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Antifungal Activity of the Essential Oil of Basil (Ocimum basilicum)
Abstract
The antifungal and fungicidal effects of two chemotypes of basil (Ocimum basilicum) oil and its major individual components were studied in a series of in vitro and in vivo experiments. Mycelial growth of the plant pathogenic fungus Botrytis fabae was reduced significantly by both the methyl chavicol chemotype oil and the linalol chemotype oil, and the major individual components of the oils all reduced fungal growth, with methyl chavicol, linalol, eugenol and eucalyptol reducing growth significantly. Combining the pure oil components in the same proportions as found in the whole oil led to very similar reductions in fungal growth, suggesting that the antifungal effects of the whole oils were due primarily to the major components. When the fungus was exposed to the oils in liquid culture, growth was reduced by concentrations considerably smaller than those used in the Petri dish studies. Botrytis fabae and the rust fungus Uromyces fabae were also controlled in vivo, with the whole oils of both chemotypes, as well as pure methyl chavicol and linalol, reducing infection of broad bean leaves significantly. Most effective control of fungal infection was achieved if the treatments were applied 3 h postinoculation.
... Volatile organic compounds have been shown to inhibit the growth of microorganisms, especially those responsible for post-harvest diseases such as Aspergillus spp. [10][11][12], Colletotrichum acutatum [13], Botrytis cinerea [14], and Penicillium italicum [15]. They have also been extensively used in insect pest management to control rice weevil (Sitophilus oryzae) [16], bean weevil (Acanthoscelides obtectus) [17], and cotton bollworm (Helicoverpa armigera) [18]. ...
... [90]. It was also found that the mycelial growth of Botrytis fabae was significantly reduced by the basil oil types that were rich in methyl chavicol (or estragole) and linalool, while methyl chavicol, linalool, eugenol, and eucalyptol significantly reduced the overall growth of the fungus [10]. antifungal agent (antagonistic effect and reduction in mean disease rating of root rot in the in vivo test) ...
... The essential oils from Ocimum spp. were able to inhibit the fungi causing the post-harvest diseases of the tropical fruits [10,13,14,101]. This also includes Colletotrichum spp., the fungus that causes anthracnose disease in common tropical fruits. ...
Basils of the genus Ocimum are aromatic plants grown widely throughout the tropical and temperate regions. The essential oils obtained from their aerial parts are enriched with volatile organic compounds with high market demand for food and pharmaceutical industries. The volatile organic compounds have been shown to exhibit biological activities. Therefore, their novel applications have been extensively explored in the last few decades. The most widely available basils in the tropical areas include white holy basil (O. sanctum var. Shyama), red holy basil (O. sanctum var. Rama), Thai basil (O. basilicum var. thyrsiflorum), lemon basil (O. citriodorum), and tree basil (O. gratissimum). Over 60 volatiles of different classes have been exclusively described, and some of them could be useful as biomarkers for genotype specification. The major volatile ingredient is the phenylpropanoids, such as methyl eugenol, which has the potential as a natural product for mitigating Oriental fruit fly (Bactrocera dorsalis) during tropical fruit production. Moreover, basil essential oils are also used to control diseases of the fruits during post-harvest storage. As a result, the application of basil essential oils as a sustainable defect control strategy for tropical fruit value chains seems intriguing. This review provides comprehensive information on plant taxonomy and volatile compositions of the essential oil fractions from different basil species. Their biological activities and applications are also discussed, mainly during the pre- and post-production of tropical fruits. Additionally, the available techniques to enhance the efficacy of the volatile active compounds are also described.
... [8] Due to the recent rise in acquired drug resistance in fungal infections, researchers have been looking into alternatives for traditional allopathic -azole antifungal treatments such as peptide-based, [2] and plant-derived essential oil-based such as Eucalyptus globulus and Ocimum basilicum. [9,10] The utilization of natural sources and treatments has been imperative in developing new active molecules with unique chemical skeletons and bioactivities. [4] There has been a considerable amount of success and advancement in the use of peptide-based antifungal therapy found in both plant and animal kingdoms. ...
... basilicum) oil have been studied in vitro and showed that two chemotypes found in the essential oil link to its antifungal properties. [10] The chemotypes methyl chavicol and linalol were found to be equally effective in the same amount of quantity administered, reducing fungal growth by 78% 4 days post-inoculation. [10] E. globulus is a well-studied oil that shows fungicidal properties and is used in the treatment of other existing conditions such as diabetes mellitus. ...
... [10] The chemotypes methyl chavicol and linalol were found to be equally effective in the same amount of quantity administered, reducing fungal growth by 78% 4 days post-inoculation. [10] E. globulus is a well-studied oil that shows fungicidal properties and is used in the treatment of other existing conditions such as diabetes mellitus. [11] In a study on normal and diabetic rats, the antifungal properties of E. globulus essential oil were tested using sixty normoglycemic male rats randomly divided into six groups. ...
... Chemical components and their percentages of the total EO content in six EOs determined by GC-MS are presented in Tables 1 and 2. Nine chemical compounds were identified from basil EOs with the total percentage of 95.1%, in which methyl chavicol (61.3%) and linalool (24.8%) were the main components (Table 1). This finding was in agreement with the study of Oxemham et al. [19], Grayer et al. [20], Marotti et al. [21], and Sishu et al. [22]. Basil varieties could be classified into two groups on the basis of EO chemotype: methyl chavicol and linalool [19]. ...
... This finding was in agreement with the study of Oxemham et al. [19], Grayer et al. [20], Marotti et al. [21], and Sishu et al. [22]. Basil varieties could be classified into two groups on the basis of EO chemotype: methyl chavicol and linalool [19]. Methyl chavicol and linalool chemotye contain methyl chavicol and linalool, respectively, as the most abundant component in EOs [19][20][21]. ...
... Basil varieties could be classified into two groups on the basis of EO chemotype: methyl chavicol and linalool [19]. Methyl chavicol and linalool chemotye contain methyl chavicol and linalool, respectively, as the most abundant component in EOs [19][20][21]. Basil EOs in this study could be considered as methyl chavicol chemotype. In the study of Oxemham et al. [19], the methyl chavicol chemotype contained methyl chavicol (76.1%) and linalol (18.6%), while linalol chemotype had linalol, eugenol, eucalyptol, and caryophyllene of 53%, 12.4%, 7.7%, and 5% of the whole oil, respectively. ...
Anthracnose disease caused by Colletotrichum spp. makes heavy losses for post-harvest mangoes of Cat Hoa Loc variety during storage, packaging, and transportation. The synthetic fungicides are commonly used to control the disease, but they are not safe for consumers’ health and environment. This study was aimed to investigate the use of essential oils (EOs) as the safe alternative control. Pathogen was isolated from the infected Cat Hoa Loc mangoes and identified by morphology and DNA sequencing of the ITS region. Six EOs (cinnamon, basil, lemongrass, peppermint, coriander, and orange) were chemically analyzed by GC–MS. The antifungal activity of EOs was studied in vitro and in vivo. The results showed that the isolated pathogen was Colletotrichum acutatum. Cinnamon, basil, and lemongrass EOs effectively inhibited the growth of C. acutatum in descending order of cinnamon, basil, and lemongrass. However, they (except basil oil) severely damaged fruit peels. The antifungal activity was closely related to the main compounds of EOs. Basil EOs effectively controlled anthracnose development on Cat Hoa Loc mangoes artificially infected with C. acutatum, and its effectiveness was comparable to that of fungicide treatment. Consequently, basil EOs can be used as a biocide to control anthracnose on post-harvest Cat Hoa Loc mangoes.
... From the previous studies, natural products such as essential oil are used for the postharvest disease control of ripe mango (D'agostino et al., 2019;Danh et al., 2021). Interestingly, essential oil from basil species (Ocimum spp.) are proven to have antipathogenic activities against fungi, including those cause postharvest mango disease (Danh et al., 2021;Oxenham et al., 2005). Nonetheless, the types, limited use and efficacy of essential oil has not been explored extensively. ...
... The percentage increased with the increasing concentration up to almost 90% at 1500 µL L -1 air space. Several studies reported that essential oil from Ocimum spp. was able to inhibit fungi cause postharvest diseases of fruits disease (Danh et al., 2021;Lopez-Reyes et al., 2013;Mohammadi et al., 2021;Oxenham et al., 2005). This also includes the Colletotrichum spp., the fungus caused anthracnose disease in mangoes fruit (Danh et al., 2021). ...
... In nature, essential oils are produced by various plant materials as secondary metabolites that can have significant biological effects on other organisms (Mohan et al. 2011;Palazzolo et al. 2013). Essential oils play an important role in protecting plants as antibacterials, antivirals, antifungals, insecticides and also against herbivores by reducing their desire for such plants (Oxenham et al. 2005;Palazzolo et al. 2013). Citrus plants have an important commercial value mainly for the food industry and for health care products, for example, for use in aromatherapy. ...
Germany is the world's second largest producer of hops, with a long history of producing high‐quality hops for beer brewing purposes. Citrus bark cracking viroid (CBCVd) is a well‐known pathogen of citrus plants, causing mild and often tolerated infections in various citrus species, while causing massive damage to hop plants. In addition to CBCVd infection, hop production is threatened by many pests and pathogens, which can severely reduce hop yield and quality. These threats require the use of crop protection products. However, the increasing demand for high agricultural yields, coupled with restrictions on synthetic pesticides in the European Union, has led to the search for sustainable alternatives. Citrus‐based plant‐strengthening products have emerged as promising alternatives. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether CBCVd would be present in citrus essential oils (CEOs) and therefore function as an infectious agent, thus posing a potential risk for viroid transmission associated with the use of CEO products. A comprehensive testing workflow was established to evaluate various commercially available citrus essential oils, assessing their effects on RNA extraction and any inhibitory effects on real‐time reverse transcription (RT)‐PCR. Initial validation of this workflow was performed by testing the stability of viroid RNA spiked with CEOs stored at room temperature. The outcome of this study indicates a low risk of viroid transmission from CEO products and provides useful insight into the integration of CEO products into sustainable hop production.
