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Daily experiences of intimacy: A study of couples
Abstract
The present study examined people's working definitions of intimacy, which emerge through daily interactions that are perceived as intimate by the participant. We proposed that working definitions should be reflected in a set of interaction characteristics that prompt relationship partners to label their interaction as intimate. Participants were 113 cohabiting couples who completed questionnaires and kept diaries of their interactions for 1 week. Interaction characteristics explaining perceived intimacy were interaction pleasantness, disclosure of private information, the expression of positive feelings, the perception of being understood by one's partner, and the disclosure of emotion. Further, more satisfied couples perceived their interactions as more intimate and showed stronger associations between interaction intimacy and partner disclosure than did less satisfied couples. Findings indicated that couple characteristics are more salient than person characteristics as predictors of intimacy in interactions.
The deepest need of man, then, is the need to overcome his separate-ness, to leave the prison of his aloneness. The absolute failure to achieve this aim means insanity, because the panic of complete isolation can be overcome only by such a radical withdrawal from the world outside that the feeling of separation disappears–because the world outside, from which one is separated, has disappeared.
... 14) The difficulty in defining intimacy arises from the complexity of social interactions, as well as cultural, educational, and gender differences. In modern psychology, many general definitions of intimacy are related to people's working definitions of intimacy (e.g., Lippert & Prager, 2005). This means that they are typically vague and lack operational clarity and empirical validation (Moss & Schwebel, 1993). ...
... It is worth noting that although intimacy as a construct can be difficult to define, people's working definitions of intimacy often very accurately reflect components of it which are indicated by researchers of romantic relationships. To illustrate this, Lippert and Prager (2005) conducted research examining how people define intimacy. The interaction characteristics that explain perceived intimacy included a feeling of being understood by one's partner, interaction pleasantness, sharing personal or private information, sharing emotions and positive feelings toward the partner, and the disclosure of emotions. ...
... In this sense, positive involvement and intimate disclosure are interdependent: negative involvement (or low positive involvement) will be associated with a decrease in intimate disclosure, while high positive involvement will be associated with an increase in intimate disclosure. The described mechanism would also be consistent with scientific reports on intimacy itself (e.g., Lippert & Prager, 2005), which show that "intimacy invites intimacy" (i.e., the more intimate one partner's behavior is, the more intimate the other's). ...
Intimacy can be defined as a process, a type, or a characteristic of interpersonal interaction. Intimate interaction in a romantic relationship includes self-disclosure, positive involvement with the other, listening, and understanding. The level of intimacy depends on a romantic couple’s degree of involvement in their interactions and the type of behavior they engage in.
Intimacy in romantic relationships can be determined by the level of emotional closeness (e.g., communication of understanding, validation, attention, emotional support, and responsiveness), physical closeness (touching, hugging, kissing, cuddling, and sexual intimacy), and cognitive closeness (e.g., sharing thoughts, expectations, beliefs, and communicating feelings openly).
Intimacy is considered one of the key elements of romantic relationships. Multiple studies show that it is one of the strongest predictors of the quality and satisfaction of romantic relationships, and its level is related to commitment, trust, sexual satisfaction, and quality of communication.
... The interpersonal process model of intimacy (Reis & Patrick, 1996;Reis & Shaver, 1988) maintains that disclosing emotional experiences creates interpersonal closeness by inviting interpersonal processes involving trust, validation, and social support. Research has indeed documented temporary increases in relationship closeness after social sharing (Cameron & Overall, 2018;Laurenceau et al., , 1998Lippert & Prager, 2001;Rossignac-Milon et al., 2020). Importantly, these momentary effects are also assumed to have longterm implications. ...
... The findings supported H2 predicting higher closeness in both partners shortly after social sharing. These findings replicate earlier findings from previous daily-diary and experience-sampling studies (Cameron & Overall, 2018;Laurenceau et al., , 1998Lippert & Prager, 2001) and extend them by showing that closeness effects after everyday social sharing apply to both speakers and listeners, and can be traced both as momentary implications and over the course of years. ...
... Of note, previous studies on variations in couples' affect and intimacy have relied on similar sample sizes of participants, while often using fewer observations per participant than included in the current study Lippert & Prager, 2001;Sels et al., 2020). ...
