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Global uses of Australian acacias – recent trends and future prospects
Diversity and Distributions
Abstract
Aim This study reports on the contribution of the Australian Tree Seed Centre (ATSC) to the international dissemination of Australian acacias. It also describes the current uses and the scale of economic benefits derived from planting Australian acacias, and speculates about possible future trends in usage. This information is crucial for the evaluation of overall human-mediated transfers of Australian acacias as a global experiment in biogeography.
Location Australia and Global.
Methods ATSC databases were used to determine which taxa were sent to which regions of the world and in what numbers. Location, scale and value of uses of the most important species were described from a review of published and grey literature, and we drew on our collective experience to speculate about future trends.
Results The ATSC despatched samples of 322 taxa (or roughly a third of Acacia species native to Australia) between 1980 and 2010 to 149 countries. Plantations in SE Asia and South Africa supplying the pulp and paper industry cover an area of over 2 M ha and produce pulp worth around $US4.3B p.a. In SE Asia, pulpwood species also provide logs for an expanding industry based on solid wood product. Tannin is produced from Acacia mearnsii in South Africa and Brazil. A suite of multi-purpose species helps meeting the demand for food, fodder, fuelwood, poles and site amelioration in dry zone regions of Africa and elsewhere and are widely incorporated into agro-forestry systems. Acacia saligna is the most widely planted non-timber species with around 600,000 ha established worldwide. Many acacia species also have horticultural uses particularly in Europe.
Main conclusions The ATSC has been the major agent for systematic exploration and worldwide dissemination of Australian acacias over the past 30 years, but seed from local and regional sources of exploited species will dominate future movements. The scale of production from currently planted species will expand to meet the demands of population growth, using improved varieties. Plantations for energy and carbon sequestration might become increasingly widespread.
... Botanical gardens and arboreta, wellknown sources of wattle introductions, have become more widespread on all continents since 1950, creating new pathways for secondary disseminations and increasing the total propagule pressure of alien plant species (Hulme, 2015;van Kleunen et al., 2018). The increasing demand for pulp for paper and solid wood for construction is met by increasingly widespread plantations of tropical wattle species in South-East Asia (Griffin et al., 2011;Chapters 15 and 25, this volume). Multipurpose wattle species are being promoted to contribute to food and wood security in tropical or dry countries (Griffin et al., 2011;Chapter 12, this volume). ...
... The increasing demand for pulp for paper and solid wood for construction is met by increasingly widespread plantations of tropical wattle species in South-East Asia (Griffin et al., 2011;Chapters 15 and 25, this volume). Multipurpose wattle species are being promoted to contribute to food and wood security in tropical or dry countries (Griffin et al., 2011;Chapter 12, this volume). Wattles are also promoted for new uses, such as carbon sequestration (e.g. ...
... This is important in view of the fact that in South Africa, for example, the current presence of the majority of historically introduced Acacia species is doubtful (Magona et al., 2018). Another important data source was records of seed lots exported by the Australian Tree Seed Centre (ATSC) to the rest of the world (details in Griffin et al., 2011), but these data need to be interpreted carefully as they provide no evidence of actual use of the seeds (i.e. planting). ...
... Industrial use of wattles has occurred in Europe, or is still occurring in some countries, namely in France, Italy and the UK. In these countries, several species are planted for non-forestry uses, such as the perfume, oil and cut-flower industries, and used in the ornamental plant trade (Griffin et al., 2011;Kull et al., 2011;Chapter 15, this volume), including as home-garden plants. European countries (especially France, but also Belgium, Germany, the Netherlands, Portugal and the UK) also import seeds of wattles from Australia and use wattle products sourced in other parts of the world, e.g. A. mearnsii wood pellets from Brazil and A. mangium furniture from South-East Asia (see Chapter 15, this volume and references therein). ...
... Wattles were also used for rehabilitation of degraded land, for dune stabilization in coastal areas (e.g. A. longifolia and A. saligna), as windbreaks, and for other purposes (e.g. Griffin et al., 2011;Hernández et al., 2014;Mughini, 2016;Vieites-Blanco and González-Prieto, 2020;Chapter 15, this volume). Such plantings were mainly in countries with Mediterranean-type climates, where introduced wattles could thrive (see above). ...
At least 316 Australian Acacia species (‘wattles’) are known to have been introduced into Europe since the late
1700s. Most of these species are found only occasionally in gardens, others may have not survived in the envir-
onment, some are used for gardening, perfume or the cut-fower industries, 13 species are considered naturalized
and ten are invasive. The uses and propensity for invasiveness of wattles are not uniform across Europe. In gen-
eral, in central and northern Europe some species are mostly used as ornamentals. For example, A. baileyana and
A. dealbata are frequently used in the UK and Switzerland but seldom persist in the wild. In south-western
and Mediterranean Europe, especially in France, Italy, Portugal and Spain, several wattle species have naturalized
and became invasive, notably A. dealbata, A. longifolia, A. mearnsii, A. melanoxylon and A. saligna. For the European
Union, only A. saligna is included in the List of Invasive Alien Species of Union concern under the European Union
Regulation No. 1143/2014. However, in Portugal all Acacia species are classifed as invasive, and in Spain a few
species are also listed as invasive in national legislation. In France and Italy, although several species are invasive,
wattles are cultivated for the cut-fower and perfume industries. This chapter summarizes the introduction
history, current status and the present or future uses of wattles in Europe.
... Acacia mangium, an important forest tree species has an estimated worldwide plantation of 1.4 M ha (Griffin et al., 2011). It is planted widely in South East Asia and used mainly for the production of pulp and paper (Griffin et al., 2011). ...
... Acacia mangium, an important forest tree species has an estimated worldwide plantation of 1.4 M ha (Griffin et al., 2011). It is planted widely in South East Asia and used mainly for the production of pulp and paper (Griffin et al., 2011). Transcriptome sequencing on A. mangium found important genes involved in the lignin biosynthetic pathway (Wong et al., 2011). ...
Acacia mangium is one of the most important species in forest plantation industry in Southeast Asia. Lignin is a complex polymer found in plant which has to be removed using harsh and toxic chemicals for the production of high quality paper. Understanding the complex pathway that underlies the regulation of lignin biosynthetic genes requires in depth knowledge of the genes involved and it’s regulatory elements. Using Thermal Asymmetric Interlaced PCR, a 770bp promoter of pseudoCOMTAm and 619bp of AmCCR1 promoter were isolated. Bioinformatics analysis revealed the presence of cis acting elements commonly found in lignin biosynthetic genes such as TATA box, CAAT box, W box, AC-I and AC-11 elements on both promoters.
... (Fabaceae) has been purposefully introduced to many countries globally, primarily for site rehabilitation, fuelwood and charcoal production, and its invasions have been observed in Spain, South Africa, Portugal, Morocco, Kenya, Italy, Israel, Cyprus, Chile and Algeria (Richardson, Le Roux, and Marchante 2023). Approximately 600,000 ha are invaded by Acacia saligna globally, with 53,000 ha of this in South Africa, mostly in the fynbos biome (Griffin et al. 2011;Le Maitre et al. 2011;van Wilgen et al. 2011). Large-scale management efforts targeting A. saligna and other invasive taxa in South Africa have been on-going for almost three decades (van Wilgen, Wannenburgh, and Wilson 2022) and stack burning is widely used as a control method (particularly, in the fynbos) with cleared sites left to recover naturally (Blanchard and Holmes 2008;Holmes, Esler, Gaertner, et al. 2020). ...
The management of invasive taxa is crucial to mitigating their negative impacts and facilitating native biodiversity recovery. A common feature of clearing invasive trees in fire-prone systems is the 'stack burning' method. The intense and long duration of the heat experienced during burning, with areas at the centre of the stack reaching over 300°C and 175°C at the edge, often leaves persistent stack burn scars, limits native biodiversity recovery, facilitates secondary invasion, and alters soil biotic, chemical and physical conditions. Despite such negative impacts, stack burning remains a method for clearing invasive plants because it is an economical way to dispose plant biomass. Our study investigated the recovery of native species in 80 stack burn scars in lowland fynbos (Cape Flats Sand Fynbos) and mountain fynbos (Peninsula Sandstone Fynbos) of South Africa over 3 years after clearing. Our results indicate that the (1) native species recovery in stack burn scars was limited and (2) stack burn scars showed higher native species richness and cover in lowland than mountain fynbos. To encourage the recovery of native soil seed banks and biota in stack burn scars, active seeding and/or by covering them with topsoil is recommended.
... Acacia mearnsii De Wild., commonly known as black wattle, is an Australian native tree belonging to the family Leguminosae (Fabaceae) and the subfamily Mimosaceae (Dunlop;MacLennan, 2002). The species is used as a raw material for the production of tannins and woodchips in Africa and South America (Griffin et al., 2011). In southern Brazil, A. mearnsii forests occupy approximately 50 thousand hectares (Ageflor, 2022) either in single-species forests or in agroforest systems (Soares et al., 2018), mainly to serve the production of tannins, woodchips, and pellets for export (Ageflor, 2022;Giesbrecht et al., 2022). ...
Acacia mearnsii is an Australian native tree species commercially grown in Africa and South America that produces tannins and woodchips. Its seed size varies, which may impact the germination and initial growth of seedlings. In its turn, Azospirillum brasilense inoculation is known to improve the growth of several crops. However, there are few studies the effects of A. brasilense inoculation on the germination and initial growth of forestry species. The present study evaluated the influence of seed size and A. brasilense Ab-V5 and Ab-V6 inoculation on germination and initial growth of A. mearnsii. Small seeds reduced the mean germination time (MGT) by 5.2% and the time to 50% germination (T50) by 23.8% in comparison to large seeds. On the other hand, seedlings that originated from large seeds had a seedling vigor index (SVI) 18.6% higher than those that originated from small seeds. Azospirillum brasilense inoculation increased the germination percentage by 20.9%, germination speed by 91.8%, root length (RL) by 35.8%, and root fresh weight by 20.5%. Additionally, it decreased MGT by 8.2% and T50 by 37.6%. The combination of large seeds and A. brasilense inoculation increased RL by approximately 50% and SVI by 62.1%. Thus, the use of A. brasilense inoculation favors germination and seedling vigor in A. mearnsii, showing to be a promising strategy for obtaining more uniform seedlings in forest nurseries.
Keywords:
Black wattle; PGPR; Phytohormones; Seedling growth; Vigor indices
... Acacia mearnsii is fast-growing forest specie planted in a short rotation regime, the first is an important plantation species for tannin production and woodchip exports in South Africa, Australia and Brazil, for bioenergy and pulp and paper production (Griffin et al., 2011). It was found that this species was promising for establishing mixed-species planting with Eucalyptus urophylla x Eucalyptus grandis hybrid, at the age of 9 years in an experimental area in South of Brazil, presenting gains in biomass production per hectare (Ludvichak et. ...
Background
Acacia mearnsii and Eucalyptus dunnii are species planted mainly for tannin and cellulose production. However, its woods have characteristics favorable to their use for energy generation, being commercialized in the form of firewood, chips or charcoal too. Biochar is a stable form of carbon that can be obtained by converting small particles of wood in the pyrolysis process and that can be used as solid fuel, among other applications as a soil conditioner. In this study, the properties of biochar produced in a horizontal reactor using wood of these species and under milder temperatures were evaluated.
Results
Temperature of 350 oC and the reaction time of 30 minutes promoted an increase in higher calorific value of 33% for A. mearnsii and 51% for E. dunnii, with gravimetric yield of 39% and 32%, respectively. it was found that the 250 and 300 oC was not efficient to carbonize the wood of both species. An increase in specific surface area is observed with increasing carbonization temperature. Bigger increases were produced at temperatures of 350 oC for E. dunnii and 420 oC for A. mearnsii, with increase in porosity. At these temperatures, there was an increase in surface area and a decrease in pore size.