... A recent bibliometric analysis revealed that the EO obtained from O. basilicum is one of the most frequently cited alongside Thymus vulgaris, Lavandula spp., Origanum spp., Mentha spp., Citrus spp., and Cymbopogon spp. . Many studies have reported its relevant antimicrobial, fungicidal, nematicidal, insecticidal and insect repellent properties (e.g., Oxenham et al., 2005, Hussain et al., 2008, Zhang et al., 2009Basantia, 2017, Pierattini et al., 2019Bedini et al., 2024;Djebbi et al., 2024). Thus, it is regarded as one of the most promising EOs for future applications in crops and agriculture products protection. ...
... Methyl chavico (76.1%) and linalool (18.4%) were the main compounds in the basil (Ocinum basilicum) EO (Table 1). There are two chemotypes of basil EO based on the most abundant components, namely methyl chavico (synonym estragole) and linalool (Oxenham et al., 2005). The basil EO in the current study was the methyl chavicol chemotype. ...
... It is a small bushy plant of about 600 mm in height and is grown for its aromatic properties, while the green leaves are used fresh or dried for flavouring of dishes, salads, stews, sausages and other food (Niederwireser 2001). The curative properties of basil result from the presence of essential oils, phenolic compounds, flavonoids (Nurzyńska-Wierdak et al., 2012) and other substances revealing anti-bacterial (Nour et al., 2009), antimycotic (Oxenham et al., 2005) and antioxidant activities (Sekar et al., 2009;Taie et al., 2010). ...
A study was conducted on Basil (Ocimum Basilicum) crop grown under Polyhouse hydroponics in different seasons by controlling the environmental parameters at Dr. NTR College of Agricultural Engineering, Bapatla. The research work conducted for four seasons i.e., Season1(April and May), Season2(August and September), Season3(October and November) and Season4(January to February) on environmental parameters is presented in this paper. The environmental parameters were tried to be controlled to maintain a proper relative humidity range, i.e., 60-75%, a temperature below 30 °C, and CO2 levels of 600 to 1500 ppm. The controlled environment and observations recorded by using Rotronic CP11’for crop analysis purpose. This makes a good quality and disease-free crop production. The final results reveal that the highest yield of 41.7 kg in seaso, followed by 40.5 kg in season2, 38.9 kg in season3, and 36.2 kg in season4. The lowest yield of all the seasons was 36.2 kg in season4. Ultimately, the experiment showed that the basil crop grows in good health throughout Season1 and then again during Season2. Polynomial equations were fitted for the humidity and temperatures maintained inside the hydroponic polyhouse which are discussed in this paper. R2 values between 0.5 and 0.7 were obtained for all the fitted equations. According to the study, yield has a positively correlated with temperature and negatively correlated with relative humidity and carbon dioxide.
... Application of linseed oil, for example, was found to completely inhibit U. appendiculatus urediniospore germination in both in vivo and in planta experiments (Arslan 2014). Other trials on U. viciae-fabae demonstrated a reduction of rust severity of up to a 96% after treating infected plants with basil oil three hours after inoculation (Oxenham et al. 2005) while hyssop and pumpkin seed oils were less efficient (Letessier et al. 2001;El-Fawy et al. 2022). While not achieving as significant a reduction in rust severity on the entire plant, the application of these essential oils offers additional synergistic benefits for legumes, potentially enhancing plant height and yield, as demonstrated under greenhouse conditions (El-Fawy et al. 2022). ...
Rust diseases are a major concern in legume production worldwide causing heavy losses especially in developing countries that depend on grain legumes as staple food. Fungal species from Uromyces, Phakopsora and Puccinia genera are the main causal agents of the various legume rust diseases. They induce up to 100% yield losses on susceptible cultivars and are emerging as a substantial threat to global food security. Developing durable resistance to rust has thus become a critical breeding objective alongside efforts to improve cultural and disease management practices. This review specifically focuses on the recent advances in understanding and enhancing genetic rust resistance across diverse legume crops. Key topics covered include: (i) the diversity and host range of the rust species affecting legumes; (ii) the disease management strategies from cultural practices to chemical control; (iii) the available screening methods for identifying new sources of resistance; (iv) the genetic basis of resistance, encompassing both major resistance genes and quantitative trait loci; (v) insights into gene regulation and effector molecules leading to legume-rust interactions; and (vi) emerging genomic-assisted breeding techniques that can accelerate the development of durable rust resistance in legumes. Overall, this review highlights the progress made to date and the remaining challenges in sustainably managing rust diseases across diverse legume crops through integrated approaches spanning pathogen biology, advanced phenotyping, genetic resistance, and molecular breeding.
... In basil, produced VOCs are essential constituents participating in antimicrobial activity [24], antioxidant capacity [25], and anti-fungal ability [26]. These small molecules (less than 300 Da) derive from diverse biosynthetic pathways related to fats, lipids, amino acids, and proteins [27]. They are emitted from the cuticle, stomata, or wounded tissues and serve as physiological defense signals, with biogenic VOCs being emitted more under stressed conditions [28]. ...
Background: Temperature and light are two critical environmental stimuli that greatly impact our agricultural indus‑
try. We explored the effects of varying temperature and light conditions on the metabolomics of basil, a plant widely
used in cuisine and for medicinal purposes worldwide. Basil plants were subjected to elevated temperatures of 30 °C,
35 °C, and 40 °C, along with two light intensities (D11 and D23).
Results: Our results showed that the maximum shoot length (42.98 cm) was achieved at T30 and D23, the maximum
leaf area (6.92 cm) at T30/D11, and the highest number of leaves (472) at T40/D11. However, at the higher tempera‑
ture of T40, the number of leaves increased, but shoot length and leaf size significantly decreased (p < 0.05). Maxim
shoot biomass (81 gm) and root biomass (91.2 gm) was recorded at T35/D23 treatments. Metabolomic studies of basil
revealed that rosmarinic acid (RA), and linalool and eugenol were the major phenolic and volatile organic compounds
( VOCs) under different growth conditions. RA levels were higher at 30 °C, correlated with elevated shikimate levels,
indicating a carbon supply through the TCA cycle. In contrast, the growth conditions of 35 °C/D11 (μmol/m2/d) up‑
regulated the glyoxylate cycle (fumaric acid and malic acid) as part of stomatal closure, preventing ROS accumulation
and resulting in increased VOC emission. Exposure to the higher temperature of 40 °C induced higher amino acid
accumulation, improving temperature stresstolerance.
Conclusions: This study suggests that elevated temperature and light intensity affected the overall health of basil
plants by modulating underlying growth mechanisms. Furthermore, elevated temperature plays a vital role in plant defense mechanisms by mediating the production of secondary metabolites associated with plant defense responses.
Keywords: Abiotic stress, Elevated temperature, Daily light integral, Defense mechanism, Primary metabolite,
Secondary metabolite
... The EOs were obtained using an assembly comprising a heating mantle (NAHITA, Barcelona, Spain) directly connected to a Neo Clevenger type continuous distiller (Glasco, Seaside, OR, USA), as previously described [35]. The extracted oils were injected undiluted into the GC-MS. ...
The effects of post-harvest spray treatments with essential oils (EOs) obtained from sage and aniseed on maintaining the quality of pears of the ‘Williams’ variety during storage was studied. Harvested pears were picked when they had reached their optimal maturity and underwent a treatment involving the application of aqueous solutions of glycerin, with varying amounts of sage essential oil (SEO) and aniseed essential oil (AEO). Weight loss during storage varied according to the treatment applied with the lowest values recorded for sage essential oil at concentrations of 300 ppm (6.24%) and 250 ppm (6.60%), respectively. Aniseed essential oil had a smaller effect on weight loss compared to sage essential oil. Fruit firmness was better maintained under the influence of the essential oil treatments, with those treated with sage essential oil standing out. The concentration of the essential oils that is used influences the antimicrobial activity of the post-harvest treatment that is applied, with higher essential oil concentrations leading to more pronounced decreases in the total number of mesophilic aerobic bacteria immediately after treatment (4.05 for SEO 200; 3.00 for SEO 300, respectively). The use of post-harvest techniques involving the application of aqueous solutions containing glycerol and essential plant oils by spraying can extend the shelf life of pear fruits.
... 26 The latter have antifungal and antibacterial properties and were shown to be effective against some plant pathogens. [27][28][29] Sweet basil contains various classes of essential oils, such as mono and sesquiterpene hydrocarbons, oxygenated mono and sesquiterpenes, aliphatic alcohols, aldehydes, esters, ketones, acids and aromatic compounds. Major aromatic compounds in basil are linalool, estragole, methyl cinnamate, eugenol and cineole. ...
BACKGROUND
Despite the optimal characteristics of peat, more environmental‐friendly materials are needed in the nursery sector, although these must guarantee specific quantitative and qualitative commercial standards. In the present study, we evaluated the influence of biochar and compost as peat surrogates on yield and essential oil profile of two different varieties of basil (Ocimum basilicum var. Italiano and Ocimum basilicum var. minimum). In two 50‐day pot experiments, we checked the performances of biochar from pruning of urban trees and composted kitchen scraps, both mixed in different proportions with commercial peat (first experiment), and under different nitrogen (N) fertilization regimes (second experiment), in terms of plant growth and volatile compounds profile of basil.