People often tell others about recent daily hassles. Such social sharing of emotion is often assumed to support affect repair, but empirical evidence points to the contrary. We tested the notion that social sharing primarily serves relationship closeness, rather than immediate affect repair. Using dyadic experience sampling with N = 100 couples, we captured social sharing in everyday contexts and assessed socioemotional implications for speakers and listeners. Across M = 87 individual measurement occasions, both partners reported potential social-sharing episodes following daily hassles and rated their momentary negative affect and relationship closeness. Global evaluations of relationship closeness were assessed at baseline and 2.5 years later. Social sharing involved both affective benefits and costs, but it predicted momentary and long-term increases in partners’ relationship closeness. These results suggest that sharing bad news in relationships may not primarily serve immediate affect–repair functions. Rather, it may be a catalyst for creating and nourishing relationship closeness.
... Being understood by others enables people to feel psychologically connected to each other and to have more positive, agreeable interactions (Reis et al., 2017). For individuals who are in relationships, they experience increased intimacy, trust, support, and relationship satisfaction when they feel understood by their partner (Cahn, 1990;Cahn & Shulman, 1984;Lippert & Prager, 2001;Murray et al., 2002;Pollmann & Finkenauer, 2009;Reis et al., 2004;Weber et al., 2004). Feeling understood by a partner also lessens the negative effects of destructive conflict strategies, including demand-withdraw (Weger, 2005). ...
... Taken together, although understanding may provide individuals with benefits, we suspect that the consequences of misunderstanding might outweigh these benefits. Indeed, past studies typically find that feeling understood predicts positive relationship and individual outcomes (Cahn, 1990;Cahn & Shulman, 1984;Lippert & Prager, 2001;Murray et al., 2002;Pollmann & Finkenauer, 2009;Reis et al., 2004;Weber et al., 2004), but some studies have found null effects (Oishi et al., 2013). By contrast, very little work has looked specifically at misunderstanding, particularly in the context of close relationships. ...
... Based on this work, we hypothesized that individuals in the misunderstanding condition would report lower interaction satisfaction as well as have lower levels of motivation and performance for a subsequent puzzle task than those in the typical interaction condition. Also, extant work shows clear positive benefits of understanding on individual's relationship outcomes (Cahn, 1990;Cahn & Shulman, 1984;Lippert & Prager, 2001;Murray et al., 2002;Pollmann & Finkenauer, 2009;Reis et al., 2004;Weber et al., 2004). Consistent with this research, we hypothesized that people in the understanding condition would have higher interaction satisfaction than those in the typical interaction condition. ...
We examined the effects of felt (mis)understanding on satisfaction, stress, and motivation in two different studies. In Study 1, we used an experimental design in which 72 participants (54 women, 18 men) engaged in understanding or misunderstanding interactions. Afterward, we measured their satisfaction with the interaction and their motivation for and performance on a subsequent task. Consistent with our hypotheses, we found that people who had a misunderstanding interaction reported lower interaction satisfaction, motivation, and poorer performance than those who were given no instructions. In Study 2, we used diary methodology and measured diurnal cortisol slopes (N = 86; 63 women, 21 men) to determine how day to day fluctuations in understanding and misunderstanding were associated with daily feelings of motivation, satisfaction, and perceived stress. Consistent with our hypotheses, the results found that feeling misunderstood predicted higher perceived stress, lower life satisfaction and motivation as well as less healthy cortisol slopes. Felt understanding predicted higher life satisfaction and higher motivation in Study 2 (not Study 1). Similar to other relationship constructs, our findings suggest that the physical and psychological impact of misunderstanding is important to consider distinct from understanding. Further, they suggest that not feeling misunderstood by our close others may matter more than feeling understood by them.
... Studies using experience sampling (Laurenceau, Barrett, & Pietromonaco, 1998), daily interactions (Lippert & Prager, 2001), couple discussion (Manne et al., 2004) and daily experience research (Laurenceau, Barrett, & Rovine, 2005) showed that self-disclosure promotes perceived responsiveness which in turn lead to greater feelings of intimacy among married couples. Additional evidence from an intervention study demonstrated that intimacy-enhancing interventions can improve relationship closeness for breast cancer patients and their spouses (Manne & Badr, 2008). ...
... We ran the main analyses using the single intimacy item. Although using a single-item measure of intimacy might create potential measurement issues, several studies showed that single item measures of such concepts like closeness (Chopik, Kim, & Smith, 2018) and intimacy (Laurenceau et al., 2005;Lippert & Prager, 2001) are valid. We also repeated the analyses with the full scale of PRQC (see Appendix for details). ...
... The IPM has been repeatedly tested (Laurenceau et al., 1998;Lippert & Prager, 2001), however the generalizability of the theory to other cultures and to newly-formed romantic relationships remained as an open question (Laurenceau et al., 2004). Overall, these findings provide first empirical evidence that the basic premises of intimacy development generalize across early stages of romantic relationships and across non-Western cultural setting. ...