Conclusion
In temperatures of 350 oC, the woods of both species provided a good quality biochar with porosity, surface area, pore size and pyrolysis yield suitable for energy use. For soil conditioning use, considering these aspects, suggested to test the appropriate temperatures for each species, between 350 and 420 oC.
Keywords:
Black wattle; Dunn’s with gum; Forest biomass; Carbonization
... There are over 1500 known species of Acacia distributed throughout the world, of which approximately 64% are found in Australia (World Wide Wattle, 2023). Acacia trees are known for its timber (Griffin et al., 2011) and gum that can be used as an edible coating to extend the shelf life of food (Suresh et al., 2022). It is not well known to the general population that the seeds of many Acacia species are edible and have been part of the diet for First Nation Australians for millennia (Brand-Miller & Holt, 1998). ...
Three different Acacia seeds (A. retinodes, A. provincialis and A. tenuissima) harvested from different locations and in different years were analysed for their variations in proximate and mineral composition. Results showed no one species had the highest content across all proximate and mineral analyses, for example, A. retinodes Harmans 2020 had the highest ash (3.7%), A. retinodes Harmans 2022 had the highest protein content (31.3%), A. tenuissima Hindmarsh 2020 had the highest fat content (18.5%) and A. provincialis Tarrington 2022 had the highest magnesium content (469 mg/100 g). Principle component analysis was carried out to determine the effect of species, harvest locations and years on the chemical composition. A biplot of the first two principal components with a total of 60.5% variation showed clustering based on harvest years. The compositions of the Acacia seeds were determined to be affected by species, harvest location and year differences. However, a complete gene–environment interaction study is needed to validate this.
... Many fast-growing, stress-tolerant, or aesthetically pleasing tree species have been broadly planted outside their native range (Dickie et al., 2014). The motivation for their introduction differs widely and may include the planting of non-native conifers for timber and pulp production (Brundu and Richardson, 2016), the reclamation of land and stabilization of sand dunes (Evans, 2009;Griffin et al., 2011), the deployment of legume trees (e.g. Acacia or Gleditsia) to combat desertification and provide resources in arid regions (Witt, 2017), or the use of ornamental trees to enhance environments for rural and urban populations (e.g. ...
Forestry is facing an unprecedented challenging time. Due to climate change, major tree species, which until recently fulfilled major ecosystem services, are being lost and it is often unclear if forest conversion with other native or non-native tree species (NNT) are able to maintain or restore the endangered ecosystem services. Using data from the Austrian Forest Inventory, we analysed the current and future (2081-2100, RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5) productivity of forests, as well as their protective function (avalanches and rockfall). Five different species change scenarios were considered for the replacement of a tree species failing in the future. We used seven native tree species (Picea abies, Abies alba, Pinus sylvestris, Larix decidua, Fagus sylvatica, Quercus robur and Quercus petraea) and nine NNT (Pseudotsuga menziesii, Abies grandis, Thuja plicata, Pinus radiata, Pinus contorta, Robinia pseudoacacia, Quercus rubra, Fraxinus pennsylvanica and Juglans nigra). The results show that no adaptation would lead to a loss of productivity and a decrease in tree species richness. The combined use of native and NNT is more favorable than purely using native species in terms of productivity and tree species richness. The impact of the different species change scenarios can vary greatly between the different environmental zones of Austria (Alpine south, Continental and Pannonian). The Pannonian zone would benefit from the use of NNT in terms of timber production. For the protection against avalanches or rockfall in alpine regions, NNT would not be an advantage, and it is more important if broadleaved or coniferous trees are used. Depending on whether timber production, protective function or tree species richness are considered, different tree species or species change scenarios can be recommended. Especially in protective forests, other aspects are essential compared to commercial forests. Our results provide a basis for forest owners/managers in three European environmental zones to make decisions on a sustainable selection of tree species to plant in the face of climate change.
... 15Wood apparent (moisture content 11%-13%) and basic densities (A) and unbleached SWC (specific wood consumption) (B) for A. dealbata (Ad), A. longifolia (Al), A. mearnsii (Am), A. melanoxylon (Amx), A. saligna (As), and an equitable mixture of all Acacia woods (Amix) in comparison to Eucalyptus globulus (Eg) wood (basic density from[23]). ...
Concerns on the expanding infestation of several Acacia species in the southern Mediterranean European countries have triggered an ever-growing requirement for costly targeted control actions. Valorizing biomass waste produced could help promote and better finance these actions. For that purpose, wood wastes from invasive control actions were tested regarding their pulp and paper potential, aiming to entice cellulose industries to partake in future conservation actions. Wood waste from the five most pervasive Acacia species was studied (Acacia dealbata Link, Acacia longifolia Willd, Acacia mearnsii De Wild, Acacia melanoxylon R.Br, and Acacia saligna Labill) regarding physical and chemical characteristics, and a central composite design was used to optimize alkali charge and reaction temperature on pulping yield and delignification. Bleached kraft pulps were produced with each species’ optimized conditions and for an equitable mixture of all species. Optimized pulp yields (52.6%–53.5%) and pulp polymerization degree (2867–3690) of Acacia species were higher than those of Eucalyptus globulus Labill (used as reference). Optimized bleached pulps were refined and fiber, pulp, and handsheet properties determined. Acacia dealbata and A. longifolia presented high specific wood consumption and lower handsheet strength properties, pointing to overall lower pulping potential, while A. melanoxylon and A. mearnsii characteristics were equal to or higher than those of E. globulus. A. saligna pulp and handsheet characteristics appear more suited for tissue paper. The Acacia mixture achieved acceptable characteristics, enabling the indiscriminate use of Acacia wood regardless of the species. As a shortcoming, the Acacia pulps showed the worst optical characteristics, with brightness dropping substantially with beating (64%–76%) when compared to E. globulus (81%).
... Since the early 1800s, numerous Acacia species (sensu stricto) have been translocated from Australia around the world and they are known to occur in over 80 countries Richardson and Rejmánek, 2011;Chapter 9, this volume). While many are renowned for positive attributes such as provision of timber for furniture, tannin and pulp, as garden ornamentals and for production of oils for perfumes (Roland, 2006;Griffin et al., 2011;Kull et al., 2011;Chapter 15, this volume), many species are now recognized as invasive Richardson and Rejmánek, 2011). The introduction and spread of wattles across the globe are dealt with elsewhere in this book (Chapters 9-13, this volume). ...
... Australian Acacia species (wattles) have been introduced to many countries around the world over the past 250 years for many reasons, primarily for commercial production of wood, fibre and tannins, for land restoration or as ornamentals (Ratnayake and Joyce, 2010;Carruthers et al., 2011;Griffin et al., 2011;Kull et al., 2011;Richardson and Rejmánek, 2011;Chapters 9-15, this volume). Based on these diverse uses, several wattle introductions have proven to be beneficial, but there are also examples from many countries where these benefits are now being increasingly offset, or outweighed, by the negative ecological and ecosystem service impacts of invasions by these species into natural ecosystems (Le Maitre et al., 2011a;Richardson and Rejmánek, 2011;van Wilgen et al., 2011;Vaz et al., 2017;Wilson et al., 2017;Chapters 1 and 23, this volume). ...
... Many Australian Acacia species (hereafter 'wattles') have been widely planted worldwide for socioeconomic and environmental utility, namely in forestry, land rehabilitation and reforestation, as stock fodder, to produce fuelwood/charcoal or for horticultural use (Griffin et al., 2011;Richardson and Rejmánek, 2011;Chapters 9 and 15, this volume). Nevertheless, some wattles now rank among the world's most widespread and damaging invasive trees (Richardson and Rejmánek, 2011; Chapter 1, this volume), with several negative impacts on biodiversity and ecosystem services (e.g. ...
... Acacia mearnsii is an equally important plantation species in South Africa, mainly grown for bark tannin and wood chips export to Brazil (Griffin et al., 2011). The current area planted to A. meansii in South Africa amounts to 110 000 ha (6.8 % of total commercial forestry) of which the high wood density and pulp yield offers an economic advantage for pulp production and long-distance transport capability (Muneri, 1997). ...
Expansion of the area planted to eucalypts has been observed in the last two decades due to an improvement in markets for products from this tree species. This has raised concerns over the management of freshwater resources as other species are replaced by Eucalyptus, which has been shown to use more water than other commercial forestry species. The energy balance (EB) and total evaporation (ET) over Acacia mearnsii was previously monitored at the Two Streams research catchment, and the site harvested in 2018 with subsequent re-planting of E. dunnii. This presented an opportunity to measure the two-year-old E. dunnii (Edun2) EB and ET for comparison on the same site with the previously planted A. mearnsii with results from two-year-old A. mearnsii (Amear2) and six-year-old A. mearnsii (Amear6) crops. ET and EB measurements on Amear2 were obtained using a large aperture scintillometer, while eddy covariance was used for Amear6 and Edun2. Measurements were conducted in October 2007 to September 2008, October 2012 to September 2013 and October 2019 to September 2020 for Amear2, Amear6 and Edun2. The leaf area index (LAI) was measured using a LAI 2200 plant canopy analyser for all crops. The annual plantation water productivity (PWPWOOD) was calculated as a ratio of productive stand volume to ET for Amear2, Amear6 and Edun2. Results showed that latent energy fluxes dominated the EB in all crops for both summer and winter seasons, indicating a possibility that trees were not limited by plant available water in winter (dry season). The Edun2 and Amear2 annual ET was statistically (p > 0.05) similar, while ET of the younger crops (Amear2 and Edun2) was 12% greater than Amear6. High ET in Edun2 was caused by high LAI while Amear2 was caused by high transpiration per unit leaf area in young trees than in mature trees. Monthly crop factors were derived from FAO ETo and ET for all three crops, providing a convenient and transferable method of estimating ET from meteorological data over a large scale. The Edun2 PWPWOOD was greater than Amear2, while Amear6 was greater than both the young crops. This study provides insight into the total water-use by different species at different stages of growth at the same site. It is recommended that catchment water balance measurements be continued on the current E. dunnii crop for the full crop rotation to assess the long-term impact of E. dunnii on streamflow.
... Even though previous studies on this topic are very scarce, the current global distribution indicates that A. mearnsii is growing in many countries, i.e. outside of its native range. These results are in line with the observations of other research reports [e.g., 56,57]. According to the IPCC report [4], southern Africa is a climate change hotspot and there will be unprecedented climate impact changes, including extreme weather conditions. ...
Invasive alien plants are one of the main causes for the decline of native biodiversity worldwide. Hence, it is crucial to understand the dynamics of invasive plants in the context of a changing climate. The main aim of this study was to evaluate the potential distribution of two major invasive alien plants, Prosopis spp and Acacia mearnsii, under current and future climate change scenarios across South Africa. The maximum entropy (MaxEnt) model was used with species occurrence data and bioclimatic variables. The Species occurrence data was obtained from the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF), while the bioclimatic variables were downloaded from the WorldClim database. The model evaluation metrics for training and test samples were the area under curve (AUC) of 0.76 and 0.77 for Prosopis spp, and 0.91 and 0.89 for A. mearnsii, respectively. It showed that MaxEnt performed well in mapping the distribution of both species. Model results indicated that the near-current potential distribution of Prosopis spp and A. mearnsii in South Africa is significant (93.8% and 9.7% of the total land area, respectively). With the projected climate, Prosopis spp showed an inconsistent result across the General Circulation Models (GCMs), projection times and climate change scenarios. However, with respect to the current potential distribution, the geographical ranges of A. mearnsii will significantly contract (by about 75%) due to climate change. Therefore, it is imperative that policy makers, environmental managers and other stakeholders implement integrated management and control strategies to restrict the distribution of Prosopis spp.
... On the other hand, several species have been introduced recently, such as Acacia. It had just been introduced in Indonesia in 1993 following the robust development of pulp industries (Griffin et al., 2011). ...