RESULTS
Total or high substitution of peat with biochar (100% and 50% v.v.) or compost (100%) resulted in seedling death a few days from transplantation, probably because the pH and electrical conductivity of the growing media were too high. Substrates with lower substitution rates (10–20%) were underperforming in terms of plant growth and color compared to pure commercial peat during the first experiment, whereas better performances were obtained by the nitrogen‐fertilized mixed substrates in the second experiment, at least for one variety. We identified a total of 12 and 16 aroma compounds of basil (mainly terpenes) in the two experiments. Partial replacement of peat did not affect basil volatile organic compounds content and composition, whereas N fertilization overall decreased the concentration of these compounds.
CONCLUSION
Our results support a moderate use of charred or composted materials as peat surrogates. © 2023 The Authors. Journal of The Science of Food and Agriculture published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.
... Extraction of BEO was carried out using an assembly of a heating mantle (NAHITA, Spain), directly connected to a Clevenger type continuous distiller (Glasco USA) described previously [35]. Before injection into the GC-MS the BEO had been diluted 1000 times. ...
Antimicrobial compounds used as post-harvest treatment of fruit and vegetables can extend their shelf life by reducing the rate of microbial growth. Essential oils extracted from herbs or spices can also enhance shelf life due to their antimicrobial nature. Tomatoes harvested at consumption maturity were treated by spraying with aqueous solutions of basil essential oil (BEO) and glycerol in different concentrations (50, 100, 150, 200, 250 and 300 ppm) and stored by refrigeration at 8 °C and 85% relative humidity. The BEO used was obtained by extraction from indigenous crops of Ocimum basilicum and was analyzed by GC-MS for discerning of the constituents present in it. The main components identified in BEO were: eucalyptol, linalool, estragol, eugenol methyl-cinamate, trans-α-bergamotene, germacrene D, γ-cadinene and T-cadinol. During storage, in order to highlight the effect of the applied treatment, the following were determined: dry matter (DM), total soluble content (TSS), total phenols content (TP), antioxidant activity (AOA), color, weight loss and total number of aerobic mesophilic bacteria (AMB) during storage. It has been shown that spraying the fruit with solutions of different concentrations of BEO has significant effects on weight loss, DM, TSS, TP, AOA, color and TAMB, during storage. The lowest TP value was found in the control and the variant treated only with 2.5% aqueous glycerol solution (52.18 mg/100 g fw GAE) and the highest value in the variants treated with concentrations of 200, 250 and 300 ppm BEO (54.37, 55.00 and 57.81 mg GAE/100 g fw). The highest AOA values were found in the 300 ppm BEO-treated variant (119.23 µmol TE/100 g fw). Spraying tomatoes with aqueous solutions of glycerol 2.5% and BEO at a dose of 250 ppm prolongs their storage while maintaining their quality for fresh consumption.
... Similar conclusions were obtained by [66], for controlling the fungus F. oxysporum. In the study carried out by [67], a series of different basil EOs were evaluated against the phytopathogenic fungi F. oxysporum sp. cicer and A. porri. ...
Recent agricultural research aims to identify novel applications for plant extracts as efficient defenses against weeds, insects, or phytopathogenic agents. The main goal of the present study was to evaluate two new varieties of basil (Ocimum basilicum L., fam. Lamiaceae), Yellow basil, “Aromat de Buzau” variety and Red-violet basil, “Serafim” variety. The basil varieties were studied under different aspects regarding biochemical characterization using GC-MS, antioxidant activity evaluated under three methods (DPPH, ABTS, FRAP), and antimicrobial properties (for three G-bacteria: Perctobacterium carotovorum, Pseudomonas marginalis, Pseudomonas syringae and three phytopathogenic fungi: Rhizoctonia solani, Fusarium oxysporum, Botrytis cinerea). The results showed that linalool (39.28%; 55.51%), estragole (31.48%; 9.78%), and eugenol (5.42%; 7.63%) are the main compounds identified in the extracts, validating the high antioxidant activity of the studied essential oils and floral waters. When applied in high concentrations, essential oils have shown a potential bactericidal effect on P. carotovorum as well as a potential fungicidal effect on R. solani and B. cinerea.
... The basil plant's flowering branches and leaves can be used to extract essential oil, which has a range of 0.62% to 1.00% [9,10]. Monoterpene and sesquiterpene hydrocarbons and aromatic phenylpropenes are the two primary classes into which the constituents of essential oils of the genus Ocimum are separated [11]. Essential oils, polyphenols, phenolics, flavonoids, and phenolic acids are all found in basil (Ocimum basilicum) [7]. ...
The importance of medicinal and aromatic plants is increasing day by day thanks to their chemical properties. The fact that medicinal and aromatic plants have pharmacological and antioxidant properties suggests that they can be used in the treatment of many diseases. Basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) plant is a medicinal and aromatic plant with annual or perennial species that spread in tropical and temperate regions. Basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) plant contains essential oils, polyphenols, phenolics, flavonoids and phenolic acids. It is also known that the basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) plant has a strong antibacterial activity. The substances involved in the scavenging of free oxygen radicals (ROS) are called antioxidants. In our study, the chemical properties of the basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) plant were determined and the antioxidant activities of these chemical properties were determined. Chemical components were determinated for the Basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) extract, the inhibitory activities of these chemicals against the Crystal structure of Human peroxiredoxin 5 (HP5) (PDB ID: 1HD2) and Bovine Xanthine Oxidase (BXO) (PDB ID: 3NRZ) downloaded from the Protein Data Bank site were compared.
... Consumption of this herb has an anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antiviral (Martinec, 2012) and also strong antiseptic effect (Bozin et al., 2006) on human health. Moreover, a number of proven biological properties are dominated by its antifungal (Oxenham et al. 2005), antibacterial, repellent and high antioxidant potential (Bunrathep et al., 2007;Carović-Stanko et al., 2010). Methyl chavicol (45.8%) and linalool (24.2%), the most abundant components in the concept of basil essential oil (BEO), are responsible for these biological effects (Bozin et al., 2006). ...
The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the antioxidant and in vitro antifungal properties of commercial basil (Ocimum basilicum) essential oil (BEO). The antioxidant activity of BEO was estimated by DPPH free radical scavenging ability. The antifungal activity of the EO was tested against three pathogenic Penicillium (P.) spp. (P. expansum, P. citrinum, P. crustosum) using the disc diffusion method (concentrations: 12.5 µL.L-1 , 25 µL.L-1 , 50 µL.L-1 , and 100 µL.L-1). From the results it is clearly evident that Ocimum basilicum EO showed a strong antioxidant activity with the value of 86.20 ± 0.15% for inhibition. The highest concentration (100 µL.L-1) of BEO exhibited the strongest antifungal activity manifested by the highest diameters (5.33 ± 0.58 mm, 4.33 ± 0.58 mm, 3.33 ± 0.58 mm) of inhibition zones against all three fungi strains (P. crustosum, P. citrinum and P. expansum; respectively). These findings show that the BEO represents a good source of biologically active substances that could have potential applications in the food and pharmaceutical industries.
... Basil is annual plant with several pharmacological properties such as antioxidant, chemo preventive, antiinflammatory, antimicrobial, and immunomodulatory activities (Ch et al., 2015).It has also been reported that basil has effects on dermal pathology and wound healing including acne, eczema, boils, psoriasis, and rashes (Antonescu (Mintas) et al., 2021). In addition, apigenin, linalool, and ursolic acid present in essential oils of basil show antiviral (Chiang et al., 2005), its basil oils with high methyl chavicol and linalool content show antifungal (Oxenham et al., 2005), the eugenol compound shows antimicrobial (Bassolé et al., 2010), and the linalool compound shows antibacterial effects (Hussain et al., 2008). The main components in its essential oil are Linalool, 1,8-cineol, eugenol, methyl cinnamate, camphor, methyl eugenol, methyl chavicol, b-elemene, bocimene, camphene, carvacrol, a-bergamotene, a-cadinol and geranial (Poonkodi, 2016;Simon et al., 1990;Simon et al.,1999), and different chemotypes of basil emerge according to the density of these components (Telci et al., 2006). ...
Purple basil is among the most important basil varieties and its essential oil is used for several purposes including medicinal and aromatic uses. Soil types may impact the plant growth, development, and essential oil composition. Hence, it is important to find the most suitable soil type which may produce basil plants having essential oil with the best composition and concentration. For this reason, plant samples of purple basil that were grown in areas with clay, loamy sand, and sandy-clay loam soil types were collected and evaluated to determine the changes in the yield and essential oil components. Essential oil contents were determined with the Clevenger Device, and essential oil compositions were determined by using GC and GC/MS analysis. The highest essential oil yield according to soil types was obtained from the plant samples that were grown in the loamy sand soil. It was also found that the main compounds present in Arapgir town purple basil were methylcinnamate and linalool that was also present in all Turkish purple basil under all types of soil. According to the soil types, the highest concentration (46.03%) of methylcinnamate was observed in loamy sand soils, and the lowest (42.33%) was obtained from sandy-clay loam soils and found to be significantly different. Data regarding correlations between soil types and essential oil ratios showed that organic matter and P2O5 had a significant negative correlation with methylcinnamate. The present study will help researchers and farmers to choose the most suitable soil type to achieve maximum essential oil production from purple basil.
... The aim of this study was to test a combination of treatments, especially focusing on evaluating the effectiveness of selected EOs according to their biocidal activity as defined by the literature, through the application in a real case study [1,[38][39][40]. ...