Self-disclosure and perceived partner responsiveness are two principal components of the intimacy that aims to explain relationship functioning. This theory has been tested in the past but all focused on long-term married couples with Western samples. The current study examines the basic tenets of the process model of intimacy in the context of a fledgling relationship in a non-Western cultural setting. Couples who were in the early stages of a romantic relationship (N= 151) reported their intimacy in two sessions three weeks apart. Between the two sessions, they completed a 21-day diary assessing self-disclosure and perceived partner responsiveness. Dyadic analyses using multilevel modeling provided evidence for the reciprocal links between self-disclosure and perceived responsiveness. Additionally, perceived responsiveness partially mediated the effects of disclosure on increases in intimacy. These findings demonstrated that the current conceptions of the interpersonal model of intimacy generalize across early stages of romantic relationships and across a non-Western cultural context.
... Perceiving that a partner is responsive to one's needs is important to relationship wellbeing (Fekete, Stephens, Mickelson, & Druly, 2007;Lippert & Prager;2001;Reis, 2014). ...
... Perceiving that a partner is responsive to one's needs is important to relationship wellbeing (Fekete, Stephens, Mickelson, & Druly, 2007;Lippert & Prager;2001;Reis, 2014). ...
... These benefits can translate into the future as well, with perceived responsiveness increasing positive ratings of strangers a week later (Kleiman, Kashdan, Monfort, Machell, & Goodman, 2015), and predicting cortisol levels of marital partners 10 years down the line (Slatcher, Selcuk, & Ong, 2015). In fact, research strongly suggests that actual emotional support only matters insofar as it is perceived (Lippert & Prager, 2001;Reis, 2014;Reis et al, 2004;Selcuk & Ong, 2013). ...
In two lines of work, I explore the effects of using compassionate language. In the first line, I examine how social support that is not backed by sincere emotion is perceived, and whether it can be effective for making people feel better. In a between-subjects online study (N = 200) and a lab study with dyads of strangers (N = 144), I show that provider sincerity is less important for effective support than support recipients believe. Since recipients' accuracy is limited and biased with regard to sincerity, being supportive without emotional motivation could in cases be just as effective as the 'real' thing. The second line of work asks whether self-distancing promotes self-compassion. In four online experiments (Ns = 209, 411, 224, 567) where subjects write about a problem for which they blame themselves, those who wrote from a distanced perspective consistently used more compassionate language to discuss it than those who wrote from an immersed perspective. There was evidence that this kind of compassionate language was associated with feeling more self-compassion. Basic science and clinical implications of both lines of work are discussed.
... Relational intimacy was investigated through multiple lenses, including the theory of intimacy, how minority stress affects intimacy, how gender influences intimacy, and how researchers can be creative in measuring intimacy (Frost, 2011;Lippert & Prager, 2001;Milek, Boderman & Butler, 2015). Without any available tools to measure intimacy in a romantic relationship, researchers Marelich and Lunquist (2008) created a scale to measure "motivations for sexual intimacy." ...
... 831). Four of these articles investigating intimacy used solely heterosexual participants (Cordova, Gee & Warren, 2005;Lippert & Prager, 2001;Marelich & Lundquist, 2008;Milek, Bodenmann & Butler, 2015), one of the articles looked at the similarities and differences in intimacy between homosexuals and heterosexuals (Frost, 2011), and one article looked specifically at lesbians (Connolly, 2005). Intimacy has been examined through the lens of emotional intelligence and the ability to accurately communicate emotions (Cordova, Gee & Warren, 2005). ...
... Other authors described intimacy as feeling understood, feeling validated, disclosing private information, and expressing positive emotions towards their partner (Lippert & Prager's, 2001;Milek, Bulter & Bodenmann, 2015). Frost (2011) more explicitly defines intimacy as "experiences of emotional, communicative and physical closeness or connection with another person" (p. ...
In an environment typically dominated by heteronormative values and behavior, the distribution of power, resources, and tasks within an intimate relationship often is gender-determined. How power, resources, and tasks are negotiated within a lesbian relationship and how this process may affect the perception of intimacy and sexual satisfaction remains a fertile area for exploration. Through the lens of relational-cultural theory and social exchange theory, this dissertation examines the literature that considers the ways in which power is negotiated and distributed in intimate relationships, with a specific emphasis on lesbian relationships. In addition, literature that considers the interplay between power and perceived intimacy and sexual satisfaction will be analyzed, again with an emphasis on lesbian relationships. Interviews with ten self-identifying lesbians, each of whom is in an exclusive romantic relationship for a minimum of three years, will provide the context for exploring the ways in which power has been negotiated and resources and tasks have been distributed within their relationships—and how, if at all, the negotiation and distribution of power, resources, and tasks has impacted their perceived levels of intimacy and sexual satisfaction.