The livelihoods of farmers in developing countries are often associated with the existence of forests, especially agroforestry. The dynamics of agroforestry and livelihoods could not be separated from the political context and developments in Indonesia. In this paper, the dynamics of Sustainable Livelihood Assets (SLA) owned by smallholder farmers are explored using three political sequences, namely the New Order Era, the Reform Era, and the Post-Reform Era. The result showed that the development of agroforestry in Gunungkidul had been primarily influenced by political initiatives that have a connection with vegetation coverage, livelihood assets, and species composition in the systems. The livelihoods possessed by farmers have been relatively sustainable during the past five decades; only a slight change could be observed in the ownership of capital. The political initiatives have been an enabling environment for agroforestry development that support sustainable livelihoods. The study recommends that the socio-political culture needs to consider the traditional agroforestry system in order to sustain the livelihoods of the people.
... Exotic plant invasions are a global concern, threatening native habitats by negatively impacting biodiversity and communities, and ecosystem processes and functions (Osborne and Gioria 2018; IUCN-International Union for Conservation of Nature 2019). Tropical Australian Acacias (Fabaceae) are extensively planted worldwide due to their uses in agroforestry, plantation, and conservation programs (Griffin et al. 2011;Koutika and Richardson 2019;Belayneh et al. 2021;Hamad-Sheip et al. 2021). Many studies have reported that Acacias restore nutrient cycling in degraded habitats by improving soil fertility and microbial communities (He et al. 2011;Hung et al. 2016;Santos et al. 2017;Perreira et al. 2018;Keet et al. 2021). ...
This study investigates the impacts of Acacia invasion on
Bornean heath forest (HF) soils. Soil profiles and water properties at one soil depth (< 1 m) and physicochemical properties with Soil Fertility Index(SFI) and Soil Evaluation Factor (SEF) from the topsoil or three soil depths of Acacia-invaded and non-invaded HF were assessed. Acacia invasion modified soil profiles by producing thicker horizons O and B but waning horizon E. Thick leaf litter layer in invaded HF was associated with a significant decrease in soil bulk density, moisture, organic matter (OM), total organic carbon, water volume, and NH4+ but a significant increase in soil temperature, and soil water pH, NO3− and PO43−. A significant increase in soil pHwater and available P were observed across all depths, except for topsoil exchangeable NH4+. Acacia invasion significantly reduced total acidity and base cations across soil depths, and total N and exchangeable H, NO3−, Mg, and Al at certain depths, implying leaching and reduced acidification. Topsoil SFI and SEF of Acacia-invaded HF were significantly lower than non-invaded HF, possibly due to slower decomposition rates resulting in lower OM and base concentrations. Variations in topsoil physicochemical properties generated two distinct clusters with the Acacia-invaded plots strongly influenced by PC1 (exchangeable soil NH4+ and temperature), while the non-invaded plots were strongly influenced by PC2 (pHKCl, total acidity, exchangeable Ca, H, and Al). Acacia invasion negatively impacted soil properties, potentially affecting plant, soil, and microbial communities, thus indicating that invasion mitigation and ecological restoration efforts should be prioritized for the invaded HF.
... Australia's contribution to the development of timber plantations in these different contexts has largely been through the dissemination of Acacia and Eucalyptus species. Investment in research and breeding programs has enabled an exponential increase in the production and use of these species, and increasing demand for timber and pulp will see the expansion of the currently planted species to meet these demands (Griffin et al. 2011;Midgley et al. 2017). ...
There are over 7 million ha of eucalypt and acacia plantations in Southeast Asia (SE Asia), comprising both corporate and smallholder plantings. These plantations contribute significantly to national and regional economies and provide diverse ecosystem services. Increased trade, the global movement of people, and a changing climate increase the threat of invasive plantation pests in SE Asia. Here, we review the history of forest biosecurity research in SE Asia to determine what is needed now for the implementation of sustainable biosecurity management systems. Historically, substantial Australian aid funding has been directed at the development of eucalypt and acacia plantations in the region. Attention has been increasing on forest health and biosecurity research since the 1990s, driven by development of the timber plantation estate and the emergence of diseases such as Ceratocystis and insect pests such as Leptocybe invasa. The research agenda has focused on key insect pest and disease taxa and on understanding their biology, topical treatments, breeding responses and land-use planning approaches as means for control and management. We find there is a need for more systemic approaches, including surveillance and pre-emptive strategies, to strengthen timber plantation biosecurity. Greater consideration of socioeconomic and sociocultural contexts will be required to address these challenges. Developing new biosecurity capacity to better detect, and coordinate responses to, forest pest incursions can minimise the potential impacts of invasive pests.
... Afforestation with non-native species is one of the most common management approaches to restore degraded environments (Pimentel and Kounang 1998;Sotka and Byers 2019;Sapsford et al. 2020). Examples include acacia, eucalyptus or pinus being planted worldwide for land reclamation and sand dune stabilization (Griffin et al. 2011); legume trees being used to prevent desertification (Shackleton et al. 2014;Castro-Díez et al. 2019). At least 653 non-native woody plant species are found worldwide (Binggeli 1996;Richardson and Rejmánek 2011). ...
AimsRobinia pseudoacacia is the main non-native tree species that has been widely planted in the Loess Plateau (LP) for revegetation. Most studies focused on its effects on soil and plant properties, but few works investigated biodiversity, especially soil fauna.Methods
We investigated soil fauna in areas where R. pseudoacacia was planted 10, 20, 30, and 50 years ago and grassland areas in LP.ResultsResults showed that afforestation can significantly increase the soil fauna groups of the litter layer which does not further increase with forest age. However, the number of soil fauna groups, especially the dominant groups (mites and springtails), was not significantly affected by afforestation. After afforestation, soil fauna abundance first increased and then decreased, with a maximum value observed 20 years post-planting. The average abundance of soil fauna in the soil layer of the R. pseudoacacia was 22, 292 individuals m–2, which was 4.91 times more than in the litter layer. However, the number of soil fauna groups in the soil layer (10) was significantly lower than that in the litter layer (17). Litter thickness and soil total nitrogen contributed the most and explained 34.7% and 29.5% of soil fauna communities in the litter and soil layers, respectively.Conclusions
Our findings suggest that the change of soil fauna community in the litter layer by afforestation was greater than that in soil layer. However, the effect of forest age on soil fauna was only weak. Afforestation-induced changes in soil and vegetation properties (e.g. stand density, litter thickness, and soil total nitrogen) were crucial determinants of the changes in soil fauna community.
... Acacia mearnsii De Wild., commonly known as the black wattle, is a forest species native to Australia belonging to the family Leguminosae (Fabaceae) and subfamily Caesalpinioideae [1,2]. It is commercially used as raw material to produce tannins and wood chips in Africa and South America [3]. In southern Brazil, A. mearnsii forests occupy roughly 75 thousand hectares and are cultivated in monocultures and agroforestry systems, mainly to meet the production of tannins, chips, and pellets for exportation [4,5]. ...
Black wattle (Acacia mearnsii) is a forest species of significant economic importance in southern Brazil; as a legume, it forms symbiotic associations with rhizobia, fixing atmospheric nitrogen. Nonetheless, little is known about native rhizobia in soils where the species is cultivated. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the diversity and symbiotic efficiency of rhizobia nodulating A. mearnsii in commercial planting areas and validate the efficiency of a potential strain in promoting seedling development. To this end, nodules were collected from four A. mearnsii commercial plantations located in Rio Grande do Sul State, southern Brazil. A total of 80 rhizobia isolates were obtained from black wattle nodules, and thirteen clusters were obtained by rep-PCR. Higher genetic diversity was found within the rhizobial populations from the Duas Figueiras (H′ = 2.224) and Seival (H′ = 2.112) plantations. Twelve isolates were evaluated belonging to the genus Bradyrhizobium, especially to the species Bradyrhizobium guangdongense. The principal component analysis indicated an association between rhizobia diversity and the content of clay, Ca, Mg, and K. Isolates and reference strains (SEMIA 6163 and 6164) induced nodulation and fixed N via symbiosis with black wattle plants after 60 days of germination. The isolates DF2.4, DF2.3, DF3.3, SEMIA 6164, SEMIA 6163, CA4.3, OV3.4, and OV1.4 showed shoot nitrogen accumulation values similar to the N + control treatment. In the second experiment (under nursery conditions), inoculation with the reference strain SEMIA 6164 generally improved the growth of A. mearnsii seedlings, reinforcing its efficiency even under production conditions.
... The Acacia mearnsii De Wild (black wattle) is widely cultivated and used in the industry, the bark is the main source of vegetal tannins used in the tanning process (1,2). Despite the agricultural and industrial importance of A. mearnsii, its flower potential has not yet been explored. ...
This work aimed to obtain and investigate the properties and composition of extracts from flowers of Acacia mearnsii; this tree is widely cultivated because the bark is used as a raw material for various industry segments, but the flowers are not yet explored. The essential oil was evaluated by GC/FID, GC/MS, and GC/O. The antioxidant activity (DPPH and phosphomolybdenum methods) and chemical composition were investigated for a water-soluble extract, a by-product of the extraction process. 85.8% of the compounds present in the essential oil were identified, 8-heptadecene being the major compound. The main scents detected by the olfactory analysis were roast nutty, coffee, sweet, and floral. The water-soluble extract showed antioxidant activity that may be related to phenolic compounds. Results obtained from the LC-qTOF/MS analysis have shown that 25 likely flavonoids, such as naringenin, myricetin, quercetin, and rutin are present in the extract.
... e study reported that 60 wt% of oil was obtained at 500°C. In this series, Griffin et al. [24] discussed the uses of Australian acacias for biofuel production, and Madhu et al. [25] concentrated on production of pyrolysis oil from the cotton shell and empty fruit bunches. Wood and wood bark pyrolysis of Albizia amara conducted by Sowmya Dhanalakshmi and Madhu [26] showed maximum production of bio-oil of 48.5 wt%. ...
This study deals with the flash pyrolysis of Albizia odoratissima biomass wastes at different temperature, sweep gas flow rate, and heating rate in a fluidized bed reactor. In the first phase of the experimental work, the effect of temperature (350–550°C) on product yield was analyzed, the second and third phases of the work were to analyze the effect of sweeping gas (N2), flow rate (1.25–2.25 m3/hr), and heating rate (20–40°C/min). The experimental works were carried out to get maximum bio-oil production. The experimental results demonstrated that the maximum yield of bio-oil was obtained at a temperature of 450°C, N2 flow rate of 1.75 m3/hr, and heating rate of 30°C/min. Temperature was found to be the crucial factor rather than sweep gas flow rate in the product distribution. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), gas chromatography mass spectroscopy (GC-MS), and elemental analysis were done on the obtained bio-oil, biochar, and noncondensable gas products. The heating value of the bio-oil and biochar was identified as 18.15 and 23.47 MJ/kg, respectively. The chemical analysis of the bio-oil showed that the oil is a mixture of phenol and oxygenated elements. The gas analyses showed that hydrogen and carbon dioxide were dominant, followed by carbon monoxide and methane.
... Golden wreath wattle (A. cyanophylla Lindl or A. saligna Labill) is a species native to the temperate region of southwestern Australia, where it has a naturally widespread distribution (Millar and Byrne, 2012) in various habitats, especially on soils with a high proportion of sand, such as dunes, sandy plains, or rocky ridges where it forms open forests (Griffin et al., 2011). Regarding climatic requirements, A. cyanophylla grows under average temperatures close to 13°C in winter and 30°C in summer (Thompson et al., 2015). ...