Bio-colonization is a dynamic and multiphasic process headed by microorganisms. Conventional treatments to process affected stone materials include chemical biocides, whose formulations are mainly composed of quaternary ammonium salts(QAs), reported to be toxic for human health, dangerous for the environment, and not biodegradable. Accordingly, novel green and eco-friendly products are a promising alternative to treat stone materials deteriorated by microorganism colonization. In this study, the efficacy of pure essential oils (EOs) and a mix of EOs was assessed in situ and compared to a conventional biocide based on QAs, and two commercially green products based on EOs, which were taken as references, through application on a mosaic located at the Archaeological Park of Ostia Antica (Rome). The EO biocide efficacy was analyzed by ultraviolet induced luminescence, spectro-colorimetry and bio-luminometry analyses while the possibility of their permanence on simulated substrate was studied by FTIR spectroscopy. It was observed by FTIR analysis, that EOs considered volatile can leave a residue after the application; typical fingerprint bands at about 2926, 1510, and 1455 cm⁻¹ were recorded in the EO spectra. Every tested oil was confirmed to have a biocide action although minimal in relation to the most conventional products based on QAs. The synergy of the essential oils revealed positive results, showing a stronger biocide efficacy. Further investigation should be carried out to develop the method of application and study of essential oils on cultural heritage.
... The plant pathogenic fungus Botrytis fabae and the rust fungus Uromyces fabae were controlled in vivo using basil EOs, estragole and linalool; these treatments significantly reduced the infection of broad bean leaves [49]. Basil EOs at 0.08% mL/L showed some efficiency against the survival of E. coli and Salmonella typhimurium inoculated into fresh-cut lettuce and purslane samples during refrigerated storage [50]. ...
Basil (Ocimum basilicum) is a commonly used herb; it also contains essential oils and other valuable compounds. The basil oil obtained has a pleasant aroma, but also a broad spectrum of biological activity. This work reports on the chemical composition, antioxidant, antimicrobial and anti-insect activity in vitro and in situ of Ocimum basilicum essential oil (OBEO) obtained by steam distillation of fresh flowering plants. Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry, DPPH, agar and disc diffusion and vapor phase methods were used to analyze the OBEO properties. The analysis of the chemical composition of OBEO showed that its main components were methyl chavicol (88.6%), 1,8-cineole (4.2%) and α-trans-bergamotene (1.7%). A strong antioxidant effect was demonstrated at the level of 77.3%. The analysis of antimicrobial properties showed that OBEO exerts variable strength of inhibiting activity against various groups of microorganisms. The growth inhibition zones ranged from 9.67 to 15.33 mm in Gram-positive (G⁺) and Gram-negative (G⁻) bacteria and from 5.33 to 7.33 mm in yeast. The lowest measured minimal inhibition concentration (MIC) was 3.21 µL/mL against Gram-negative Azotobacter chrococcum and Gram-positive Micrococcus luteus. The antimicrobial activity of in situ vapor phase of OBEO was also confirmed on apples, pears, potatoes and kohlrabi. The highest insecticidal activity against Pyrrhocoris apterus, observed at the concentration of 100%, caused the death of 80% of individuals. Due to its broad spectrum of activity, OBEO seems an ideal candidate for preserving fruit and vegetables.
... As can be seen, our study also unveiled methyl chavicol vivo experiments, with the result that the methyl chavicol component significantly reduced the mycelial growth of the plant pathogenic fungus Botrytis fabae. 22 Dodecanol, also identified in this study, was found to be fungistatic against Saccharomyces cerevisiae. 23 It has also been identified as having activity against the bacterium Salmonella choleraesuis; the mechanism of action is thought to be as a nonionic surfactant similar to the fatty acids. ...
Phytochemical analysis of 3 members of the Urticaceae family (eg Pilea pumila, Laportea canadensis, and Boehmeria cylindrica) was conducted using GC-MS. P pumila and L canadensis have several recorded historical medicinal uses by Native American tribes, whereas B cylindrica does not. This study was conducted to understand the historical uses in terms of chemical composition. Plant material, separated into aerial or root portions, was dried and extracted using either ethanol or heptane at room temperature. Sterols, fatty acids and esters, terpenes and terpenoids, saturated and monounsaturated hydrocarbons, small oxygen-functionalized organic molecules, and tocopherols were observed using these methods. Plant sterols composed 30.3% to 62.2% of the observed extracts, followed by fatty acids and esters ranging from 0% to 49% and terpenes and terpenoids ranging 4.56% to 33.9%. All 3 plants contained γ-sitosterol as the dominant plant sterol and palmitic, linoleic, and linolenic acids and esters. The 3 plants differed significantly in the observed terpene and terpenoid composition. Germacrene D-4-ol, known to have antifungal activity, was the major terpenoid identified in P pumila (7.42%-7.76%), phytol (4.13%), α-cadinene (3.96%), and cadina-1,4-diene (5.53%) were observed in L canadensis treatments, and squalene (2.20%-7.04%), phytol (4.17%), and cadina-1,4-diene (6.68%) were observed in B cylindrica treatments . Possible rationales for Native American medicinal uses were evaluated.
... For all bacteria tested, the extracts showed satisfactory microbiological activity. [32][33][34] According to published articles, the species in question demonstrates broad antimicrobial activity against various pathogenic strains of bacteria, fungi, and viruses. These findings support the fact that the species O. basilicum may be useful as an antimicrobial. ...
... From the ed50v10 (1) software, the mycelial growth inhibition rates are transformed into probit values with the regression lines in the form of y = a log x + b according to the transformed formula of Paranagama et al. (2003) (Y the probit, a the regression coefficient, b the constant, x the fungicide concentration, log the decimal logarithm). The equations of these regression lines allowed us to determine the IC50 and IC90, which are the fungicide concentrations that reduce the mycelial growth of the fungus by half 50% and by 90% (Oxenham et al., 2005;Neri et al., 2006). ...
The present study aimed at evaluating the antifungal activities of NECO, ASTOUN and FERCA fungicides based of plants essentials oils against Phytophthora katsurae a major constraint in coconut plantations in Côte d'Ivoire. In vitro, the inhibition properties of these fungicides was evaluated at different concentrations 50, 100, 250, 500, 1000, 1500, 2000 and 2500 ppm and compared to a synthetic fungicide (phosphorous acid) at 1, 5, 10, 25, 50, 100 and 150 ppm on the radial growth of the mycelium of an isolated pathogen from a diseased nut. The mycelial growth was measured every day during 10 days in the Petri dishes. The results showed inhibition rates ranging from 1.48% to 100%. The biopesticides NECO and ASTOUN were effective against Phytophthora katsurae at respectively 149.14 and 272.38 ppm compared to phosphorous acid. NECO was fungitoxic at 2500 ppm and fungistatic at 1500 and 2000 ppm. Phosphorous acid was simply fungicidal at 150 ppm. Based on these results, these fungicides based of plants essentials oils could be used as biological control of Pnhytophthora katsurae in coconut plantations in Côte d'Ivoire.
... The vermicompost is a process by which all types of biodegradable wastes such as farm wastes, kitchen wastes, market wastes, bio-wastes of agro based industries, livestock wastes, and others, are converted while passing through the worm-gut to nutrient rich vermicompost. These vermi-worms act as biological agents to consume those wastes and to deposit excreta in the process called vermicompost, which is capable of improving soil health and nutrient status (ADHIKARY, 2012) Conversely, I basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) belongs to the family Lamiaceae containing aromatic essential oils such as eugenol, methyl eugenol, carvacrol and caryophyllin (HANDA & KAPOOr, 1989) located in the flowers of the plant, has pharmaceutical, aromatic and culinary properties, the aromatic and essential oil compounds present in the plant contain biologically active compounds with insecticidal, fungistatic y antimicrobial properties (OXENHAM et al., 2005) Basil is important economically because the world crop and the production of essential oil has a commercial value as edible of US$15 million per year (BEGUM et al., 2002). The cultivation of organic basil is economically profitable, and Baja California Sur is the main producer of organic basil in the world; however, it faces the problem of water and saline soils. ...
This study determined the effect of vermicompost humates as salinity mitigator in germination and morphometric characteristics of basil varieties seedlings, tolerant and sensitive to salinity, subjected to vermicompost humates diluted 1/60 (v/v) and 0, 50 and 100 mM NaCl in a completely randomized design with four replications. The rate and percentage of germination, root length, shoot height, root and shoot fresh and dry-weight were measured. The varieties showed differential response, highlighting Napoletano as the most tolerant. Vermicompost humates showed biostimulant effects on variables evaluated, allowing that tolerant variety to improve germination and growth, and increasing the salinity tolerance of the sensitive variety.
... The aforementioned medicinal plants are known to contain essential oils (Saleem et al. 2004;Ismail 2006;Carovic-Stanko et al. 2010;Raeisi et al. 2016). The antimicrobial activity of essential oils of plants has been reported by many researchers (Cox et al. 2000;Dorman and Deans 2000;Bankole and Joda 2004;Oxenham et al. 2005;Sharma and Tripathi 2006;Szczerbanik et al. 2007;Gandomi et al. 2009;Vilela et al. 2009;Huang et al. 2010;Tolouee et al. 2010;Combrinck et al. 2011;Tian et al. 2012a;Kedia et al. 2015;Kiran et al. 2016;Ghaffari et al. 2019;Chaudhari et al. 2020;Das et al. 2020;Rabib et al. 2020). However, AFB1-detoxifying ability of essential oils has not been reported so far. ...
The contamination of foods with aflatoxins, a group of carcinogenic compounds produced by some filamentous fungi belonging to Aspergillus section Flavi, is the major food safety concern worldwide. Various pre- and post-harvest techniques have been employed to minimize the level of aflatoxins in food commodities. The present study aimed to explore the potential of essential oils (EOs) derived from the medicinal herbs viz., Heliotropium bacciferum, Ocimum dhofarense and Zataria multiflora to detoxify aflatoxin B1 (AFB1). The EOs extracted from H. bacciferum, O. dhofarense and Z. multiflora exhibited 82.6, 92.0 and 67.9% degradation of AFB1, respectively as determined by ELISA. In the laboratory tests, EO of Z. multiflora was very effective in inhibiting the growth of Aspegillus flavus, whereas EOs of H. bacciferum and O. dhofarense did not show inhibitory activity towards A. flavus. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis of the EOs showed the presence of α-pinene (32.9%) and β-myrcene (9.4%) in H. bacciferum, germacrene D (41%), bicyclogermacrene (16.4%) and germacrene B (13.7%) in O. dhofarense and linalool (27.5%) and bornyl acetate (15.4%) in Z. multiflora as the major components. To our knowledge, this is the first study demonstrating detoxification of AFB1 by EOs of medicinal plants.