... In the interpersonal process model of intimacy, Reis and Shaver (1988) propose that intimacy accrues via disclosure-responsiveness exchanges between partners across repeated interactions over time. Empirical studies support the notion that couples enhance their feeling of mutual intimacy by spending time together that is characterized by sharing personal information and feelings, and mutual responsiveness (e.g., Laurenceau, Barrett, & Rovine, 2005;Lippert & Prager, 2001). Consequently, spending (more) such time together should foster couples' intimacy and relationship satisfaction. ...
... Research initiated by Orthner (1975) provided consistent findings across different cultures that joint leisure activities characterized by a high level of interaction (or communication) are substantially stronger associated with relationship satisfaction than activities that are not (e.g., Holman & Jacquart, 1988;Palisi, 1984). Certain core joint leisure activities (e.g., eating meals together, going for a walk) may form a better context than others (e.g., watching TV) for promoting mutual self-disclosure, a skill known to be essential for relationship maintenance (Riggio & Zimmerman, 1991) and for the development of intimacy (Reis & Shaver, 1988; see also Laurenceau et al., 2005;Lippert & Prager, 2001). ...
... Similarly, the interpersonal process model of intimacy explicitly acknowledges that intimacy accrues via disclosure-responsiveness exchanges between partners across repeated interactions over time (Reis & Shaver, 1988). Empirical work agrees and shows that couples develop a feeling of intimacy over reoccurring interactions characterized by disclosure of personal information and emotions, expression of positive feelings, and perceptions of being understood by one's partner (Laurenceau et al., 2005;Lippert & Prager, 2001). Physical proximity presumably fosters intimate interactions, as it -in contrast to interactions by mail or phone-allows for nonverbal communication and touch, which are known to affect intimacy (Debrot et al., 2013;Guerrero & Floyd, 2006;Prager, 1995). ...
... A substantial amount of empirical literature has supported the interpersonal process model of intimacy (Reis & Shaver, 1988) as a valid depiction of emotionally intimate processes in heterosexual couples (Castellani, 2006;Herrington, 2008;Laurenceau, Barrett, & Pietromonaco, 1998;Laurenceau, Barrett, & Rovine, 2005;Lippert & Prager, 2001;Manne et al., 2004;Mitchell et al., 2008). This model describes the interchange of self-disclosure and empathetic responding between romantic partners as key components for the development and maintenance of intimacy. ...
... The interpersonal process model of intimacy, originally presented by Reis and Shaver (1988) and later formalized by Reis and Patrick (1996), is the most established conceptual model of emotional intimacy to date (Mitchell, 2008). This model has served as the theoretical basis for numerous articles, each of which uses it as a foundation for further theoretical and empirical exploration (Castellani, 2006;Heller & Wood, 1998;Herrington, 2008;Manne et al., 2004;Marshall, 2008;Mitchell, 2008 ;Mitchell et al., 2008;Morry, 2005;Laurenceau et al., 1998;Laurenceau, Barrett et al., 2005;Laurenceau, Rivera, Schaffer, & Pietromonaco, 2004;Lawrence et al., 2008;Lippert & Prager, 2001;Reis, 1990;Reis, 1998;Reis, Clark, & Holmes, 2004;Shelton, Trail, West, & Bergsieker, 2010). Reis and Shaver's original model begins with one partner's self-disclosure of personally relevant and revealing information. ...
... Expansions on the self-disclosure and partner responsiveness components. Lippert and Prager (2001) also found support for Reis and Shaver's (1988) model, but they tested it within the context of romantic relationships. To do this, these authors used a daily-diary method and asked 113 cohabitating couples to record what occurred for them during self-defined intimate interactions. ...
A substantial amount of literature supports the interpersonal process model of intimacy (Reis & Shaver, 1988) as a valid depiction of emotionally intimate processes in couples. The conceptual version of this model includes an interchange of self-disclosure and empathetic responding as well as perceptual elements like the interpretive filter and the motives, needs, goals, and fears components. Building on the theoretical work of Reis and Shaver, subsequent authors have studied this work empirically. While both rigorous and informative, these studies collectively fail to consider how gender socialization impacts the embodiment of this model. Building on this limitation, this study explored the contributions of self-disclosure to emotional intimacy and the effects of traditional masculine gender ideology on this association. In doing this, the current research also explored the contributions of the perceptual elements of the model, which have been previously overlooked in studies. One hundred and twenty three heterosexual couples participated in this study. Participants responded to an online survey that included measures of self-disclosure, traditional masculine gender ideology, expectations of self-disclosure and emotional intimacy. Results showed that the effect of men’s gender traditionalism on women’s emotional intimacy happened by way of men’s restricted self-disclosure. Also, women’s expectations of their partner’s self-disclosure mediated the effect that men’s self-disclosure had on women’s emotional intimacy, which further underscored the importance of the interpretive filter. Finally, tests for moderation suffered from low power and were subsequently inconclusive. Suggestions for future research as well as implications for clinical work follow the discussion of these findings.