The present study aims to evaluate the effects of the exotic shrub Acacia cyanophylla Lindl. on soil fertility by studying 1) its ability to modify the soil physicochemical composition, 2) its contribution to the soil mycorrhizal potential and its impact on the richness and diversity of the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) community in the rhizospheric soil (RS), and finally 3) its atmospheric nitrogen fixation potential. The physicochemical analysis of the RS has shown that soil invasion by A. cyanophylla has a beneficial effect on its fertility; this advantage is demonstrated by the increase of the organic matter and the nutrient contents (N, P, K, Na, Ca) in the RS. Furthermore, the roots of this shrub exhibited broad AMF colonization, which confirms its high mycotrophic aspect. Four differentiated morphotypes of mycorrhizal spores were isolated from the RS of A. cyanophylla by use of the wet sieving method. In addition, the most probable number method showed that A. cyanophylla was capable of dramatically increasing the mycorrhizal potential of the soil. Indeed, more than 1,213 infectious propagules per one hundred grams of soil were detected in the RS of A. cyanophylla. Moreover, A. cyanophylla roots showed a significant presence of nodules indicating an active atmospheric nitrogen fixation. Counting revealed the presence of at least 130 nodules in the root fragments contained in 1 kg of soil. In conclusion, the biological invasion of sand dunes by the exotic shrub A. cyanophylla exhibited beneficial effects on the soil’s chemical composition and functioning, the activity of rhizobacteria in fixing atmospheric nitrogen, and phosphate bioavailability under the action of the native AMF community.
... Today, the area of planted eucalypts exceeds 30 million ha, having increased rapidly over the last decade or so ( Figure 1) (Midgley et al. 2021). The area planted to wood-producing tropical acacias worldwide is currently estimated to exceed 3.3 million ha (based on Griffin et al. 2011;Midgley et al. 2021;unpublished sources). ...
Smallholder tree-growers make substantial contributions to commercial wood flows in many countries in Asia. Many of these growers choose eucalypt and/or acacia species, which offer profitable and sustainable land-use options. Smallholder acacia and eucalypt plantings in India, Lao People's Democratic Republic, Sri Lanka, China, Thailand and Viet Nam are discussed, and data are presented to show the magnitude of these resources. In each country, smallholder plantings form critical raw-material inputs for numerous processors, with the collective scale of their wood production exceeding 86 million m3 annually and worth over USD 2.4 billion annually directly to these growers. Such harvests are major contributors to the livelihoods of smallholder families and to the economic viability of numerous local wood-using industries that rely on the raw materials they generate. This paper describes the profitable partnerships in Asia between smallholder tree-growers and their eucalypts and acacias, discusses their species of choice and the consequences of such decisions, and explores how and why these partnerships have developed and endured.
... The Acacia forests that have been most severely impacted were established for fibre production in the humid equatorial tropics of Indonesia and Malaysia. A. mangium plantations expanded rapidly in the tropics over the past three decades following trials that identified this species as highly productive and suitable for the development of planted forests (Turnbull et al. 1983;Harwood and Williams 1991;Griffin et al. 2011). Since the 1970s, more than 2.4 million hectares of Acacia plantations had been developed in Southeast Asia and A. mangium was particularly favoured for its ease of management and high productivity across a diverse range of mineral soils in the humid tropics (Harwood and Nambiar 2014). ...
Three screening trials of clonally replicated Acacia mangium seedlings were evaluated for survival and lesion length following inoculation with locally collected strains of Ceratocystis in Indonesia. Tolerance in the population was low with 6.7% of the 1033 clones represented by more than 4 ramets surviving repeated inoculations. Differences in tolerance among populations were slight; however, populations with consistently higher survival and shorter lesion lengths were from Papua New Guinea rather than Queensland. Estimates of the proportion of the experimental variation attributable to differences among parents (heritability) were low to moderate for both survival and lesion length. Estimates of the proportion of the experimental variation that was attributable to differences among clones (repeatability) were greater but typically similar to the heritability estimates, indicating that initial improvements from selection will primarily be derived from identifying tolerant parents. While genetic correlations among experiments were positive, estimates could not exclude the existence of host–pathogen interactions. Two validation trials of the tolerant clones were assessed 9 months after establishment; these trials verified that one-third of the clones identified in the nursery screening were also tolerant to Ceratocystis in field trials. The experiments confirmed that nursery screening may be used to quickly focus efforts on parents that produce more tolerant progeny, screening additional seedlings to increase selection intensity rather than using clonal replication to increase accuracy would lead to greater improvements in tolerance and field trials are required to verify disease tolerance at later ages.
... The Acacia mearnsii De Wild, a member of the Leguminosae family (subfamily Mimosoideae), is widely grown in Brazil and South Africa, with an estimated 540,000 hectares cultivated worldwide [21], representing the main source of vegetable tannins. Although the biological activities of other Acacia genus species have already been studied and the use of its bark and wood is already common, the A. mearnsii flowers have not yet been industrially explored. ...
A widely disseminated native species from Australia, Acacia mearnsii, which is mainly cultivated in Brazil and South Africa, represents a rich source of natural tannins used in the tanning process. Many flowers of the Acacia species are used as sources of compounds of interest for the cosmetic industry, such as phenolic compounds. In this study, supercritical fluid extraction was used to obtain non-volatile compounds from A. mearnsii flowers for the first time. The extract showed antimicrobial activity and the presence of p-anisic acid, a substance with industrial and pharmaceutical applications. The fractionation of the extract was performed using a chromatographic column and the fraction containing p-anisic acid presented better minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) results than the crude extract. Thus, the extraction process was optimized to maximize the p-anisic acid extraction. The response surface methodology and the Box–Behnken design was used to evaluate the pressure, temperature, the cosolvent, and the influence of the particle size on the extraction process. After the optimization process, the p-anisic acid yield was 2.51% w/w and the extraction curve was plotted as a function of time. The simulation of the extraction process was performed using the three models available inthe literature.
... Subgenus Phyllodineae of the genus Acacia (subfamily Mimosaceae, family Fabaceae) provides one of the most invasive tree groups worldwide (Richardson and Rejmánek, 2011;Souza-Alonso et al., 2017). Acacia species were introduced into new ranges for the rehabilitation of degraded lands with legume trees that have industrial uses such as tannin and pulp production, and agroforestry and ornamental uses (Griffin et al., 2011). However, they escaped from original areas and have become invasive. ...
Acacia dealbata Link is one of the main invasive species in southwestern Europe and a
resource with potential value for agriculture. Our objective was to assess the value of A. dealbata vegetative aerial biomass used as green manure and as a tool for weed control in maize crops through three sequential experiments. In 2017, an experiment was carried out with acacia green manure vs inorganic fertilization of pots sown with a field corn and a sweet corn hybrid with strong and weak nutrient demand, respectively. Nutrients were not released from acacia green manure at an appropriate timing, and maize suffered nutrient deficit. In 2018, a pot experiment was made outdoors incorporating acacia green manure at different times before maize sowing, and we found that a 4-month period was required for maximum nutrient release from acacia green manure. In 2019, an early and a late-field experiments were performed by incorporating acacia green manure 4 months before maize sowing. Physiological and agronomic data were recorded in maize, along with soil data, for all years, and weed data the last year. Altogether, most effects and interactions between genotype or environment and fertilization treatment were not significant, and some deficiencies caused by acacia green manure fertilization depend on genotype and environment. Incorporation of acacia green manure 4 months before maize sowing partially controlled weeds and replaced inorganic fertilization. However, deficiencies should be corrected with additional weed control practices and fertilization treatments, according to the nutrient demand of the crop and the soil environment.
... For example, as typically legume forests, Acacia plantations are widely distributed over 70 countries (Haque et al., 2021), especially Southeast Asian countries (e.g., around 800,000 ha in Indonesia, 49,000 ha in Malaysia, 1,100,000 ha in Vietnam, 20,000 ha in Thailand, and 200,000 ha in China; Harwood & Nambiar, 2014). They together comprise ~8% of the tropical productive forest plantation area (Griffin et al., 2011). Furthermore, due to global climate change, the area of symbiotic N-fixing trees is expected to expand in the future (Liao et al., 2017). ...
Assessment of nitrogen (N) saturation of forests is critical to the evaluation of the manner in which ecosystems will respond to current and future global changes such as N deposition. However, quantifying N saturation remains a challenge. We developed a conceptual model of N saturation stages in forest ecosystems based on (1) a hypothetical relative rate of ammonification, nitrification, and denitrification, (2) concentrations of ammonium and nitrate in the
soil, and (3) 15N enrichment pattern of bulk soil N, ammonium, and nitrate in the soil profile. We tested the hypotheses using data from forests located at five sites across eastern Asia. The fraction of nitrate in total inorganic N indicated that the sites represent an N saturation gradient with one boreal forest at stage 1 (least saturated), three temperate forests at stage 2, and one tropical forest at stage 3 (most saturated). The δ15N of bulk soil N increased from topsoil to subsoil
more sharply at N-limited sites than at the N-rich sites along the N deposition gradient. We also found distinct 15N enrichment patterns of bulk soil N, ammonium, and nitrate in the soil profile across the study sites. At stage 1, nitrate was more 15N-depleted than ammonium only in the organic soil horizon, indicating limited nitrification, while the 15N depletion of nitrate to ammonium was observed in the deeper mineral soil at stages 2 and 3. Furthermore,
ammonium was more 15N-depleted than bulk soil N at stages 1 and
2 but more 15N-enriched than bulk soil N at stage 3. Our study suggests that soil profile patterns of δ15N of bulk soil N, ammonium, and nitrate provide information about the relative rates of mineralization, nitrification, and denitrification and thus can be an additional measure of N saturation of forest ecosystems
across broad environmental gradients.
... For example, as typically legume forests, Acacia plantations are widely distributed over 70 countries (Haque et al., 2021), especially Southeast Asian countries (e.g., around 800,000 ha in Indonesia, 49,000 ha in Malaysia, 1,100,000 ha in Vietnam, 20,000 ha in Thailand, and 200,000 ha in China; Harwood & Nambiar, 2014). They together comprise ~8% of the tropical productive forest plantation area (Griffin et al., 2011). Furthermore, due to global climate change, the area of symbiotic N-fixing trees is expected to expand in the future (Liao et al., 2017). ...
The responses of forests to nitrogen (N) deposition largely depend on the fates of deposited N within the ecosystem. Nitrogen-fixing legume trees widely occur in terrestrial forests, but the fates of deposited N in legume-dominated forests remain unclear, which limit a global evaluation of N deposition impacts and feedbacks on carbon sequestration. Here, we performed the first ecosystem-scale ¹⁵N labeling experiment in a typical legume-dominated forest as well as in a nearby non-legume forest to determine the fates of N deposition between two different forest types and to explore their underlying mechanisms. The ¹⁵N was sprayed bimonthly for one year to the forest floor in control and N addition (50 kg N ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ for 10 years) plots in both forests. We unexpectedly found a strong capacity of the legume forest to retain deposited N, with 75 ± 5% labeled N recovered in plants and soils, which was higher than that in the non-legume forest (56 ± 4%). The higher ¹⁵N recovery in legume forest was mainly driven by uptake by the legume trees, in which ¹⁵N recovery was approximately 15% more than that in the nearby non-legume trees. This indicates higher N-demand by the legume than non-legume trees. Mineral soil was the major sink for deposited N, with 39 ± 4% and 34 ± 3% labeled N retained in the legume and non-legume forests, respectively. Moreover, N addition did not significantly change the ¹⁵N recovery patterns of both forests. Overall, these findings indicate that legume-dominated forests act as a strong sink for deposited N regardless of high soil N availability under long-term atmospheric N deposition, which suggest a necessity to incorporate legume-dominated forests into N-cycling models of Earth systems to improve the understanding and prediction of terrestrial N budgets and the global N deposition effects.
... It has an effective role in restoring soil fertility through its ability to nitrogenfixing by forming root nodules (4), which made it in the list of trees introduced to coastal areas in South Africa, and the Mediterranean, to a basin for the purpose of reforestation, and stabilization of sand dunes (5). It also used in fire and wind resistance, the source for the production of fodder, and charcoal (6). It has the ability to alter the functioning of the ecosystem by changing a microbial community of soil, by introducing new microbes and depositing allelochemicals as root secretions or volatile substances (7,8). ...
