the possession of females by means of vocalisations that give a reliable signal of body size and hence of fighting ability.
Book
Animals regularly come into conflict with other members of their own species; this book is about the behaviour used by animals (both human and non-human) to resolve conflicts of interest and how aggression relates to their ecological and social environment. A wide range of important issues are introduced, the scene having first been set by a survey of the variety of aggressive behaviour shown by different animal groups. . . . The book goes on to look at different facets of the biological study of animal conflict, taking in turn motivational studies and the role of environmental stimuli; the hormonal and neurophysiological bases of agonistic behaviour; genetic and environmental influences on its development; the consequences of conflict for the individual, population, community and species; the evolutionary history of fighting behaviour and its adaptive significance. Finally, the relevance of these different kinds of study to our understanding of human aggression is discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Article
Body density of streaked gurnards Trigloporus lastoviza is anomalously low (mean 1·043 g ml−1) for a benthic fish and overlaps with that of pelagic fish such as cod and lumpfish. It is clear that the heavy armour of gurnards is offset by buoyancy provided by the swimbladder. Swimbladder volume is a mean 3·88% of gurnard volume. Evidence is given to indicate that this is quite large for a marine teleost: data are also presented to show that the ‘5% of fish volume for marine fish, 7% for freshwater fish’ rule for swimbladder volumes is unreliable.
Article
The development of agonistic behaviour and vocalization in the croaking gourami Trichopsis vittata was studied from hatching to sexual maturity (4 months of age). Initial interactions started when fry were 11 days old and consisted of approach and flight in a feeding context. More complex threat patterns appeared during dyadic encounters as fish grew older. Lateral display (spreading of median fins in a lateral position) first occurred during the third week, circling shortly afterwards and pectoral fin beating when fish were 7 weeks old. Rapid pectoral fin beating was first accompanied by sound emission at 8 weeks. Initially, croaking sounds were built up mainly of a series of single pulses, each one produced by one pectoral fin. Later, single pulses gave way to double pulses. Furthermore, pulse period and number of pulses increased, while the dominant frequency of croaks decreased significantly with age. After vocalization was established, frontal display, mouth biting and retreat behaviour occurred at the age of 10 weeks. Initially, young exhibited vertical bars which gave way to dots and horizontal bars at 8 weeks when fish started to vocalize. The order of appearance of behavioural patterns during ontogeny corresponds to the order of appearance in fights between adults. This is the first study demonstrating that the ontogenetic development of social signalling comprises characteristic changes in behaviour, vocalization and coloration in a teleost fish.
Article
In agonistic interactions with conspecifics, skunk loaches (Botia horae) typically exhibit lateral displays, attacks, and produce a sound (a “click”). Four experiments were conducted to determine the functional significance of the click sound. Behaviors of resident fish were monitored while characteristics of their shelter and the size or type of intruder fish introduced were varied. Manipulations in the four experiments involved: 1) the configuration of the available shelter; 2) the size or recent history of intruder fish; 3) playbacks of “click” sounds or aquarium noise; or 4) muting of resident fish. Lateral displays, attacks, and sounds produced by residents were monitored, and the responses of residents were analyzed in terms of the functional significance of “click” sounds to juvenile skunk loaches.