... Partners who maintain positive communication and mutual understanding are more likely to sustain intimate relationships (Finkenauer & Hazam, 2000). Over time, intimacy in long-term relationships can diminish as partners become more secure and potentially take each other for granted (Lippert & Prager, 2001). However, a climate of sensitivity and positive regard allows couples to continually share vulnerability, strengthening intimacy through trust and risk-taking (Sanderson & Evans, 2001). ...
... Moreover, individuals gauge their willingness to be vulnerable based on their perceptions of their partner's positive regard, which significantly influences intimacy levels (Murray et al., 2000). Daily expressions of affection and positive feelings also play a unique role in enhancing intimacy within couples (Lippert & Prager, 2001). While existing research underscores the importance of trust and intimacy in spousal relationships, there remains a lack of studies focusing on older adults in long-term marriages, particularly in non-Western cultural contexts. ...
This study aimed to explore the relationship between trust, intimacy, and spousal relationships among older adults. The rationale stemmed from the observed importance of trust and intimacy in sustaining long-term relationships. The objective was to examine how these variables interplay in shaping spousal dynamics. Using a between-group research design, the study employed non-probability convenience sampling to recruit 50 couples (100 participants), aged 40–65 years, with a minimum of 15 years of marriage. Data were collected through standardized instruments: the Trust Scale, Relationship Assessment Scale, and Intimacy Scale. Descriptive and correlational analyses using SPSS revealed significant positive relationships between trust, intimacy, and spousal satisfaction. However, no significant differences were found based on family systems or gender. The study highlighted the critical role of trust in fostering intimacy and improving relationship quality. Recommendations include conducting workshops to enhance trust and intimacy and exploring these dynamics in diverse cultural and relationship contexts. Future research should consider larger, geographically varied samples and include partially separated or cohabiting couples to generalize findings.
... The FFP draws on the influential and empirically confirmed interpersonal process model of intimacy by Reis andShaver (Laurenceau et al., 1998, 2005;Lippert & Prager, 2001;Reis & Shaver, 1988). This model focuses on self-disclosure of personal feelings and information, and on warm and sympathetic partner responsiveness as central agents of the intimacy process. ...
... However, the use of confederates may preclude generalizability of our findings. For example, other than individuals from the general population, our confederates were trained in being responsive, which is known to enhance intimacy (Laurenceau et al., 1998(Laurenceau et al., , 2005Lippert & Prager, 2001). Moreover, standardization of the confederates' answers might have reduced their authentic self-disclosure and responsiveness, the two central elements of intimacy (Reis & Shaver, 1988). ...
The Fast Friends Procedure (FFP) is a widely used experimental paradigm to induce emotional intimacy. Besides exploring the validity of a German translation of the paradigm (n = 46), we developed an extension of the FFP that induces sexual intimacy and assessed heart rate, high-frequency heart rate variability, and electrodermal activity responses to the FFP and its extension. Furthermore, we examined its applicability to individuals with childhood maltreatment (n = 56), who frequently suffer from intimacy-related difficulties. Intimacy, positive affect, liking, and attraction increased during the FFP and partly during the sexual intimacy extension in both study groups. Moreover, both groups showed physiological responses consistent with positive social interactions. The use of the German FFP and its sexual intimacy extension can thus be recommended for research in the general population and in individuals with childhood maltreatment, although more studies are needed to further validate the paradigms.
... In delineating the concept of intimacy for our study, we borrowed from Lippert and Prager's (2001) and Moss and Schwebel's (1993) definitions of intimacy in romantic relationships. Lippert and Prager (2001) characterize intimacy as an interactional phenomenon between two parties involving two parts: (a) an act of self-revelation by one partner and (b) a response from the other that promotes positive affect between the couple involved in the interaction. ...
... In delineating the concept of intimacy for our study, we borrowed from Lippert and Prager's (2001) and Moss and Schwebel's (1993) definitions of intimacy in romantic relationships. Lippert and Prager (2001) characterize intimacy as an interactional phenomenon between two parties involving two parts: (a) an act of self-revelation by one partner and (b) a response from the other that promotes positive affect between the couple involved in the interaction. Moss and Schwebel (1993) define intimacy as "determined by the level of commitment and positive affective, cognitive, and physical closeness one experiences with a partner in a reciprocal (although not necessarily symmetrical) relationship" (p. ...