Acacia saligna trees are considered invasive trees distributed in various regions of Al-Jabal Al-Akhdar-Libya, and for their many residues in an environment. This study aimed to evaluate allelopathic effects of extracts of Acacia saligna trees (leaves-bark-seeds), at a concentration of (10, 20, and 40%) on germination of seeds of Cucumis sativus, Abelmoschus esculentus, and Raphanus sativus seeds. The results showed were highly significant differences in reducing the percentage of germination and increasing the average germination time between aqueous extracts and concentrations compared to control. Where leaves extract superior in recording the largest inhibition ratios compared with bark and seed extracts. Cucumis sativus was is the most resistant, and Raphanus sativus is most sensitive to aqueous extracts, and a concentration of 40% was the most toxic in inhibiting studied traits.
... It has an effective role in restoring soil fertility through its ability to nitrogenfixing by forming root nodules (4), which made it in the list of trees introduced to coastal areas in South Africa, and the Mediterranean, to a basin for the purpose of reforestation, and stabilization of sand dunes (5). It also used in fire and wind resistance, the source for the production of fodder, and charcoal (6). It has the ability to alter the functioning of the ecosystem by changing a microbial community of soil, by introducing new microbes and depositing allelochemicals as root secretions or volatile substances (7,8). ...
Acacia saligna trees are considered invasive trees distributed in various regions of Al-Jabal Al-Akhdar-Libya, and for their many residues in an environment. This study aimed to evaluate allelopathic effects of extracts of Acacia saligna trees (leaves-bark-seeds), at a concentration of (10, 20, and 40%) on germination of seeds of Cucumis sativus, Abelmoschus esculentus, and Raphanus sativus seeds. The results showed were highly significant differences in reducing the percentage of germination and increasing the average germination time between aqueous extracts and concentrations compared to control. Where leaves extract superior in recording the largest inhibition ratios compared with bark and seed extracts. Cucumis sativus was is the most resistant, and Raphanus sativus is most sensitive to aqueous extracts, and a concentration of 40% was the most toxic in inhibiting studied traits.
... Industrial plantations play an important role from economic and environmental considerations in the forestry sector. The genus Acacia consists of many species which are important as pulpwood, firewood, fodder, tannin and soil improvement (Griffin et al. 2011). Acacia mangium, A. auriculiformis, A. crassicarpa and Acacia hybrids are the most dominant trees in industrial forest plantations in Southeast Asian countries. ...
Acacia, an exotic fast-growing tree species was introduced into Southeast Asian countries on degraded soils. In Bangladesh, China, India, Vietnam, Indonesia plantations of Acacia were established for pulpwood production with people’s participation. This paper reviews the current knowledge of the physical, chemical and morphological characteristics of A. auriculiformis and its pulping potential. The wood density, chemical and morphological properties of A. auriculiformis impacted positively for pulpwood selection in many countries. A. auriculiformis planted in a social forestry programme in Bangladesh and other countries showed almost similar characteristics to A. auriculiformis grown in different parts of the world. It is a promising species for pulping in Bangladesh and other Southeast Asian countries, at the same time poor people can improve their livelihood through participation in social forestry programme by planting this species.
Inflammation represents the inherent protective reaction of the human body to various harmful agents and noxious stimuli. Standard anti‐inflammatory therapy including nonsteroidal anti‐inflammatory drugs are associated with several side effects. In the past decades, people rely on medicinal plants for the treatment of inflammation. The traditional utilization of medicinal plants is regarded as a safe, cost‐effective, and broadly accepted approach. In this study, anti‐inflammatory activity of plants traditionally utilized by the D’harawal people in Australia has been assessed in vitro. Eighty Australian native plants were screened based on the Dharawal Pharmacopeia for their inhibitory effect on the nitric oxide (NO) production in lipopolysaccharides (LPS) and interferon (IFN)‐γ stimulated RAW 264.7 murine macrophages for their anti‐inflammatory activity. From the eighty ethanolic extracts screened, seventeen displayed potent NO inhibition with an IC50 recorded below 15 μg/mL. The aim of this review was to utilise the ethnopharmacological knowledge and to correlate the anti‐inflammatory activity of the seventeen plants with either their known or unknown phytochemicals reported in the literature. In doing so, we have created a snapshot of Australian native plant candidates that warrant further chemical investigation associated with their anti‐inflammatory activity.
Caesalpinioideae is the second largest subfamily of legumes (Leguminosae) with ca. 4680 species and 163 genera. It is an ecologically and economically important group formed of mostly woody perennials that range from large canopy emergent trees to functionally herbaceous geoxyles, lianas and shrubs, and which has a global distribution, occurring on every continent except Antarctica. Following the recent re-circumscription of 15 Caesalpinioideae genera as presented in Advances in Legume Systematics 14, Part 1, and using as a basis a phylogenomic analysis of 997 nuclear gene sequences for 420 species and all but five of the genera currently recognised in the subfamily, we present a new higher-level classification for the subfamily. The new classification of Caesalpinioideae comprises eleven tribes, all of which are either new, reinstated or re-circumscribed at this rank: Caesalpinieae Rchb. (27 genera / ca. 223 species), Campsiandreae LPWG (2 / 5–22), Cassieae Bronn (7 / 695), Ceratonieae Rchb. (4 / 6), Dimorphandreae Benth. (4 / 35), Erythrophleeae LPWG (2 /13), Gleditsieae Nakai (3 / 20), Mimoseae Bronn (100 / ca. 3510), Pterogyneae LPWG (1 / 1), Schizolobieae Nakai (8 / 42–43), Sclerolobieae Benth. & Hook. f. (5 / ca. 113). Although many of these lineages have been recognised and named in the past, either as tribes or informal generic groups, their circumscriptions have varied widely and changed over the past decades, such that all the tribes described here differ in generic membership from those previously recognised. Importantly, the approximately 3500 species and 100 genera of the former subfamily Mimosoideae are now placed in the reinstated, but newly circumscribed, tribe Mimoseae. Because of the large size and ecological importance of the tribe, we also provide a clade-based classification system for Mimoseae that includes 17 named lower-level clades. Fourteen of the 100 Mimoseae genera remain unplaced in these lower-level clades: eight are resolved in two grades and six are phylogenetically isolated monogeneric lineages. In addition to the new classification, we provide a key to genera, morphological descriptions and notes for all 163 genera, all tribes, and all named clades. The diversity of growth forms, foliage, flowers and fruits are illustrated for all genera, and for each genus we also provide a distribution map, based on quality-controlled herbarium specimen localities. A glossary for specialised terms used in legume morphology is provided. This new phylogenetically based classification of Caesalpinioideae provides a solid system for communication and a framework for downstream analyses of biogeography, trait evolution and diversification, as well as for taxonomic revision of still understudied genera.
Introduction: All forests must have trees because they are an integral part of the ecosystem and serve as significant global carbon sinks. In dry tropical forests, trees make up the majority of the plant life in terms of productivity, biomass, and species diversity. In every forest ecosystem, tree species affect soil processes primarily by regulating root respiration, litter generation, and the quantity and quality of both above-and below-ground litter. Studies show that a major factor influencing soil fertility is biological nutrient cycling, which is mostly influenced by litter quality. Conclusion: This article attempts to provide a brief overview of the major ecosystem services that can help achieve sustainable development objectives. Two outcomes of growing global warming and the detrimental effects of anthropogenic activity include rapidly expanding desert areas and decreasing amounts of forest cover. Therefore, by choosing species that can help to moderate climate change and planting trees appropriately, our analysis will aid in the development of management strategies for the conservation of the forest area. Putting money into trees can result in a more sustainable city with contented and healthy citizens. Abstract
Acacia crassicarpa is a tropical tree species native to Australia, West Papua and Papua New Guinea, which has been widely used to establish plantations in the lowland humid tropics of Sumatra and Kalimantan. These trees, able to grow on sites having relatively poor nutrition, have been relatively free of serious disease problems. A rust disease infecting the phyllodes of A. crassicarpa has recently been encountered in plantations in various areas of Indonesia and Malaysia where they are not native. In this study, the rust was collected and identified as Endoraecium violae‐faustiae using DNA sequence analysis based on the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region of the rDNA. This is the first record of the rust outside its native range. Damage at present appears to be relatively mild but the pathogen could become important in the future.
Acacia longifolia (Sydney golden wattle) is considered one of the most problematic plant invaders in Mediterranean-type ecosystems. In this study, we investigate the species’ invasion history by comparing the genetic diversity and structure of native (Australia) and several invasive range (Brazil, Portugal, South Africa, Spain, and Uruguay) populations and by modelling different introduction scenarios using these data. We sampled 272 A. longifolia individuals – 126 from different invasive ranges and 146 from the native range – from 41 populations. We genotyped all individuals at four chloroplast and 12 nuclear microsatellite markers. From these data we calculated diversity metrics, identified chloroplast haplotypes, and estimated population genetic structure based on Bayesian assignment tests. We used Approximate Bayesian Computation (ABC) models to infer the likely introduction history into each invaded country. In Australia, population genetic structure of A. longifolia appears to be strongly shaped by the Bass Strait and we identified two genetic clusters largely corresponding to mainland Australian and Tasmanian populations. We found invasive populations to represent a mixture of these clusters. Similar levels of genetic diversity were present in native and invasive ranges, indicating that invasive populations did not go through a genetic bottleneck. Bayesian assignment tests and chloroplast haplotype frequencies further suggested a secondary introduction event between South Africa and Portugal. However, ABC analyses could not confidently identify the native source(s) of invasive populations in these two countries, probably due to the known high propagule pressure that accompanied these introductions. ABC analyses identified Tasmania as the likely source of invasive populations in Brazil and Uruguay. A definitive native source for Spanish populations could also not be identified. This study shows that tracing the introduction history of A. longifolia is difficult, most likely because of the complexity associated with the extensive movement of the species around the world. Our findings should be considered when planning management and control efforts, such as biological control, in some invaded regions.
Introduction
Forestry in many parts of the world depends on exotic species, making this industry a source of invasions in some countries. Among others, plantations of the genus Pinus, Eucalyptus, Acacia, Populus, and Pseudotsuga underpin the forestry industry and are a vital component of many countries economies. Among woody plants, the cosmopolitan genus Acacia includes some of the most commonly planted trees worldwide. In order to prevent, manage and control invasive plant species, one of the most used tools is species distribution models. The output of these models can also be used to obtain information about population characteristics, such as spatial abundance patterns or species performance. Although ecological theory suggests a direct link between fitness and suitability, this link is often absent. The reasons behind the lack of this relationship are multiple. Chile is one of the countries where Acacia species, in particular, A. dealbata and A. melanoxylon, have become invaders.
Methods
Here, we used climatic and edaphic variables to predict thepotentially suitable habitats for A. dealbata and A. melanoxylon in continental Chile and evaluate if the suitability indices obtained from these models are associated with the observed performance of the trees along the country.
Results
Our models show that variable importance showed significant similarities between the variables that characterize each species’ niche. However, despite the high accuracy of our models, we did not observe an association between suitability and tree growth.
Discussion
This disconnection between suitability and performance can result from multiple causes, from structural limitations, like the lack of biotic interactions in the models, to methodological issues, like the usefulness of the performance metric used. Whatever the scenario, our results suggest that plans to control invasive species should be cautious in assuming this relationship in their design and consider other indicators such as species establishment success.
Forestry in many parts of the world depends on exotic species, making this industry a source of invasions in some countries. Among others, plantations of the genus Pinus, Eucalyptus, Acacia, Populus, and Pseudotsuga underpin the forestry industry and are a vital component of many countries economies. Among woody plants, the cosmopolitan genus Acacia includes some of the most commonly planted trees worldwide. In order to prevent, manage and control invasive plant species, one of the most used tools is species distribution models. The output of these models can also be used to obtain information about population characteristics, such as spatial abundance patterns or species performance. Although ecological theory suggests a direct link between fitness and suitability, this link is often absent. The reasons behind the lack of this relationship are multiple. Chile is one of the countries where Acacia species, in particular, A. dealbata and A. melanoxylon, have become invaders. Here, we used climatic and edaphic variables to predict the potentially suitable habitats for A. dealbata and A. melanoxylon in continental Chile and evaluate if the suitability indices obtained from these models are associated with the observed performance of the trees along the country. Our models show that variable importance showed significant similarities between the variables that characterize each species niche. However, despite the high accuracy of our models, we did not observe an association between suitability and tree growth. This disconnection between suitability and performance can result from multiple causes, from structural limitations, like the lack of biotic interactions in the models, to methodological issues, like the usefulness of the performance metric used. Whatever the scenario, our results suggest that plans to control invasive species should be cautious in assuming this relationship in their design and consider other indicators such as species establishment success.