Article
Trichopsis vittatus emits high amplitude sounds during agonistic encounters with conspecifics. The sound producing organ is derived from the structural components of the pectoral fins.The study involved muting a sample of subjects by removing two pectoral fin tendons without any further restriction in movements and behaviour. Mute and unaltered males were then placed together in pairs and the following agonistic behavioural elements were determined: attacks, lateral displays, sound production and frontal displays.Soniferous males had a higher probability of winning contests when size differences were small. In pairs with big size ratios, the larger males were more often successful. Besides visual and acoustical signals, lateral line stimuli seem to play no role in threatening displays.These results demonstrate that vocalization during agonistic encounters is important for becoming dominant in specific circumstances. Because of correlation between main frequencies and size, sound emission might be a very effective method of assessing the physical strength of an opponent. Web Page: http://hekratochvil.npage.at
Article
HAT are the conditions which facilitate or hinder the evolution of ter- ritoriality? No generally accepted solution to this problem has yet been found-perhaps because too specific an answer has been sought for too general a question. Instead, the diversity of systems of territorial and other aggressive behavior has come to be well appreciated, as evidenced in recent reviews of territoriality (e.g., Kuroda, 1960; Carpenter, 1953; Hinde, 1956), and the impossibility of providin g a specific answer applicable to all types of territoriality is now realized. Arguments over which are the primary selection pressures leading to cer- tain types of territoriality continue, however, as shown in the recent contribu- tions bearing on the "function" of territoriality by Stenger (1958)) Wynne- Edwards (1962), Kalela (1958)) Kuroda (1960), Peters (1962)) and others. The present paper offers a new orientation to the problem by presenting a general theory for the evolution of territoriality with special reference to its diversity among species. Since most of the previous theories have already been shown to be untenable or severely limited (see especially Carpenter, 1958; Tinbergen, 1957; and Hinde, 1956, for criticism of them), little attention will be given to them here. A theoretical framework for the consideration of some of the mechanisms promoting and limiting the evolution of territorial behavior is outlined in Fig. 1. Aggressive behavior is generally employed by individuals in the acquisition of goals which tend to maximize individual survival and reproduction. Natu- ral selection should favor aggressive behavior within a population when these goals are consistently and easily accessible to individuals through aggression but should not favor it when they are not accessible. For example, when a food supply cannot be feasibly defended, because of its mobility or transient nature , generally no territorial system is evolved to defend it; and the terri- tory, if present, may be restricted only to the nest and the area reachable by the parents on the nest. Such cases are found in colonial sea birds, nomadic and social feeding passerine species, and aerial feeders. In these species the goal of increased or guaranteed food supply is unlikely to be attained through aggression. On the other hand, if the individual depends for its nesting requirements,
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In four scatter-fed groups of Tilapia rendalli, the distribution of food between individuals was not significantly different from that expected if the food was shared uniformly between all the fish in the group for nine of the 12 radiographic assessments of feeding behaviour. Individual fish maintained the same feeding rank over time, indicating a stable feeding hierarchy, in only one of the four scatter feeding groups. In contrast, in four point source feeding groups, the distribution of food between individuals differed significantly from uniformity in 10 of the 12 radiographic assessments of feeding behaviour and stable feeding hierarchies were maintained over time in three of the four groups. Thus, scatter feeding promoted a more uniform distribution of food between individuals within the group and prevented the formation of feeding hierarchies. There was no significant correlation between individual feeding rank and dominance index in all four scatter feeding groups. In contrast, significant positive correlations were found between individual feeding rank and dominance index in all four point source feeding groups. The results of this study confirm that feeding rank can be used as a correlate of relative social status under defensible feeding conditions.
Article
The degree of monopolization of resources is thought to be higher in groups that compete by interference than by exploitation. However, the monopolization of resources will presumably depend on (1) whether the dispersion of resources is economically defendable, and (2) whether some competitors have the ability to defend these resource distributions and hence capitalize on this potential. We tested for an interaction between the effects of temporal resource dispersion and aggressiveness on the degree of resource monopolization in a foraging system. Two species of fish differing markedly in aggressiveness (high: convict cichlids, Archocentrus nigrofasciatus; low: goldfish, Carrasius auratus) were allowed to compete intra-specifically in groups of four for food that was either potentially defendable (arrived asynchronously) or not (arrived synchronously). As predicted, the monopolization of food, measured as the coefficient of variation of food eaten within groups, was significantly higher in the defendable than in the undefendable treatment for convict cichlids but not for goldfish. However, the monopolization of food was higher in the non-aggressive goldfish than in the aggressive convict cichlids. Future studies should quantify and compare the monopolization in species that compete primarily via scramble competition to those that use primarily resource defence.
Article
The role of sound production of the Mozambique tilapia Oreochromis mossambicus in agonistic and mating interactions observed during hierarchy formation and in established groups was examined. Only territorial males produced sounds, during male–female and male–male courtship interactions and during pit-related activities (e.g. dig, hover and still in the nest). Sound production rate was positively correlated with courting rate. Although sounds in other cichlids are typically emitted in early stages of courtship, O. mossambicus produced sounds in all phases, but especially during late stages of courtship, including spawning. It is suggested that the acoustic emissions in this species may play a role in advertising the presence and spawning readiness of males and in synchronizing gamete release.