... References Use and Advantages of Basil 1 [19][20][21] Used in traditional medicinal tea for the treatment of bronchial asthma, pertussis, etc., and pharmaceutical products are used for the treatment of inflammation of the airways, as a tonic of the nervous system, or as an antispasmodic remedy 2 [22] Substances extracted have a fungicidal effect, and grain plants treated with it remained healthy 3 [23,24] Has antibacterial, antioxidant, and antitumor effects 4 [25,26] Volatile oil can also be used as a repellent against Culex pipiens, a mosquito that spreads diseases such as meningitis, or against fire blight (Erwinia amylovora) ...
Basil (Ocimum basilicum L.), including other species and cultivars, is an excellent source of nutritional compounds, the accumulation of which can be stimulated by exogenous factors (environmental and nutritional conditions). Although best practices are relatively established for mature basil plants, microgreens production requires further research to optimize quality and quantity. The study objectives are (i) to provide an overview of the many uses of basil, (ii) collate and present common hydroponic systems available in the market, (iii) review effects of key production environment parameters on basil yields in hydroponic systems, and (iv) summarize the effects of the growth environments on yield quantity and quality of basil microgreens. The paper analyzes in detail key production parameters of basil microgreens in hydroponic systems, such as temperature, humidity, pH, electrical conductivity, dissolved oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrient solutions, and the influence of light (quantity, quality, and photoperiods). The collated literature review has shown that basil, grown hydroponically, can tolerate high variations of environmental parameters: pH 5.1–8.5, temperature 15–24 °C, relative humidity 60–70%, electrical conductivity up to 1.2 mS cm⁻¹, depending on the developmental stage, dissolved oxygen at 4 mg L⁻¹ (optimally 6.5 mg L⁻¹), and light intensity between 200 and 400 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹. The study has synthesized an overview of different production parameters to provide guidance on the optimization of environmental conditions to ensure the quantity and quality production of basil microgreens. Improving the quality of basil microgreens can ideally spur continued gastronomic interest in microgreens in general, which will encourage more entrepreneurs to grow basil and other microgreens. Hence, the study findings are a great resource to learn about the effects of different environments on basil microgreen production. This information can inform research for successful production of different species and cultivars of basil microgreens, and establishing testing protocols to improve the quantity and quality of the harvest.
... (Table 2). There are reports that the basil-linalool essential oil has activity against the fungi Botrytis fabae, Aspergillus niger, Mucor mucedo, Fusarium solani, Botryodiplodia theobromae and solani Rhizopus (Hussain et al., 2008;Oxenham et al., 2005). It is likely that the major substance, linalool, is the active ingredient that is toxic to fungi. ...
Essential oils have been widely studied for the protection of crops and their products against pests and diseases, as an alternative to the use of synthetic pesticides, mainly because they are less harmful to the environment and human health. Basil essential oil (Ocimum basilicum L.) is known for its antimicrobial properties. In this study, basil aromatic oil was obtained by hydrodistillation for different times (20, 40, 60, 90 and 120 min), to estimate and evaluate variations in chemical composition. Basil essential oil and linalool, the major substance in the essential oil, were submitted to toxicity tests against three common storage fungi (Fusarium oxysporum, Penicillium spp. and Colletotrichum gloeosporioides) and for their effect on the germination of commercial seeds (lettuce and tomatoes). Considering the estimates based on the extraction kinetics, hydrodistillation times longer than 60 min proved to be disadvantageous, considering the variations observed in the quantity and quality of essential oil, which did not constitute a considerable gain in essential oil mass, as well as, a different chemical profile. The basil essential oil and linalool showed toxicity against the fungi F. oxysporum (median inhibitory concentration (IC50) = 13.18 and 12.60 μg/mL), Penicillium spp. (IC50 = 17.5 and 8.77 μg/mL) and C. gloeosporioides (IC50 = 12.91 and 9.15 μg/mL), respectively. The tomato and lettuce seeds’ germination were not significantly affected by the essential oils. The results indicate the potential use of basil essential oil for the protection of tomato and lettuce seeds.
https://authors.elsevier.com/a/1dgKS3Iipnqanu
... Albeit humans have explored plant-derived aromatic compounds for their benefits, plants do not produce (Oxenham et al. 2005). Upon the herbivore attack, VOCs released by the infested plant may further induce the volatile emission from healthy leaves of the same plant or adjacent unchallenged plants (Baldwin et al. 2006). ...
Ocimum species represent commercially important medicinal and aromatic plants. The essential oil biosynthesized by Ocimum species is enriched with specialized metabolites specifically, terpenoids and phenylpropanoids. Interestingly, various Ocimum species are known to exhibit diverse chemical profiles, and this chemical diversity has been at the center of many studies to identify commercially important chemotypes. Here, we present various chemotypes from the Ocimum species and emphasize trends, implications, and strategies for the quality and yield improvement of essential oil. Globally, many Ocimum species have been analyzed for their essential oil composition in over 50 countries. Asia represents the highest number of chemotypes, followed by Africa, South America, and Europe. Ocimum basilicum L. has been the most widespread and well-studied species, followed by O. gratissimum L., O. tenuiflorum L., O. canum Sims, O. americanum and O. kilimandscharicum Gürke. Moreover, various molecular reasons, benefits, adverse health effects and mechanisms behind this vast chemodiversity have been discussed. Different strategies of plant breeding, metabolic engineering, transgenic, and tissue-culture, along with anatomical modifications, are surveyed to enhance specific chemotypic profiles and essential oil yield in numerous Ocimum species. Consequently, chemical characterization of the essential oil obtained from Ocimum species has become indispensable for its proper utilization. The present chemodiversity knowledge from Ocimum species will help to exploit various applications in the industrial, agriculture, biopharmaceutical, and food sectors.
... Basil is a MAP native in subtropics that has been successfully grown even in temperate conditions. Its biologically active substances are used (and researched) in the food industry, in medicine, and in plant protection (Shahrajabian et al., 2020;Oxenham et al., 2005). The benefits of intercropping with other species have been described in several studies (Kordi et al., 2020;Pereira et al., 2015;Song et al., 2010). ...
Agroforestry is one of the best land use management systems that regenerate degraded agroecosystems while maintaining high productivity. However, current knowledge about how shade from trees affects the cultivation of medicinal and aromatic plants in temperate zones is lacking. Therefore, the authors explored the effects of shade on the most important cultivation parameters of medicinal and aromatic plants. A three-year-long open field study was conducted with a control (C) and two artificial shade treatments (30 % - T1 and 50 % - T2 light intensity decrease). Shade effects on seven different species were evaluated for plant height and width, fresh yield, drug mass, essential oil content, and content of other biologically active compounds. Our first hypothesis was confirmed, because we observed pronounced species-specific shade tolerance. Secondly, it was proven that there are species of medicinal and aromatic plants — grown in temperate climates — for which it is possible to produce the quality of drug specified in the professional standards. They provide adequate yields even under mild (30 %) shade conditions. Consequently Calendula officinalis L., Dracocephalum moldavica L., Melissa officinalis L. and Satureja hortensis L. are highly recommended for further agroforestry experiments in large-scale and authentic agroforestry conditions. Mild shade (30 %) had favourable effects on several species in our experiments; however, 50 % shade produced no favourable effect on any examined species. Therefore, we suggest temperate zone medicinal agroforestry systems be designed such that the shadow should not exceed 30 %.
... The authors declare no conflict of interest. Kumar et al., 2018) The plant shows antibacterial, anti-fungal, antimicrobial, anti-oxidant, antiviral, larvicidal activity (Adebolu et al., 2005;Oxenham et al., 2005;Moghaddam et al., 2011) Linalool, eugenol, methyl chavicol, methyl eugenol, geraniol, trans α-bergamotene and 1,8-cineole (Grayer et al., 1996;Omidbaigi, 2003) Eupatorium adenophorum Sprengel ...
Ethnopharmacological relevance
The indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants is important part of primary health care system in almost every society, especially the far–flung areas. These areas, one of the last storehouses of traditional knowledge are under the constant threat of losing this valuable information as it moves from one generation to another through word of mouth. Modernization, migration, education, and changing socio–economic status of people also affect the perpetuality of traditional knowledge. Therefore, time-to-time updation of information regarding the ethnomedicinal plants must be carried out so that any addition to the traditional knowledge is recorded and further phytochemical and pharmacological studies may be conducted for developing new drugs.
Aim of the study
The study aimed at documenting the traditional knowledge and practices about the medicinal plants used by the inhabitants of Pauri district of Uttarakhand. Besides, the study strives to identify plants for future phytochemical and pharmacological studies.
Material and methods
The information was collected through semi–structured questionnaire from 98 informants distributed in 15 villages of Pauri. The data was analyzed for use–reports (UR), frequency of citation (FC) and informant consensus factor (FIC).