Acacia is well known to be susceptible to many fungal diseases. Heart rot, root rot, and Ceratocystis wilt disease are three major diseases of Acacia in the tropics that cause serious damages and significant economic impact. Loss of merchantable volume due to rotting of heart wood is a huge threat primarily to solid wood producers as it severely reduces the quality of wood, making it unsuitable for general utility. The damages on Acacia plantations associated with root rot and Ceratocystis wilt disease are far more serious than heart rot causing high mortality of trees. Furthermore, unavailability of effective control measures has urged the conversion of 600,000 ha of Acacia plantations to Eucalyptus in Indonesia. More importantly, Ceratocystis wilt disease infection can wipe out plantations as recorded in Peninsular Malaysia. Other diseases with the potential to cause serious destruction to A. mangium plantation programs are phyllode rust and the recent concern on Phytophthora root rot. To date, there are no control measures known to be effective against these diseases. This chapter presents the occurrence of Acacia diseases in nurseries and plantations as well as the status of Acacia as alien invasive species. Information provided in this chapter can be useful as guidelines for preventing and controlling the spread of diseases in both nurseries and plantations.
Acacia saligna is a multi-purpose tree. However, enquiries exist among beekeepers on its importance for honeybees in Tigray region of Ethiopia. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of A. saligna pollen on Apis mellifera adult worker bees. Feeding trial was conducted on honeybee collected polyfloral pollen (PFP), honeybee collected A. saligna pollen (HCAP) and manually collected A. saligna pollen dust (MCAP) at various level of inclusion. The HCAP and MCAP pollen types were mixed with PFP pollen at a ratio of 1:4, 3:2 and 1:0 to make seven pollen feed treatments. Newly hatched day-old cohort worker bees were collected from one colony and trapped from the sealed brood with a meshed plastic bag before hatching. A ten-day indoor cage experiment was carried out after setting up twenty worker bees per cage. The result showed no statistically significant difference on worker bee mortality and abnormality due to treatment diets, except that higher level of A. saligna pollen inclusion (> 60%) in the diet reduced intake. Secondary metabolites analysis showed higher alkaloids (4.8%) in PFP, total flavonoids of 29.66 mg QE/g in HCAP and 20.61 mg GAE/g phenol in MCAP. The finding implied A.saligna has apicultural value as dry season pollen source rather than considering it as poisonous.
Abstract: Acacia saligna is an ornamental tree that adapts ecologically to Al-jabal Al-akhdar region, However, it suffers from physical dormancy so can't germinate naturally. so this study was conducted to improve germination under conditions laboratory, using different treatments, included treatment of scarified mechanical, scarified with soaking in distilled water 24 hours, scarified with soaking in distilled water 48 hours, treatment of soaking in Hydrochloric acid at concentrated (20, 40 and 60%) for a period of 20 minutes, treatment of soaking in hydrogen peroxide at concentration 6% for a periods of (12, 24 and 48) hours, treatment of soaking in distilled water for a period of (24, 48 and 72) hours, and finally treatment of soaking in hot water for a period of (15, 30 and 60) minutes. Results showed the superiority of treatment of soaking in hydrogen peroxide periods of 12, 24 hours on all treatments with a germination percentage of (91.1, 84.4%), and the lowest averages germination time of (3.5, 3.6 days) respectively, followed by scarified with soaking in distilled water 24 hours and scarified mechanical, while distilled water treatment was unsuccessful and consume a long time to obtain germination. The study concluded that soaking in hydrogen peroxide Effective method in breaking dormancy trees seeds Acacia saligna, and scarification technique is impractical due to small size of seeds.
Some Acacia species native to Australia and neighbouring countries are significant in the rural economy of many countries. Aspects of the domestication process and uses of A. mangium, A. crassicarpa, A. mearnsii, A. saligna and A. colei are reviewed. Commercial plantations of A. mearnsii in tropical highlands and temperate areas provide high quality tannins for adhesives and leather making and wood for paper pulp, rayon, charcoal and small-utility timbers. Plantations of A. saligna in warm-temperate and semi-arid areas provide stock fodder, soil stabilisation, fuelwood and charcoal. In the humid tropical lowlands of South-east Asia, pulpwood is produced in extensive plantings of A. mangium and in smaller-scale plantations of A. crassicarpa in Indonesia. The human food value of seeds of some dry-zone Australian acacias, such as A. colei, is recognised. Domestication of these and other Australian acacias is at various stages and is influenced by the characteristics of the species, extent of planting and the commercial value of the products. The potential for many acacias to become weeds is recognised. The case studies highlight a number of important aspects in domesticating acacias.
Aim Reproductive traits are important mediators of establishment and spread of introduced species, both directly and through interactions with other life-history traits and extrinsic factors. We identify features of the reproductive biology of Australian acacias associated with invasiveness.
Location Global.
Methods We reviewed the pollination biology, seed biology and alternative modes of reproduction of Australian acacias using primary literature, online searches and unpublished data. We used comparative analyses incorporating an Acacia phylogeny to test for associations between invasiveness and eight reproductive traits in a group of introduced and invasive (23) and non-invasive (129) species. We also explore the distribution of groups of trait ‘syndromes’ between invasive and non-invasive species.
Results Reproductive trait data were only available for 126 of 152 introduced species in our data set, representing 23/23 invasive and 103/129 non-invasive species. These data suggest that invasives reach reproductive maturity earlier (10/13 within 2 years vs. 7/26 for non-invasives) and are more commonly able to resprout (11/21 vs. 13/54), although only time to reproductive maturity was significant when phylogenetic relationships were controlled for. Our qualitative survey of the literature suggests that invasive species in general tend to have generalist pollination systems, prolific seed production, efficient seed dispersal and the accumulation of large and persistent seed banks that often have fire-, heat- or disturbance-triggered germination cues.
Conclusions Invasive species respond quicker to disturbance than non-invasive taxa. Traits found to be significant in our study require more in-depth analysis involving data for a broader array of species given how little is known of the reproductive biology of so many taxa in this species-rich genus. Sets of reproductive traits characteristic of invasive species and a general ability to reproduce effectively in new locations are widespread in Australian acacias. Unless there is substantial evidence to the contrary, care should be taken with all introductions.
A prime aim of invasion biology is to predict which species will become invasive, but retrospective analyses have so far failed to develop robust generalizations. This is because many biological, environmental, and anthropogenic factors interact to determine the distribution of invasive species. However, in this paper we also argue that many analyses of invasiveness have been flawed by not considering several fundamental issues: (1) the range size of an invasive species depends on how much time it has had to spread (its residence time); (2) the range size and spread rate are mediated by the total extent of suitable (i.e. potentially invasible) habitat; and (3) the range size and spread rate depend on the frequency and intensity of introductions (propagule pressure), the position of founder populations in relation to the potential range, and the spatial distribution of the potential range. We explored these considerations using a large set of invasive alien plant species in South Africa for which accurate distribution data and other relevant information were available.
Species introduced earlier and those with larger potential ranges had larger current range sizes, but we found no significant effect of the spatial distribution of potential ranges on current range sizes, and data on propagule pressure were largely unavailable. However, crucially, we showed that: (1) including residence time and potential range always significantly increases the explanatory power of the models; and (2) residence time and potential range can affect which factors emerge as significant determinants of invasiveness. Therefore, analyses not including potential range and residence time can come to misleading conclusions. When these factors were taken into account, we found that nitrogen‐fixing plants and plants invading arid regions have spread faster than other species, but these results were phylogenetically constrained. We also show that, when analysed in the context of residence time and potential range, variation in range size among invasive species is implicitly due to variation in spread rates, and, that by explicitly assuming a particular model of spread, it is possible to estimate changes in the rates of plant invasions through time.
We believe that invasion biology can develop generalizations that are useful for management, but only in the context of a suitable null model.
Aim The biophysical impacts of invasive Australian acacias and their effects on ecosystem services are explored and used to develop a framework for improved restoration practices.
Location South Africa, Portugal and Chile.
Methods A conceptual model of ecosystem responses to the increasing severity (density and duration) of invasions was developed from the literature and our knowledge of how these impacts affect options for restoration. Case studies are used to identify similarities and differences between three regions severely affected by invasions of Australian acacias: Acacia dealbata in Chile, Acacia longifolia in Portugal and Acacia saligna in South Africa.
Results Australian acacias have a wide range of impacts on ecosystems that increase with time and disturbance, transform ecosystems and alter and reduce ecosystem service delivery. A shared trait is the accumulation of massive seed banks, which enables them to become dominant after disturbances. Ecosystem trajectories and recovery potential suggest that there are important thresholds in ecosystem state and resilience. When these are crossed, options for restoration are radically altered; in many cases, autogenic (self-driven and self-sustaining) recovery to a pre-invasion condition is inhibited, necessitating active intervention to restore composition and function.
Main conclusions The conceptual model demonstrates the degree, nature and reversibility of ecosystem degradation and identifies key actions needed to restore ecosystems to desired states. Control and restoration operations, particularly active restoration, require substantial short- to medium-term investments, which can reduce losses of biodiversity and ecosystem services, and the costs to society in the long term. Increasing restoration effectiveness will require further research into linkages between impacts and restoration. This research should involve scientists, practitioners and managers engaged in invasive plant control and restoration programmes, together with society as both the investors in, and beneficiaries of, more effective restoration.
Acacia mangium is a major plantation species for the pulp and paper industry in south-east Asia and there are a number of active breeding
programs. The species is predominantly outcrossing, but with a demonstrated capacity to set selfed seed where outcross pollen
is limited, with consequent inbreeding depression in the progeny. Current controlled pollination methods therefore include
a time-consuming emasculation step. We used microsatellite genotyping of seedlings to determine the consequences of outcross
pollination with and without emasculation. Only 1 of 3 mother trees set a small amount (5%) of selfed seed. Using whole inflorescences
from the male parent as the pollen applicator rather than sieved pollen reduced outcross contamination rates from 19.1 to
8.7% and substantially increased worker productivity. Application of sugar solution to the female flowers immediately prior
to pollination increased yield of sound seeds per spike. Additional improvements to the pollination protocols are discussed.
KeywordsTree breeding-Preferential outcrossing-Seed production
This book aims to assist in the management of soil salinity by describing a range of species tolerant of saline soils. 60 species are listed with descriptions containing botanical features, growth characteristics, preferred soils, climates and more. The introductory sections of this book provide general information on issues such as how trees deal with saline soil, their susceptibility to insect pests, where to plant trees and how best to establish them. The main section provides detailed descriptions of 30 species for use on salt-affected land.
Fast-growing eucalypts help to meet the demand for wood throughout the warmer parts of the world. They are grown in numberous small woods and windbreaks to produce poles and firewood, and in extensive plantations mainly for the pulp and paper industries. This book shows how to breed improved eucalypts that will provide more and better wood on appropriate sites selected through sound land use planning. The emphasis is on making greater use of the immense richness of the genetic resources of the eucalypts, especially in the first generation or two of domestication `wild' eucalypts for wood production. The book covers those aspects of variation, selection, and reproduction that are unique to eucalypts. Large gains in production and quality can be obtained relatively cheaply by choosing the best geographic seed sources (provenances). Once suitable base populations have been assembled, continued long-term genetic gain can be assured through well-planned recurrent selection and mating. This book is essential reading for practising foresters managing eucalypt plantations, and will also be of great interest to planners and administrators in aid agencies.