In this study, we explored how couples raising children with autism spectrum disorder negotiate intimacy, including what contextual and temporal factors influence these processes. We conducted conjoint interviews with 12 couples, employing grounded theory methodology to collect and analyze the data. Our results indicated that fostering intimacy in these couples' relationships involves partners working together to make key cognitive and relational shifts. Couples are aided or hindered in making these shifts by the degree to which they experience various contextual and environmental factors as resources or roadblocks. We also found that intimacy is not a fixed point at which couples one day arrive, but is an iterative process taking place over time and requiring work to develop and maintain.
... Mutual expression of affection creates a sense of support and increases self-revelation in couples (19). The study results showed that self-revelation behavior of couples has a positive correlation with marital satisfaction (20). Also, emotional skills and the ability to express emotion have a positive correlation with marital satisfaction (21). ...
... Second subscale has 5 items (2,4,11,12,17), which evaluates the ability to determine the expression of emotions and whether the participant can express feelings using words. The third subscale has 8 items (5,8,10,15,16,(18)(19)(20) which evaluates the levels of one's introspection, depending in one's own feelings and also in others. Test scoring method is based on a Likertscale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). ...
Background: Marital quality is deeply associated with its psychological, physical, and emotional aspects. Objectives: The current study aimed to investigate the relationship between marital dissatisfaction and variables of attachment styles and alexithymia. Patients and Methods: This research method is descriptive and correlational. The population study comprised 400 parents of female students in Tehran during the academic year of 2013 - 2014. The study sample was selected using multistage cluster sampling method. The Pearson correlational coefficient and multivariate regression methods have been used for data analysis. Statistical analysis was done by SPSS 18. Results: The results showed a significant negative correlation between secure style and marital satisfaction (P = 0.001, r = -0.154). Also, significant relationships were observed between marital dissatisfaction and variables of insecure style (P = 0.001, r = 0.243), ambivalent style (P = 0.001, r = 0.247), difficulty in emotional identification (P = 0.001, r = 0.335), and external orientation (P = 0.001, r = 0.286). However, there was no significant relationship between marital dissatisfaction and difficulty in describing emotions (P = 0.001, r = 0.033). Conclusions: The results have shown a significant negative correlation between secure style and marital dissatisfaction. There were positive significant relationships between marital dissatisfaction and variables of insecure style, ambivalent style, difficulty in identifying emotions, and externally oriented thinking, but there was not any significant relationship between marital dissatisfaction and difficulty in emotional expression.
... This suggests that perceived closeness to the social partner and emotion regulation strategies are linked (thought the direction of these associations is unclear). Conversely, frequent emotional and topical disclosure were related to greater intimacy in relationships (Lippert & Prager, 2001;Maier et al., 2013). Importantly, these studies suggest that the relationship between closeness and emotional processes can be bi-directional, such that having difficulties regulating emotions may have a negative impact on the closeness between individuals and their partners (Tani et al., 2015). ...
Emotion regulation has traditionally been conceptualized as an intrapersonal phenomenon with a focus on individuals’ personal experiences (e.g., feelings) and behaviors. However, a relational perspective on emotions underscores that emotion regulation occurs predominantly in the context of social interactions. Close relationships play an important role in emotion regulation in social interactions, particularly during emerging adulthood when individuals spend more time outside the family home. However, few studies have examined predictors of the use of different emotion regulation strategies in everyday life. Using Ecological Momentary Assessment, we first examined concurrent associations between social contexts (closeness to interaction partner and pleasantness of interaction) and use of emotion regulation strategies (cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression). Second, we used lagged models to explore potential bidirectional associations between aspects of the social context and emotion regulation strategy use. We collected EMA data four times per day for two weeks, resulting in 3,158 momentary assessments. Better quality of social interactions was associated with both less suppression and less reappraisal at the same moment, but not at subsequent moments. Interestingly, we found that reappraisal at one moment predicted more pleasant interactions and closeness at the next moment. Our findings underscore the importance of understanding both social contexts and emotion regulation on momentary levels. This study holds implications for understanding social context and emotion regulation in the everyday lives of emerging adults.