Results
In the present study, total 236 species belonging to 80 families and 188 genera were found to treat 82 ailments. Asteraceae (23 species), Rosaceae (16 species) and Lamiaceae (13 species) were the most represented families. Correlation and regression analysis between the local flora and present study reveals that Poaceae, Fabaceae, and Asteraceae were the main outlier species having more representatives in local flora than medicinally important species. Herbs (57.2%) were the most frequently used life forms, and leaves (24.5%) the most commonly utilized plant parts. All the plants were collected from the natural resources and none of them was under cultivation. Nearly 76% of the total drugs were administered orally. The informants divulged 1556 use–reports. The most utilized species based on frequency of citation were Urtica dioica L. (44), Bergenia ciliata Haworth (38), Viola canescens Wall. (38), Rhododendron arboretum Smith (32), and Ocimum tenuiflorum L. (30). All the disorders were grouped into 13 ailment categories based on ICPC–2 classification. The main ailment categories as per Informant Consensus Factor (FIC) were digestive (FIC, 0.83), urological (FIC, 0.83) and cardiovascular (FIC, 0.81) disorders. A comparative analysis between the present and other local and regional studies show that as many as 13 species were new record for the state of Uttarakhand.
Conclusion
The inhabitants of Pauri have good knowledge of medicinal plants. Although the therapeutic value of most of the preferred medicinal plants has already been validated, some medicinal plants lack proper scientific validation. We recommend further phytochemical investigations and pharmacological validations of Begonia picta Smith, Citrus pseudolimon Tanka, Cotoneaster rotundifolia Wall., Heracleum canescens Lindl., Parochetus communis Buch–Ham., Pittosporum napaulense DC., and Plantago erosa Wall.
... Ocimum basilicum has been found to give potent anti-fungal activity against Aspergillus fumigatus, A. flavus, Candida albicans, Cryptococcus neoformans, Botrytis fabae, Uromyces fabae, Aureobasidium pullulans, Trichophyton rubrum, Microsporum gypseum, and Trichoderma viride. [92][93][94] The methanolic ethanolic and aqueous extracts of stem bark of O. basilicum possessed significant in vitro antifungal activities against Candida albicans, thereby indicating its possible use as an anti-fungal agent. [95] The essential oil extracted from O. basilicum exhibited anti-fungal activity against Aspergillus fumigatus, A. niger, and Penicillium chrysogenum. ...
... In folk medicine, the anti-inflammatory, analgesic and 2 somewhat arousing effect of basil is used. In addition to antimicrobial properties [10], basil essential oil has been shown to have fungicidal activity [11]. ...
Fluorescence spectra and chemical composition of cold-pressed sunflower oleic oils with addition of oils from: 1) basil (Ocimum basilicum), 2) rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) and 3) oregano (Origanum vulgare) were studied. The aim of the study is to compare chemical composition of cold pressed oil with and without addition of different plant oils. The concentrations of some elements (essential and toxic) in oil were determined by using Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) after microwave digestion. Infrared spectroscopic experiments (ATR and transmittance) and NMR spectrum were used to study the fatty acid profile of the analysed oils.
The most important uses of old fabrics include clothing, mummification, and bookbinding. However, because they are predominantly constructed of natural materials, they are particularly susceptible to physical and chemical deterioration brought on by fungi. The treatments that are typically used to preserve old textiles focus on the use of synthetic fungicides, which have the potential to be dangerous for both human health and the environment. Essential oils (EOs), which are safe for the environment and have no negative effects on human health, have been widely advocated as an alternative to conventional antifungals. Four natural fabrics-linen, cotton, wool, and silk-were utilized in the current work. The extracted EO from leaves of river red gum (Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh.) were prepared at 125, 250, and 500 µL/L. Aspergillus flavus, Fusarium culmorum and Aspergillus niger were inoculated separately into the treated four fabrics with the EO at concentrations of 125, 250, and 500 µL/L or the main compounds (spathulenol and eucalyptol) at the concentrations of 6, 12, 25, and 50 µL/L and were then compared to the untreated samples. GC-MS was used to analyze the EO chemical composition, while visual observations and scanning electron microscopic (SEM) were used to study the fungal growth inhibition. Spathulenol (26.56%), eucalyptol (14.91%), and p-cymene (12.40%) were the principal chemical components found in E. camaldulensis EO by GC-MS. Spathulenol molecule displayed the highest electrostatic potential (ESP) compared with the other primary compound, as calculated by quantum mechanics. In the untreated textile samples, SEM analysis revealed substantial proliferation of hyphae from A. flavus, F. culmorum, and A. niger. The fungal growth was completely inhibited at a concentration of 500 µL/L from the EO. Both eucalyptol and spathulenol completely inhibited the formation of the fungal spores at a concentration of 50 µL/L, although eucalyptol was more effective than spathulenol across the board for all four textiles. The results support E. camaldulensis EO functionalized textiles as an effective active antifungal agent.
Soybean (Glycine max), a pivotal global agricultural crop, faces significant economic losses from pests and phytopathogenic fungi. To address this, farmers often resort to synthetic pesticides, posing potential risks to health and the environment. In this context, eucalyptol stands out in agriculture for its toxicity to various insects and fungi, with minimal environmental and human health impacts. This study aimed to i) assess the insecticidal activity of eucalyptol against Spodoptera frugiperda JE Smith (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) and Epicauta atomaria Germar (Coleoptera: Meloidae), and its fungicidal activity against Cercospora kikuchii, Cercospora sojina, and Sclerotium rolfsii; and ii) explore the potential phytotoxic effect of eucalyptol on non-target soybean plants. Eucalyptol demonstrated good fumigant insecticidal activity against S. frugiperda 1st instar larvae (LC50 = 26.9 µL/L air) and E. atomaria adults (LC50 = 34.6 µL/L air), along with moderate fungicidal activity against C. kikuchii and C. sojina (mycelial inhibition halo diameters of 6.0 ± 0.0 mm and 10.0 ± 2.5 mm, respectively, at a concentration of 5 µL/disk). Importantly, eucalyptol exhibited no phytotoxic effects on soybeans. Its potential as a biopesticide for soybean crops, replacing synthetic alternatives, shows promise, though further studies are needed.
Grey mould, caused by the devastating pathogen Botrytis cinerea, poses a significant threat to tomato plants in both field and greenhouse conditions and causes significant pre and postharvest losses worldwide. Our study aimed to explore the antifungal potential of essential oils against the Botrytis cinerea of tomatoes. The putative pathogen was isolated, purified and characterized by cultural, morphological and molecular studies and the association was confirmed by a pathogenicity test. Essential oils were extracted from Garlic cloves, Artemisia leaves, and Jatropha seeds using the Soxhlet apparatus, and their compositions were analyzed using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. In vitro, tests evaluated the efficacy of these oils at different concentrations (25, 50, 75, 100, 250, 500 and 1000 ppm) against B. cinerea. Garlic oil showed remarkable antifungal properties, inhibiting mycelial growth by 100% at concentrations of 75 ppm and above, Artemisia oil exhibited a significant inhibitory effect of 62.65% at 1000 ppm. Jatropha oil was the least effective, with an inhibition effect of only 8.66% at the highest concentration (1000 ppm) after 120 h. Based on the in vitro test, garlic essential oil was further tested in the pot at 75, 100 and 250 ppm. The essential oil was sprayed both protective and curative. Garlic oil at a concentration of 250 ppm effectively reduced disease incidence and index and increased tomato yield. However, the curative spray showed better control than the protective spray. This study highlights the potential of essential oils, particularly garlic oil, as a natural alternative for managing grey mould in tomatoes, paving the way for resilient and sustainable approaches to protect tomato crops from devastating fungal disease.
The most important uses of old fabrics include clothing, mummification, and bookbinding. However, because they are predominantly constructed of natural materials, they are particularly susceptible to physical and chemical deterioration brought on by fungi. The treatments that are typically used to preserve old textiles focus on the use of synthetic fungicides, which have the potential to be dangerous for both human health and the environment. Essential oils (EOs), which are safe for the environment and have no negative effects on human health, have been widely advocated as an alternative to conventional antifungals. Four natural fabrics—linen, cotton, wool, and silk—were utilized in the current work. The extracted EO from leaves of river red gum ( Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh.) were prepared at 125, 250, and 500 µL/L. Aspergillus flavus , Fusarium culmorum and Aspergillus niger were inoculated separately into the treated four fabrics with the EO at concentrations of 125, 250, and 500 µL/L or the main compounds (spathulenol and eucalyptol) at the concentrations of 6, 12, 25, and 50 µL/L and were then compared to the un-treated samples. GC–MS was used to analyze the EO chemical composition, while visual observations and scanning electron microscopic (SEM) were used to study the fungal growth inhibition. Spathulenol (26.56%), eucalyptol (14.91%), and p -cymene (12.40%) were the principal chemical components found in E. camaldulensis EO by GC–MS. Spathulenol molecule displayed the highest electrostatic potential (ESP) compared with the other primary compound, as calculated by quantum mechanics. In the untreated textile samples, SEM analysis revealed substantial proliferation of hyphae from A. flavus , F. culmorum , and A. niger . The fungal growth was completely inhibited at a concentration of 500 µL/L from the EO. Both eucalyptol and spathulenol completely inhibited the formation of the fungal spores at a concentration of 50 µL/L, although eucalyptol was more effective than spathulenol across the board for all four textiles. The results support E. camaldulensis EO functionalized textiles as an effective active antifungal agent.
Characteristics of preferred or alternative host plants can impact the population dynamics of polyphagous insects. Chrysodeixis includens has become an important pest in economically important crops such as sunflower, cotton, soybean, and beans. In the present study, we evaluated the effects of basil cultivars Ocimum basilicum (alternative host) on C. includens. For this, larvae were fed daily with bean leaves (preferred host-control) and five basil cultivars (Maria Bonita, Mr. Burns, Italian Large Leaf, Vermelho Rubi, and Cinnamon). Subsequently, development, survival, pupae body mass, reproductive parameters, and life table parameters of insects were evaluated. The populations of C. includens fed with leaves of the Italian Large Leaf cultivar showed similar performance to the preferential host (beans). The other host plants prolonged the duration of the larval stage and negatively affected the reproductive and demographic parameters of C. includens. Mr. Burns negatively affected the development and reduced the reproductive potential of the insect. The cultivars Maria Bonita, Vermelho Rubi, and Cinnamon had a negative effect on the development and reproductive potential of this insect. The results indicate that basil cultivars have a negative effect on the development, longevity, and reproduction of C. includens. The use of basil host plants may be a safe alternative to be used concomitantly with other strategies for the management of C. includens.