Acacia auriculiformis has been widely planted on the island of Java for fuelwood production and environmental management such as control of Imperata grass and erosion as well as for roadside planting. The outstanding characteristic of this species is its ability to grow well on a wide variety of soil types including its good performance on impoverished sites. The species is mostly planted on private lands, where it can fulfil the wood requirements of local people.-from Authors Dept. of Silviculture, Agric. Univ. Wageningen, The Netherlands.
Following the rise of eucalyptus, acacia, another hardwood species is looking to make the grade with pulp buyers. The major reason for this is that acacia is considered to be a reasonable substitute for eucalyptus for a proportion of the furnish.
Natural hybrids of Acacia mangium and A. auriculiformis have been found in A. mangium plantations in Vietnam. Hybrids found at Ba Vi are derived from the Daintree (Queensland) provenance of A. mangium and the Darwin (Northern Territory) provenance of A. auriculifarmis. F1 hybrid trees in Vietnam have morphological characteristics intermediate between those of the two parent species, and marked hybrid vigour in growth. At 2.5-3 y, the hybrids produced 100-600% greater stem volume than A. mangium and A. auriculiformis. At 4.5 y of age the hybrids produced, on average, twice the stem volume of A. mangium. Wood density of the hybrid is intermediate between the values of the two parents. Paper pulp productivity, and the breaking strength, folding endurance and brightness of paper produced from the wood of the hybrid are superior to those of the parent species. Plus trees were selected from among the F1 hybrids from Ba Vi, and cutting propagation and clonal tests of these individuals were established. At age 2 y, selected hybrid clones displayed markedly better growth than cuttings and seedlings of the two parent species. Integrated assessment of growth, stem straightness, branch size and tree health were used to select the five best hybrid clones, one of which is outstanding for growth and stem form. The five best clones have been propagated by tissue culture of meristems, and are being tested in trial programmes in the main ecological regions of Vietnam.
The seeds of certain Australian Acacia species are tasty, safe to consume and nutritious. Being perennial, mature acacias can take advantage of rains that would be ineffective for annual crops, such as out of season or poorly distributed rains. Acacia seeds are easily harvested and processed into flour using simple technologies which already exist in typical African villages. The flour can be incorporated into local dishes and "non-traditional" foods such as spaghetti, bread and biscuits. The seed also has great potential as livestock feed. Alternatively, the hard-coated seeds can be easily stored for many years and act as a famine reserve food. Much effort has gone into safety testing and promoting edible seeded Australian acacias for direct human consumption, but the rate of adoption has been slow. However, other characteristics of these same species may have an even greater impact on food security than actual consumption of the seed. The Farmer Managed Agro-forestry Farming System (FMAFS) that incorporates a range of annual and perennial crops is being promoted as a sustainable rainfed farming alternative to traditional and destructive slash-and-burn monocultures.
There is a critical shortage of fuelwood in many developing countries. The need is most serious in sub-tropical arid/semi-arid areas, the humid tropics and the tropical highlands. Historically, Australian eucalypts have been used widely for this purpose but increasingly there is a need to carefully consider the potential fuelwood role of many other Australian species. This article discusses ecological, botanical and management criteria that could be used in the selection of Australian species with potential for fuelwood production. A short list of possible fuelwood species is presented.
Eucalypts are an established part of the landscape in parts of Asia, particularly China, Viet Nam and Thailand. As small, non-formal plantings they meet local needs for fuelwood, poles, lumber, essential leaf oils and tannins, and as large plantations they meet industrial needs for pulp, paper and reconstituted wood products such as MDF and particleboard.
Acacias have similarly being planted in large plantations in Southeast Asia to meet demands for commercial pulpwood. Over 900,000 ha of Acacia mangium have been planted in Indonesia and Malaysia, and about 100,000 ha of A. crassicarpa plantations have been established on sites with a high watertable and peaty soils on Sumatra, Indonesia.
Eucalypt and tropical acacia pulps are both high quality and short-fibred, with flexible end uses. Before trial shipments were presented to the European market in 1995, there were few opportunities to commercially assess acacia pulp. Currently about 1.9 million tonnes of tropical acacia pulp are produced and used internationally. When commercial plantations in Indonesia become operational in 2010, this supply of acacia pulp will exceed 4 million tonnes annually. Does this present a challenge to eucalypt pulp that shares many of its attractive features?
The capacity to competitively produce acacia pulp has been underpinned by considerable research, particularly into the domestication of these species. This has included characterisation of natural populations, identification of superior natural provenances, breeding, establishment of seed orchards and cloning of fast-growing hybrids. Nutrition research has demonstrated the value of phosphorus fertilisation on most sites and the benefits of inoculation with selected rhizobia and mycorrhizas. Potentially-damaging pathogens and insects have been identified. Development of management practices to maintain site productivity and plantation yield in successive rotations is critical, particularly for peat soils. There remain significant challenges to the ongoing commercial utilisation of tropical acacias but the high quality of their pulps and the extensive established plantation resource will ensure that their domestication will continue.
The agroforestry potential of 125 species of Acacia that occur in the subtropical dry zone of Australia is discussed. These species represent a vast genetic resource for reforestation in other subtropical, dry parts of the world. Information on each of these species, including their taxonomy, natural distribution (including climate and soils) and growth characteristics (habit, growth rate, longevity and coppicing ability) is given in tabular form. The table also presents an assessment of the potential of the 125 species for fuelwood, posts, sawn timber, stock fodder, human food, shade, windbreaks, live fences and soil protection.
Utilization of fodder trees and shrubs (FTS) in the Mediterranean arid and semi-arid zones was initiated after World War I and expanded between 1950 and 1970. A similarly slow expansion has taken place in other arid zones in the USA, South Africa, South America, and Australia. Currently in West Asian and North African (WANA) countries, the area planted with native or exotic species is about 106 ha. Mainly they include three categories of plant species: cacti, saltbushes, and wattles. At this time there is an expansion of hectareage and a diversi-cation of genetic material. The relative success of FTS has a number of reasons. They are tolerant to drought and have the ability to accumulate green fodder over several seasons, providing fodder reserves for times of dearth and thus permitting a switch from transhumance to sedentary husbandry. Deep rooting enables them to reach water resources unavailable to herbaceous species. Their Rain Use Efficiency (RUE) and Water Use Efficiency (WUE) rates provide productivities three to five times higher than rangelands. FTS have a positive impact on soil fertility due to their organic matter production, hence they increase microbial activity, rates of geobiogenic element cycling, and soil structure stabilization. Their above ground biomass, canopy ground cover, provides a microclimatic buffer role for wind, temperature and evapotranspiration, and their landscape roughness factor makes them efficient for erosion and desertification control. Other positive aspects include: the use on non farming land; general suitability for runo farming systems; production of valuable goods, such as food, shade, and firewood; providing wildlife shelter; and other benefits. FTS plantations are subjected, however, to constraints that limit their expansion. Their main shortcomings include the cost of establishment, often not affordable by a small farmer; required long-term planning may not be feasible, as a secure land tenure system often is nonexistent. Appropriate methods of cultivation are not being applied, management, and utilization are lacking, and availability of plant material is limited. Discipline of utilization, allowing regeneration of stands after defoliation is a problem. Identification of constraints indicates needs for research and extension activities. These include reduced-cost of establishment and improved management methods, such as ensuring availability of low-cost seeds and selection of high grade cultivars, and introduction of new high quality exotic species. Additionally, integration into economically feasible and socially acceptable production systems, including joint cultivation with cereal farming and combination with runo farming techniques, should be developed. Legal, regulatory, and administrative incentives are also needed.
Aim Many Australian Acacia species have been widely planted around the world. Some taxa are among the most aggressive of invasive alien plants and cause severe ecosystem degradation. We aimed to predict invasiveness of taxa in a large set of Australian Acacia species on the basis of easy-to-assess predictors.
Location Global.
Methods We considered three groups of predictors: (1) climatic affinities of species in their native ranges; (2) life history traits; and (3) human usage factors. Logistic multiple regressions were applied to construct predictive models for 85 Australian acacias (species in Acacia subgenus Phyllodineae) that are known to have been transported outside of their native range (17 known to be invasive and 68 non-invasive). The best model was then applied to predict the probability of an additional 34 Acacia species with unknown invasive status.
Results Water availability in the native range and human uses were significant predictors of invasiveness in all models. Life history index (proportional to plant height, leaf area and seed mass) and climatic amplitude were also positive predictors of invasiveness when human use was not considered. The best model, based on human uses and water availability, correctly classified 92% of the species. Results suggest that Acacia species that evolved under low climatic stress have a greater chance of becoming invasive.
Main conclusions Species that are useful to humans are more likely to be disseminated to and within new regions, thus increasing the risk of invasion. Combining ecological, evolutionary and human-use criteria is useful for quantifying the risk of Australian acacias becoming invasive. Acacia species can attain invasive status by virtue of intrinsic traits and/or through increased use by humans. Therefore, we predict that the invasion risk of species coming from native areas with high water availability will rise sharply if the interest in exploiting these species increases.
Aim Acacia is the largest genus of plants in Australia with over 1000 species. A subset of these species is invasive in many parts of the world including Africa, the Americas, Europe, the Middle East, Asia and the Pacific region. We investigate the phylogenetic relationships of the invasive species in relation to the genus as a whole. This will provide a framework for studying the evolution of traits that make Acacia species such successful invaders and could assist in screening other species for invasive potential.
Location Australia and global.
Methods We sequenced four plastid and two nuclear DNA regions for 110 Australian Acacia species, including 16 species that have large invasive ranges outside Australia. A Bayesian phylogenetic tree was generated to define the major lineages of Acacia and to determine the phylogenetic placement of the invasive species.
Results Invasive Acacia species do not form a monophyletic group but do form small clusters throughout the phylogeny. There are no taxonomic characters that uniquely describe the invasive Acacia species.
Main conclusions The legume subfamily Mimosoideae has a high percentage of invasive species and the Australian Acacia species have the highest rate of all the legumes. There is some evidence of phylogenetic clumping of invasive species of Acacia in the limited sampling presented here. This phylogeny provides a framework for further testing of the evolution of traits associated with invasiveness in Acacia .
Aim A range of approaches and philosophies underpin national-level strategies for managing invasive alien plants. This study presents a strategy for the management of taxa that both have value and do harm.
Location South Africa.
Methods Insights were derived from examining Australian Acacia species in South Africa (c. 70 species introduced, mostly > 150 years ago; some have commercial and other values; 14 species are invasive, causing substantial ecological and economic damage). We consider options for combining available tactics and management practices. We defined (1) categories of species based on invaded area (a surrogate for impact) and the value of benefits generated and (2) management regions based on habitat suitability and degree of invasion. For each category and region, we identified strategic goals and proposed the combinations of management practices to move the system in the desired direction.
Results We identified six strategic goals that in combination would apply to eight species categories. We further identified 14 management practices that could be strategically combined to achieve these goals for each category in five discrete regions. When used in appropriate combinations, the prospect of achieving the strategic goal will be maximized. As the outcomes of management cannot be accurately predicted, management must be adaptive, requiring continuous monitoring and assessment, and realignment of goals if necessary.
Main conclusions Invasive Australian Acacia species in South Africa continue to spread and cause undesirable impacts, despite a considerable investment into management. This is because the various practices have historically been uncoordinated in what can be best described as a strategy of hope. Our proposed strategy offers the best possible chance of achieving goals, and it is the first to address invasive alien species that have both positive value and negative impacts.
Aim To examine the different uses and perceptions of introduced Australian acacias (wattles; Acacia subgenus Phyllodineae) by rural households and communities.
Location Eighteen landscape-scale case studies around the world, in Vietnam, India, Réunion, Madagascar, South Africa, Congo, Niger, Ethiopia, Israel, France, Portugal, Brazil, Chile, Dominican Republic and Hawai‘i.
Methods Qualitative comparison of case studies, based on questionnaire sent to network of acacia researchers. Information based on individual knowledge of local experts, published and unpublished sources.