... Furthermore, empathy may alleviate distress in others by fostering a sense of "felt understanding," wherein a target acknowledges that their interaction partner has genuinely grasped and responded to fundamental aspects of their emotional experience (Reis et al., , 2017. While felt understanding is reported to diminish stress and boost positive affect among partners in close relationships (Gable et al., 2004;Lippert & Prager, 2001;Lun et al., 2008), among strangers, felt understanding also decreases negative affect (Seehausen et al., 2012). This may be because feeling understood activates neural regions previously associated with reward and social connection (Morelli et al., 2014). ...
While extant research on empathy has made significant progress in uncovering the mechanisms underlying the responses of an observer (empathizer) to the distress of another (target), it remains unclear how the interaction between the empathizer and the target contributes to distress regulation in the target. Here, we propose that behavioral and neural coupling during empathic interactions contribute to diminished distress. From November 2020 to November 2022, we recruited 37 pairs of previously unacquainted participants (N = 74) from multicultural backgrounds. They engaged in a 5 min face-to-face emotional sharing task, where one participant shared a distressing biographical experience with the other participant. We used functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) to measure interbrain coupling in the emotion regulation system, specifically the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC), and the observation execution system, specifically the inferior frontal gyrus (IFG). Results indicate that during emotional sharing the target and the empathizer emotionally converge, such that the empathizer becomes sadder. Moreover, the levels of empathizers’ empathy predicted both emotional convergence and target distress relief. The neuroimaging findings indicate that interbrain coupling in the dlPFC, IFG, and premotor cortex, predicted distress relief in the target, and more critically that interbrain coupling in the dlPFC played a mediating role in the relationship between distress relief and the levels of empathy of the empathizer. Considering the role of the dlPFC in emotion regulation, we conclude that interbrain coupling in this region during emotional sharing plays a key role in dyadic coregulation of distress.
... .] as 'digested' products of past interactions" (Reis & Shaver, 1988, p. 383), which are built upon repeated intimate interactions. Several studies underline the validity of Reis and Shaver's interpersonal process model as a conceptual framework for intimacy in relationships and confirm the key role that self-disclosure along with partner responsiveness play in the process of intimacy (Laurenceau et al., 1998(Laurenceau et al., , 2005Lippert & Prager, 2001). Building on these core concepts, Birnie's questionnaire measures intimacy in romantic relationships and involves items covering self-disclosure of private thoughts, feelings, and sexual desires as well as caring, understanding and accepting responses from one's relationship partner. ...
The intimacy questionnaire by Birnie (2009; Birnie-Porter & Lydon, 2013) is a promising measure of relationship intimacy due to its strong theoretical background, the inclusion of lay conceptions and the differentiation of emotional and sexual intimacy. This study aimed to validate our German translation of Birnie’s questionnaire, which we labeled Intimacy Scale (IS). In two independent samples (379 and 203 individuals), confirmatory factor analyses showed best support for a bifactor S-1 model, with a strong general intimacy factor and a small specific factor, capturing unique portions of the variance related to sexual intimacy. The general intimacy factor correlated very highly and to the point of redundancy with relationship quality. Taken together, the IS may be useful as measure of relationship quality with a general (intimacy) factor. Future research is needed to improve the factorial structure of the scale.
... However, this does not seem to translate into the partner having higher levels of satisfaction or desire in our study. Past research indicates that couples perceive disclosing private details about their lives and being understood by one' s partner on a daily level as intimate experiences (Lippert & Prager, 2001). It may be that even though the individual receives high levels of disclosure from their partner on a given day, their partner may not perceive them as responding well, understanding them, or being attentive to them during the disclosure, and therefore this disclosure may not influence the partner' s level of satisfaction or desire. ...
... According to the interpersonal process model of intimacy, intimacy is likely to develop and increase within relationships when partners openly communicate feelings and stress to each other and, as a result of their partners' responses, come to feel understood, validated, and cared for (i.e., perceived responsiveness) (Reis & Shaver, 1988;Laurenceau et al., 2004). Several studies among the general population provide support for the interpersonal process model of intimacy in romantic and spousal relationships (hereafter referred to as spouses) (Candel & Turliuc, 2021;Laurenceau et al., 1998;2004;2005;Lippert & Prager, 2001). The model has also applied to couples dealing with illness, specifically cancer, suggesting that open communication behaviours, such as constructive communication and emotional disclosure of cancer-related concerns, are associated with higher levels of intimacy via perceived responsiveness (Manne et al., 2004(Manne et al., , 2014(Manne et al., , 2018Manne & Badr, 2010;Porter et al., 2009). ...