Graphical abstract
Peganum harmala, also known as wild rue, is a perennial herbaceous plant that occurs in semi-arid parts of Asia, the coastal Mediterranean region, Mexico, and the southern United States. Extracts from P. harmala are toxic to aphids and mites, and also possess antifungal activity. P. harmala extracts and four systemic commercial fungicides were initially investigated for their in vitro toxicity to Alternaria solani, the fungal pathogen of early blight of tomato. The P. harmala extracts inhibited mycelial growth and conidial germination of A. solani, but inhibition was less than for the commercial fungicides prothioconazole and iprodione. Tests in a commercial greenhouse near Jingyang County, Shaanxi Province, China, during 2020, 2021, and 2022 compared efficacy of P. harmala, alone and in combination with commercial fungicides, for suppression of early blight on tomato cv. Provence. Three applications of iprodione or prothioconazole at 7- to 10-day intervals resulted in <10% incidence of foliar symptoms on naturally inoculated plants. When a spray of P. harmala extract + prothioconazole was followed at 15-day intervals by P. harmala extract + iprodione and P. harmala extract alone incidence of foliar symptoms remained <10%. These results indicate that alternating tank mixes of prothioconazole or iprodione with P. harmala, followed by the extract alone, can extend the interval between sprays by 7–10 days and reduce dependency on synthetic chemical pesticides for control of early blight in greenhouse-grown tomatoes.
Since time immemorable, spices have been known to combat the onslaught of various microbes like bacteria, fungi and viruses, responsible for various diseases. These microbes also led to food spoilage, which in turn reduced its shelf life. Spices can be used as food preservatives instead of chemical preservatives that are harmful to our health. Studies have proven that the spices commonly used in the kitchen like pepper, clove, ginger, coriander, garlic, cinnamon, etc., are highly potent anti-microbial agents. Moreover, they are also eminent anti-inflammatory and carminative agents. The essential oils in spices are also used for protection against various pathogens in plants. These properties are due to the various chemical compounds like eugenol, gingerol, flavonoids, terpenes, anthocyanins, phenylpropanoids and various organosulphur compounds among others present in spices. Hence, spices can be exploited for food preservation and in the pharmaceutical industries. They can also be used as biopesticides, insecticidal agents, antioxidants and natural colorants. This chapter highlights the effect of various spices on various micro-organisms, the various metabolites in spices that lend this ability, and also reviews the various works undertaken to understand the antimicrobial activity of spices.
Spices have been used since ancient times as a flavoring agent as well as an important medicinal resource. Biotechnology, using strategies such as cell, organ, and tissue culture, genetic engineering, and the application of nucleic acid markers can escalate the productivity and efficiency of spices. Cell, tissue, and plant organ culture have enabled the rapid and mass reproduction of many disease-free spice plants, which are uniform genetically and qualitatively. In recent years, cell and limb suspension (stem and hair roots) have been considered for producing secondary metabolites and for studying the biosynthesis pathway of metabolites. Plant genetic engineering has helped in the genetic identification and manipulation of enzymes of the biosynthetic pathway of secondary metabolites. Gene transformation has improved the production of secondary metabolites that have yield limitations. Molecular markers are powerful tools for accurately identifying important medicinal species, examining genetic diversity, classifying hereditary reserves, and determining their genetic map irrespective of their age, physiological, and environmental conditions. Next-generation sequencing (NGS) methods like restriction-site-associated DNA sequencing (RAD-seq) have revolutionized the study of genetic diversity, and the enzymes and genes implied in the secondary metabolites biosynthetic pathways can be studded by transcriptome profiling (RNA-seq). The ground-breaking genome editing techniques like Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR), sequence-specific nucleases of transcription activator-like effector nucleases (TALENs), and zinc-finger nucleases could help in customizing the plants according to the requirements. This article provides an overview of various biotechnology solutions that increase the quality and productivity of spice plants.
The Chemistry inside Spices & Herbs: Research and Development brings comprehensive information about the chemistry of spices and herbs with a focus on recent research in this field. The book is an extensive 2-part collection of 20 chapters contributed by experts in phytochemistry with the aim to give the reader deep knowledge about phytochemical constituents in herbal plants and their benefits. The contents include reviews on the biochemistry and biotechnology of spices and herbs, herbal medicines, biologically active compounds and their role in therapeutics among other topics. Chapters which highlight natural drugs and their role in different diseases and special plants of clinical significance are also included.
Part I focuses on the general aspects of spice biotechnology, structure activity relationships and the natural products that can be used to treat different diseases - such as neurological diseases, inflammation, pain and infections. This part also covers information about phenolic compounds, flavonoids and turmeric supplements.
This book is an ideal resource for scholars (in life sciences, phytomedicine and natural product chemistry) and general readers who want to understand the importance of herbs, spices and traditional medicine in pharmaceutical and clinical research.
MYCELIAL GROWTH INHIBITION ACTIVITY OF BASIL ESSENTIAL OIL AT
DIFFERENT CONCENTRATIONS AGAINST PHYTIUM AND ALTERNARIA
SOLANI
This study aimed at comparing the efficacy of essential oils from three aromatic plants species (Cymbopogon citratus, Eucalyptus citriodora and Ocimum gratissimum) in vitro and in vivo against two Phytophthora strains (Phytophthora palmivora and P. megakarya) in a view to developing new biofongicides for the control of cocoa tree black pod disease. Essential oils were applied at four different concentrations (0.5; 1; 3 and 5 mL/L) in vitro and in vivo on leaf discs of three cocoa clones (NA32, PA150 and SCA6) whichsusceptibility is known. As results, all three essential oils significantly (p˂ 0.05) reduced in vitro mycelial growth of both Phytophthora strains and also reduced the leaf susceptibility to these strains. Inhibition rates in vitro of Phytophthora strains mycelial growth ranged from 83.80 to 100% for the essential oils of Cymbopogon citratus and Ocimum gratissimum species and from 17.7 to 100% for which of Eucalyptus citriodora species. In the biotests, the leaf susceptibility index of clone NA32 (susceptible) was reduced from 3.14 to 0.40. This correspond to reduction rates ranged from 64.87 to 86.70% of leaf susceptibility to both Phytophthora strains. Essential oils (HS and HO) from Cymbopogon citratus and Ocimum gratissimum species were most effective than which from Eucalyptus citriodora species. However, all three essential oils revealed antifungal properties. Therefore, they could be recommended as biofungicides for a sustainable control of cocoa tree black pod disease in Côte d'Ivoire.
Pest control in agriculture is generally carried out through the application of synthetic insecticides causing deterioration of the health and environment. Essential oils (EOs) extracted from plants are seen as alternatives to synthetic pesticides. This study aimed at determining the insecticidal, fungicidal, phytotoxic activity and composition of the EO from leaves and green stems of Lavandula dentata (Lamiaceae). EO chemical composition was determined/identified by gas chromatography mass spectrometry. The insecticidal, fungicidal, phytotoxic activity of the EO was evaluated at different concentrations. The main components of EO were eucalyptol (34.33%), fenchone (17.78%), and camphor (15.75%). EO showed good insecticidal activity on the three pest insects evaluated. LC50 values against Sitophilus zeamais (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) and Tribolium castaneum (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) were 26.9 and 11.3 μl/l air (assay without food) and 42.7 and 29.3 μl/l air (assay with food), respectively, while for Epicauta atomaria (Coleoptera: Meloidae), LC50 was 26.9 μl/l air (assay without food). Moreover, EO had good fungicidal activity against Cercospora kikuchii, Cercospora sojina, and Septoria glycines (Capnodiales: Mycosphaerellaceae) plant pathogenic fungi, with ID (diameter of the inhibition zone of fungal growth) median values of 34.00, 29.50 and 22.00 mm at a concentration of 5 μl/disc, respectively. Finally, EO exhibited a strong phytotoxic activity against Lactuca sativa (Asteraceae) model plant inhibiting 100% of the radicle growth at a concentration of 25.0 μl/ml. In conclusion, L. dentata EO could be considered as a good biopesticide for future integrated pest management programs.
Amaç: Fesleğen (Ocimum basilicum L.), Türkiye’de ve dünyada ekonomik anlamda öneme sahip olan tıbbi ve aromatik bitkilerden biridir. Lamiaceae familyasına ait bu bitki pek çok sektör tarafından yoğun bir şekilde tüketilmektedir. Bu çalışmada, farklı alt tür ve varyeteleri olan bu bitkinin beş farklı popülasyondan gelen tohumların bazı fiziksel (şekil-boyut, yüzey alan, ortalama aritmetik-geometrik çap, küresellik ve bin dane ağırlığı) ve fizyolojik (çimlenme yüzdesi ve zamanı, sürgün-kök uzunlukları) özellikleri saptanmıştır.Materyal ve Yöntem: Bu çalışma, 2018-2019 yılları arasında Bingöl Üniversitesi Ziraat Fakültesinde gerçekleştirilmiştir. Beş farklı popülasyona ait fesleğen tohumları incelenmiş ve elde edilen veriler SPSS V22. İstatistik programında p<0.05 önemlilik düzeyinde değerlendirilmiştir.Araştırma Bulguları: Çalışmada elde edilen verilere göre, tüm fesleğen populasyonlarının genel olarak uzun ve oval bir tohum yapısında; %80-93 arasında çimlenme yüzdesine; 1.730 g ila 2.050 g arasında bin tane ağırlıklarına; 0.670 cm ila 3.970 cm arasında kök uzunlukları ve 3.560 cm ila 4.860 cm arasında sürgün uzunluklarına sahip oldukları belirlenmiştir.Sonuç: Bu çalışma ile genetiksel ve çevresel faktörlerin tohum populasyonlarına etki ettiği ve aralarında belirgin farklara neden olduğu sonucuna ulaşılmıştır.