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Although juvenile chum salmon,Oncorhynchus keta, are generally regarded as a schooling fish, when presented with a defensible point-source of food, some individuals abandon schooling, aggressively subordinate competitors, and monopolize food. When food is removed, fish gradually abandon solitary agonistic behaviors and return to schooling behavior. Agonism increases in frequency and intensity as juveniles age. The ability to alternate facultatively between schooling and solitary agonistic behavior may enable juvenile chum to respond to local patterns of food distribution and predation risk. The ontogenetic increase in agonism may result in school dispersal as fish move from the estuary into coastal waters, and may well reflect a shift in the costs versus the benefits of schooling as fish mature and become less vulnerable to predation.
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Individual Midas cichlids (Cichlasoma citrinellum) show persistent differences in aggressive behavior toward dummy fish. The starting question was whether the level of such behavior can be used to predict the winner of a fight. In the first (long-term) experiment two fish were matched for size, color, and sex. After 24 h the opaque barrier separating the 2 fish was removed; they immediately behaved aggressively. Scores for aggression toward dummies did not predict the winners, nor did taking the initiative in escalation. But weight did foretell the winners, who averaged only 2% heavier than their opponents. The conventional display phase of such fights was brief (20% of total duration), and escalation was rapid. Both winners and losers sustained damage, but losers accumulated damage faster than winners. In the subsequent (short-term) experiment the fish were separated only 1–2 h. Now aggression scores predicted winners, and winners were the fish who escalated. Weight of fish had no effect. The conventional phase was relatively much longer, about half the length of the fight. Losers accumulated damage at the same rate as the losers in the long-term experiment, but the fights were shorter; winners suffered little damage. The fish had difficulty assessing one another. Fighting prowess was remarkably uniform when weight was factored out. Daring to escalate, in contrast, varied among individuals and correlated with aggression scores. Prowess (=weight) determined the outcome in the long-term experiment, which may find its parallel in nature in intraterritorial disputes. Daring to escalate determined the winner in the short-term experiment; this may be comparable to establishing a territory in nature. Prowess probably results from strong directional selection because it has low costs and high benefits. In contrast, daring is subject to bi-directional selection because both costs and benefits are high. Resource holding potential is conventionally viewed as deriving from prowess of self and opponent and value of resource; to that one must add the individual's inherent aggressiveness.
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With conditions of residency and recent experience held constant, staged contests between males of the Mozambique mouthbrooder, Oreochromis mossambicus (Peters) were settled on the basis of size. Contest length was not correlated with the degree of size asymmetry, and giving-up time was apparently random, although the contests were not wars of attrition. Contest intensity was found to decrease as size disparity increased. Contrary to the predictions of game theory, eventual winners and losers of encounters were found to show significant differences in the frequencies of several behavioural measures, even in the early part of the contest. It is suggested that there are circumstances where there may be costs as well as benefits resulting from the concealing of intensions.
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Game theoretical models predict that the assessment of relative fighting ability and motivation is a process fundamental to resolving most contests. Demonstrations of assessment must (1) identify characters associated with fighting success and (2) establish a correlation between opponent asymmetry in these characters and the costs of fighting. Pair-wise contests between male house crickets revealed that winners were generally heavier than their opponents, although this effect varied with the degree of asymmetry in mass and the presence or absence of burrows. Prior burrow residency and initiating a fighting bout provided additional, but small advantages in fighting success. Fight winners performed a larger repertoire of agonistic tactics, more total acts, and escalated more frequently to energetically costly tactics than did their opponents. As a result, the winner's total energy expenditure usually exceeded the loser’s. In accordance with the core prediction of assessment models, the cumulative energetic costs of combat for both opponents increased with decreases in asymmetry of mass and energy expenditure rate. These results suggest that house crickets resolve contests by assessing asymmetries in both body size and their relative use of costly tactics. The relative energetic costs incurred by combatants may reliably signal relative energy reserves and contribute to the active assessment of fighting ability, rather than simply accrue as a by-product of combat.