Results We propose a conceptual model to explain current uses and perceptions of introduced acacias. It highlights historically and geographically contingent processes, including economic development, environmental discourses, political context, and local or regional needs. Four main groupings of case studies were united by similar patterns: (1) poor communities benefiting from targeted agroforestry projects; (2) places where residents, generally poor, take advantage of a valuable resource already present in their landscape via plantation and/or invasion; (3) regions of small and mid-scale tree farmers participating in the forestry industry; and (4) a number of high-income communities dealing with the legacies of former or niche use of introduced acacia in a context of increased concern over biodiversity and ecosystem services.
Main conclusions Economic conditions play a key role shaping acacia use. Poorer communities rely strongly on acacias (often in, or escaped from, formal plantations) for household needs and, sometimes, for income. Middle-income regions more typically host private farm investments in acacia woodlots for commercialization. Efforts at control of invasive acacias must take care to not adversely impact poor dependent communities.
Aim Anthropogenic introductions of Australian Acacia spp. that become classed as alien invasive species have consequences besides the physical, spatial and ecological: there are also cultural, ethical and political considerations that demand attention from scholars in the humanities and social sciences. As practitioners in these disciplines, our aim is to reflect upon some of the social and conceptual ideas and attitudes relating to the spread of Australian Acacia spp. around the world. We therefore provide a longer‐term historical and philosophical perspective using South Africa as a key example. We explain some of the cultural aspects of Australian acacias, relating them to history, philosophy and societal ideas that were once, or indeed remain, important, either regarding their exportation from Australia or their importation into other countries. Focussing principally on South Africa and Australia but including brief references to other locations, we augment the literature by making connections between acacia introductions and environmental ethics and aesthetics, national and environmental history and symbolic and other discourses. We evaluate a number of the cultural and philosophical dimensions of invasion biology as a societal response and explicate the interesting contradiction of Australian acacia introductions as simultaneously economically valuable and environmentally transformative in South Africa.
Location South Africa, Australia, with references to other parts of the world.
Methods This paper has been written by an interdisciplinary team (two historians, two geographers, a philosopher and an ecologist) and is conceptual and historical, conforming in language and structure to the humanities style. It relies on published and unpublished literature from this disciplinary domain and the critical evaluation of these sources.
Results Many Acacia spp. from Australia have been introduced around the world, generally guided in different eras by a variety of overarching mindsets, including the colonial ethos of ‘improvement’ (1800s to mid 1900s), an economically driven mindset of ‘national development’ (1900s), by a people‐centred frame combining concerns of environment and livelihood in ‘sustainable development’ (1980s onwards), and an aesthetic ethos of ornamental planting that surfaces in all periods. The newest ethos of controlling or managing alien invasive species, a normative attitude deriving from the burgeoning of invasion biology, has more recently shaped the ideology of these plant exchanges and sharpened the focus on species that may be simultaneously both weeds and commercially valuable crops. Our perspective from the humanities and social sciences calls for a more transparent approach that clearly acknowledges such contradictions.
Main conclusions We conclude that the global experiment of human‐mediated Australian acacia introductions raises a number of issues that reflect changing societal concerns and demand attention from scholars in disciplines apart from the natural sciences. Here we highlight the impact of historical context in plant exchanges, the history and philosophy of science as it relates to invasion biology, and changing – sometimes divisive – societal priorities in terms of aesthetic, economic and conservation values. In particular, the case of Acacia spp. in South Africa highlights the contradictory aspects of introductions in that some species are both commercially important and environment‐altering invasive plants. We argue that the contribution of disciplines beyond ecology to the debates about the invasive status of acacias enlarges our understanding and provides useful insights for botanists, foresters, managers and policy makers.
Aim Many Australian Acacia species have been planted around the world, some are highly valued, some are invasive, and some are both highly valued and invasive. We review global efforts to minimize the risk and limit the impact of invasions in this widely used plant group.
Location Global.
Methods Using information from literature sources, knowledge and experience of the authors, and the responses from a questionnaire sent to experts around the world, we reviewed: (1) a generalized life cycle of Australian acacias and how to control each life stage, (2) different management approaches and (3) what is required to help limit or prevent invasions.
Results Relatively few Australian acacias have been introduced in large numbers, but all species with a long and extensive history of planting have become invasive somewhere. Australian acacias, as a group, have a high risk of becoming invasive and causing significant impacts as determined by existing assessment schemes. Moreover, in most situations, long‐lived seed banks mean it is very difficult to control established infestations. Control has focused almost exclusively on widespread invaders, and eradication has rarely been attempted. Classical biological control is being used in South Africa with increasing success.
Main conclusions A greater emphasis on pro‐active rather than reactive management is required given the difficulties managing established invasions of Australian acacias. Adverse effects of proposed new introductions can be minimized by conducting detailed risk assessments in advance, planning for on‐going monitoring and management, and ensuring resources are in place for long‐term mitigation. Benign alternatives (e.g. sterile hybrids) could be developed to replace existing utilized taxa. Eradication should be set as a management goal more often to reduce the invasion debt. Introducing classical biological control agents that have a successful track‐record in South Africa to other regions and identifying new agents (notably vegetative feeders) can help mitigate existing widespread invasions. Trans‐boundary sharing of information will assist efforts to limit future invasions, in particular, management strategies need to be better evaluated, monitored, published and publicised so that global best‐practice procedures can be developed.
Aim Australian acacias (1012 recognized species native to Australia, which were previously grouped in Acacia subgenus Phyllodineae ) have been moved extensively around the world by humans over the past 250 years. This has created the opportunity to explore how evolutionary, ecological, historical and sociological factors interact to affect the distribution, usage, invasiveness and perceptions of a globally important group of plants. This editorial provides the background for the 20 papers in this special issue of Diversity and Distributions that focusses on the global cross‐disciplinary experiment of introduced Australian acacias.
Location Australia and global.
Methods The papers of the special issue are discussed in the context of a unified framework for biological invasions. Distributions of species were mapped across Australia, their representation in bioclimatic zones examined and the potential global distribution of the group modelled. By collating a variety of different lists, we determined which Australian acacias have reached different stages in the introduction‐naturalization‐invasion continuum in different parts of the world. Paradigms and key research questions relating to barriers to invasion, stages of invasion and management perceptions are sketched.
Results According to our global database of Australian acacia records, 386 species have been moved outside Australia by human agency, 71 species are naturalized or weedy, and 23 are unequivocally invasive. Climatic models suggest that about a third of the world’s land surface is climatically suitable for Australian acacias. Many species are commercially important crops or are useful for other purposes and have been extensively planted, and many different human perceptions of Australian acacias exist in different parts of the world. The papers in the special issue cover all the barriers, stages and processes that define biological invasions and touch on many aspects: history and the human dimension; aspects of the species pool; species traits; biotic interactions; climate and niche; and management.
Main conclusions Australian acacias are an excellent model group for examining interactions between evolutionary, ecological and socio‐economic drivers of species introductions. New insights have emerged on the biological, ecological and evolutionary correlates of naturalization and invasion, but human usage factors permeate all explanatory models. Understanding and managing introduced Australian acacias requires a fundamental and integrative appreciation of both intrinsic (e.g. species traits) and extrinsic (e.g. human usage and perceptions) aspects.
Aim Woody plants were not widely considered to be important invasive alien species until fairly recently. Thousands of species of trees and shrubs have, however, been moved around the world. Many species have spread from planting sites, and some are now among the most widespread and damaging of invasive organisms. This article presents a global list of invasive alien trees and shrubs. It discusses taxonomic biases, geographical patterns, modes of dispersal, reasons for introductions and key issues regarding invasions of non‐native woody plants around the world.
Location Global.
Methods An exhaustive survey was made of regional and national databases and the literature. Correspondence with botanists and ecologists and our own observations in many parts of the world expanded the list. Presence of invasive species was determined for each of 15 broad geographical regions. The main reasons for introduction and dissemination were determined for each species.
Results The list comprises 622 species (357 trees, 265 shrubs in 29 plant orders, 78 families, 286 genera). Regions with the largest number of woody invasive alien species are: Australia (183); southern Africa (170); North America (163); Pacific Islands (147); and New Zealand (107). Species introduced for horticulture dominated the list (62% of species: 196 trees and 187 shrubs). The next most important reasons for introduction and dissemination were forestry (13%), food (10%) and agroforestry (7%). Three hundred and twenty‐three species (52%) are currently known to be invasive in only one region, and another 126 (20%) occur in only two regions. Only 38 species (6%) are very widespread (invasive in six or more regions). Over 40% of invasive tree species and over 60% of invasive shrub species are bird dispersed.
Main conclusions Only between 0.5% and 0.7% of the world’s tree and shrub species are currently invasive outside their natural range, but woody plant invasions are rapidly increasing in importance around the world. The objectively compiled list of invasive species presented here provides a snapshot of the current dimensions of the phenomenon and will be useful for screening new introductions for invasive potential.
Plantation forests not only impact carbon and water cycles, but also affect biodiversity, livelihoods, and shape regional
economies. Each of these impacts differs across varying scales of analysis. This paper illustrates how forest, climate change
and hydrology debates play out in the context of the forest plantations of Australian black wattle (Acacia mearnsii) in the upper Palni hills of southern India. We outline the contradictory perspectives of different local groups regarding
the impact of plantations on catchment hydrology and water availability, and examine these in relation to changes in the regional
economy and rainfall patterns. Our analysis indicates that changes in these two factors have played a more significant role
than existing wattle plantations in affecting local and regional water availability. We suggest that ongoing debates regarding
forest plantation–hydrology–climate change relationships need to broaden their scope to include changes in regional rainfall
patterns and shifts in regional economic activity. This approach is likely to provide a more realistic assessment of plantation
forests in a dynamic regional context, and offer more resilient strategies for regional landscape and catchment management
under conditions of high variability in rainfall patterns.
KeywordsPlantation forests-Social perspectives and debates-Kodaikanal (Tamil Nadu, India)-
Acacia mearnsii
-Catchment hydrology-Regional climate change
Very few Australian acacias were introduced into dry tropical Africa before 1970. Thanks in large measure to a seed collection made by the Centre Technique Forestier Tropical (CTFT) in North and West Australia, about 50 species are now undergoing trials in Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Niger, Senegal and to a lesser extent in Cape Verde, Mali, and Mauritania. The largest number of experiments in the last ten years have been in Senegal, where about 50 trials with more than 40 different species have been undertaken. Initial results show that on the whole these species are sensitive to drought conditions. This behavior is undoubtedly related to the essentially coastal origin of the plant material that has been introduced so far, and the most encouraging results have been obtained in coastal test sites in Senegal. The species distinguishing themselves by good performance in this zone are Acacia coriacea, A. schlerosperma and to a lesser extent itA. bivenosa for resistance to drought, and potential for prevention and control of erosion; and A. holosericea, A. trachycarpa, A. tumida for high productivity and fodder value. A. tumida is still only adapted to a restricted number of sites because of its particular sensitivity to drought.In September-October 1984 the CTFT, in collaboration with the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO), made a new seed collection in the interior semiarid and arid regions of Australia between 16° and 21° South latitude. Thirty-eight species totaling 78 provenances were collected and introduced into West Africa, combined with rhizobium inoculation trials. The first results of these tests are promising, and continued work in this area should allow the selection of genetic material capable of both good performance and better drought resistance.
Scholars studying the globalization of Australian trees have previously emphasized the rapid natural propagation of Australian trees outside of their native habitats, believing their success to be a reversal of "ecological imperialism" from the "new world" to the "old world." This article argues that the expansion of Australian trees should not be viewed as a biological phenomenon, but as the result of a long-term attempt by powerful states and state-sponsored scientists to select and breed Australian species that could grow in a variety of climates and ecological conditions. Five non-biological factors largely determined the success of these attempts to grow Australian trees: the abundance or paucity of natural forests, state power, the amount of scientific research directed to planting Australian trees, the cost of labor, and the ability to utilize hardwood timbers and bark. This paper compares the use of Australian trees in Australia, India, and South Africa to demonstrate that biology was not the determining factor in the long-term success of many Australian genera and species.
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