The essential oil obtained by hydro-distillation of leaves of Ocimum basilicum (basil essential oil) was analyzed for its potential to manage the Alternaria alternata causal agent of Alternaria rot of tomato, in vitro and in vivo. Further, the chemical composition of the extracted basil oil was analyzed by the GC/MS. A total of 20 chemical compounds were identified in the hydro-distilled basil essential oil. The primary constituents of the basil essential oil were methyl chavicol (38.2 %) and linalool (28.7 %). In vitro, the basil essential oil successfully constrained the growth and conidia germination of A. alternata. The highest concentration of basil essential oil (10 %) provided maximum growth reduction (88.0 %) of the fungus. Likewise, the highest concentration of basil essential oil (10 %) caused a 90 % reduction in conidia germination. In vivo, the tomatoes treated with 4 % and 6 % basil essential oil had 33.3 % and 55.5 % respectively, reduction in the infected wounds as compared to control (untreated inoculated). Also, there were 52.9 % and 62.3 % less A. alternata infected fruits when treated with 4 % and 6 % basil essential oil respectively as compared to control (untreated inoculated). This proves that the basil essential oil was able to manage the Alternaria rot of tomato successfully. Therefore, the basil essential oil can substitute the synthetic fungicides to manage the Alternaria rot of tomato.
The outbreak of diseases caused by Candida species is growing. These opportunistic pathogens can produce biofilm on non-biological surfaces, such as removable orthodontic appliances. Over the past two decades, there has been a significant increase in resistance to several types of antifungal drugs. Recently, there is a growing interest in using herbal plants and their extracts as an alternative to antifungal drugs. A common plant is basil, which belongs to Lamiaceae family. This study aimed to determine the effect of basil extracts on the adhesion of C. albicans and C. dubliniensis to acrylic surfaces of removable orthodontic appliances. Basil dried leaves were macerated in ethanol to extract its constituent, and then the extract was dissolved in water and fractioned by other solvents, including n-hexane and ethyl acetate, successively. The minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) of the extracts against standard species of Candida were determined by the broth microdilution method based on clinical and laboratory standard institute (CLSI) protocol. Afterward, adherence and biofilm formation tests were done on acrylic specimens in the vicinity of proper concentration of fractions with the help of the Crystal Violet and spectrophotometry method. MIC for ethyl acetate fraction, n-hexane fraction, ethanol crude extract, and the aqueous fraction was 1024, 2048, ≥2048, >2048 µg/ml, respectively. Inhibition of adherence and biofilm formation for Candida albicans and Candida dubliniensis in the vicinity of ethyl acetate fraction was 73% and 78%, respectively. In the vicinity of n-hexane fraction was 65% and 78%, respectively. Two fractions could inhibit the growth, adherence, and biofilm formation of two Candida species.
Leaf extracts of Piper betle (most effective), Ocimum sanctum, Nyctanthes arbor-tristis and Citrus limon were effective in reducing radial growth of Pyricularia oryzae, Cochliobolus miyabeanus and Rhizotonia solani. -from Authors
The review deals with the efficacy of bioactive components of Ocimum sp. (Tulsi) relating to pesticidal, fungicidal, bactericidal, and medicinal values used since ancient times. Eugenol, methyl chavicol, linalool, isoeugenol, and methyl isoeugenol are the main constituents found with active combinations against stored grain insects, pests, mosquitoes, many pathogenic fungal, and bacterial spp. Various medicinal properties of Ocimum are attributed to its similar bioactive components. Its multipurpose economic uses have applications in rural as well as urban areas.
This technical handbook is an attempt to draw together the diverse literature on these crops in separately authored chapters. Firstly, the basic botany (the oils being derived from plants of the Labiatae, Umbelliferae and Compositae), physiology and biochemistry of the major species are reviewed, and the genetics of oil composition are analysed. The ecological roles for volatile oils and their biological activities against a wide range of organisms are discussed, and the biotechnological methods employed in the laboratory production of oils from aromatic and medicinal plants are surveyed. A chapter on the commercial aspects and world trade in volatile oil crops is included. There is an index of vernacular and Linnean species and another of chemical compounds. -J.W.Cooper
Essential oils were extracted fromMajorana syriaca, Satureja thymbra, Micromeria fruticosa, andSalvia triloba, and their volatile fractions were tested for their antifungal activity against the soil-borne pathogensFusarium oxysporum andMacrophomina phaseolina and the foliar pathogensBotrytis cinerea andExserohilum turcicum. Results showed a fungistatic effect of 1, 2.5, and 5μl of the various essential oils on fungal mycelium growth. The most significant effect was exerted by essential oils extracted fromM. syriaca, which inhibited the growth ofB. cinerea by 44% and of all the other fungi tested by 100%.
As part of an ongoing program of work on polyamine analogues, a number of alicyclic diamines were synthesized and examined for fungicidal activity. The alicyclic diamine 1,2-bis(aminomethyl)-4,5-dimethylcyclohexa-1,4-diene (BAD), synthesized as the dihydrochloride salt, controlled the important crop pathogen Erysiphe graminis f.sp hordei. Greatest control of E. graminis was achieved when BAD was applied 2 days postinoculation. The alicyclic diamines trans-4,5-bis(aminomethyl)-1,2-dimethylcyclohex-1-ene (trans-BAD) and the cis-isomer (cis-BAD), as well as 1,2-bis(aminomethyl)cyclopentene (BACP) and trans-1,2-bis(dimethylaminomethyl)cyclobutane (TCCBM), were also synthesized as their dihydrochloride salts. trans-BAD was found to possess greater fungicidal activity than the cis-isomer against E. graminis, while BACP and TCCBM both gave >80% control of powdery mildew infection. Since the powdery mildew fungus cannot be grown axenically, the effects of the alicyclic diamines on polyamine metabolism were examined using the oat leaf stripe pathogen, Pyrenophora avenae. BAD and derivatives had little effect on polyamine metabolism in the fungal pathogen P. avenae. It seems clear, therefore, that the antifungal activity of these derivatives may not be associated with altered polyamine metabolism. Keywords: Polyamines; alicyclic diamines; fungicide; powdery mildew
The antifungal and fungicidal effects of hyssop (Hyssopus officinalis) oil and its individual components were studied in a series of in vitro and in vivo experiments. Mycelial growth of the plant pathogenic fungi Pyrenophora avenae and Pyricularia oryzae was completely inhibited by 0.4% hyssop oil. Volatile components diffusing from agar medium containing 0.4% hyssop oil also completely inhibited the growth of these two fungi. Various components of hyssop oil (L-bornyl acetate, isopinocampheol and pinocamphone), used individually, reduced growth of P. avenae and, where combinations of individual components were used, any mixture containing isopinocampheol completely inhibited fungal growth. Growth of P. oryzae was less affected by individual components of the oil. Hyssop oil reduced germination of Botrytis fabae conidia and uredospores of Uromyces viciae-fabae, but in contrast to the data from in vitro experiments, its effects on pathogen infection were less clear cut. Thus, although 0.05% hyssop oil reduced rust infection of broad bean when applied 1, 2 or 3 days before, or 1 or 2 days after inoculation, its effects against barley powdery mildew and apple powdery mildew were variable. It is suggested that this variability might be the result of the volatile components of the oil diffusing away from leaf surfaces, thus reducing the concentration of active components on the leaf surface.
Essential Oils from Ocimum basilicum and their components showed different inhibition effects against Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. vasinfectum and Rhizopus nigricans, The different antifungal activity of the essential oils is determined mainly by the percentage of the main components: cineol, linalool, methylchavicol and eugenol.
The antifungal activity of volatile oil obtained from the leaves of sweet gale (Myrica gale) has been investigated. Fungi, isolated from the leaves ofM. gale, were grown in liquid medium containing the oil and its effect on biomass production was gauged. The oil inhibited growth of all species of fungi to greater or lesser extent. Sesquiterpenes were more active than monoterpenes, and among the sesquiterpenes germacrone was marginally more active than -elemenone. These results support the proposition that the volatile oil ofM. gale has a role in resistance to fungal pathogens.
Essential oils extracted by hydrodistillation from five different varieties of Ocimum basilicum L. plants (Anise, Bush, Cinnamon, Dark Opal and a commercial sample of dried basil) were examined for antimicrobial activity against a wide range of foodborne Gram-positive and -negative bacteria, yeasts and moulds by an agar well diffusion method. All five essential oils of basil showed antimicrobial activity against most of the organisms tested with the exception of Flavimonas oryzihabitans and Pseudomonas species. The inhibitory effect of Anise oil, in comparison with mixtures of the predominant components of pure linalool and methyl chavicol, against the acid-tolerant organisms, Lactobacillus curvatus and Saccharomyces cerevisiae, was examined in broth by an indirect impedance method. Synergistic effects between Anise oil, low pH (pH 4.2) and salt (5% NaCl) were determined. The antimicrobial effect of Anise oil was also assessed in a tomato juice medium by direct viable count, showing that the growth of Lact. curvatus and S. cerevisiae was completely inhibited by 0.1% and 1% Anise oil, respectively. The results of the current study indicate the need for further investigations to understand the antimicrobial effects of basil oils in the presence of other food ingredients and preservation parameters.
Classification of anOcimum basilicumgermplasm collection and examination of the antifungal effects of the essential oil of basil
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