The interpersonal process model of intimacy suggests that intimacy within dyads develops when open communication from one dyad member is met with validating, understanding and caring responses from the other dyad member. Little is known about interpersonal processes between informal caregivers and care recipients in different illness contexts (i.e., coping with neurological, physical or other impairments/comorbidities) and relationship types (i.e., spouses, adult children and others), and how interpersonal processes are linked to the caregivers’ wellbeing. In this cross-sectional study, caregivers (N = 882) from nine countries reported on their open communication with care recipients, care recipients’ responsiveness, and caregivers’ wellbeing (i.e., intimacy, burden and communal motivation to care). Although caregivers of care recipients with neurological impairments and adult child caregivers reported lower mean levels of open communication and perceived responsiveness, similar mediating effects of perceived responsiveness between open communication and intimacy (effect = 0.05; CI95 = [0.04, 0.06]), burden (effect = −0.42; CI95 = [−0.49, −0.35]), and communal motivation to care (effect = 0.28; CI95 = [0.21, 0.36]) were reported across different illness contexts and relationship types. Only the negative relationship between perceived responsiveness and burden was stronger for spouses (b = −0.23, CI95 = [-0.26, −0.19]) than for adult children and others. Results suggest the interpersonal process model of intimacy may be used to identify caregivers at risk of poor wellbeing in different illness contexts and with different relationships with their care recipients. Lack of open communication and caregivers’ misperceptions of care recipients’ responsiveness may represent opportunities to intervene to enhance caregivers’ intimacy to the care recipients, communal motivation to care, and to decrease caregiver burden.
... In human-to-human relationships, the formation of intimacy is a critical social process that serves as the foundation for a sense of mutual understanding between two entities (Clark and Schaefer 1989;Reis et al. 2017;Reis and Shaver 1988). The fact that greater intimacy in relationships is often characterized by more extensive self-disclosure (Sprecher and Hendrick 2004), reciprocity (McAdams, Jackson, and Kirshnit 1984), and positive affect (Lippert and Prager 2001), supports the idea that intimacy is closely associated with the formation and deepening of interpersonal connections. Reis and Shaver (1988) describe intimacy as a dynamic process that requires the active contribution of both parties to create mutual understanding, care, and validation. ...
This research shows that AI-based conversational interfaces can have a profound impact on consumer–brand relationships. We develop a conceptual model of verbal embodiment in technology-mediated communication that integrates three key properties of human-to-human dialogue—(1) turn-taking (i.e., alternating contributions by the two parties), (2) turn initiation (i.e., the act of initiating the next turn in a sequence), and (3) grounding between turns (i.e., acknowledging the other party’s contribution by restating or rephrasing it). These fundamental conversational properties systematically shape consumers’ perception of an AI-based conversational interface, their perception of the brand that the interface represents, and their behavior in connection with that brand. Converging evidence from four studies shows that these dialogue properties enhance the perceived humanness of the interface, which in turn promotes more intimate consumer–brand relationships and more favorable behavioral brand outcomes (greater recommendation acceptance, willingness to pay a price premium, brand advocacy, and brand loyalty). Moreover, we show that these effects are reduced in contexts requiring less mutual understanding between the consumer and the brand. This research highlights how fundamental principles of human-to-human communication can be harnessed to design more intimate consumer–brand interactions in an increasingly AI-driven marketplace.
... The benefits of intimate self-disclosure (ISD) have been first explored in psychology where extensive research investigated self-disclosure in the context of marital relationships (Dindia et al., 1997;Laurenceau et al., 2005;Lippert & Prager, 2001;Manne et al., 2004;Mitchell et al., 2008;Morton, 1978;Waring & Chelune, 1983). More recently, self-disclosure has emerged as one of the most salient behaviors in computer-mediated communication (Jiang et al., 2010). ...
Practitioners and academics have increasingly paid attention to how influencers communicate and engage with their followers. This research explored how social media influencers' intimate self-disclosure (SMIs' ISD) can shape perceptions of their credibility. An experiment examines how followers' relatedness need fulfillment and source credibility are affected. In general, people perceived high levels of SMIs' ISD as more damaging to their credibility than low levels of intimate self-disclosure. Boundary conditions are identified in the appropriateness of self-disclosure. That is, when participants felt that SMIs' ISD was appropriate, perceptions of SMIs' credibility were enhanced through the underlying mechanism of followers' relatedness need fulfillment. Results contribute to a better understanding of the application of intimate self-disclosure in digital marketing and advance our knowledge of the boundary conditions that affect the disclosure of high levels of intimacy by SMIs in a social media consumption context. The findings are also of direct relevance to companies attempting to enhance the persuasiveness of product promotions via followers’ relatedness need fulfillment and source credibility.
... Researchers who study close relationships have argued that a listener's response to selfdisclosure, as much as the self-disclosure itself, accounts for associations between intimacy and well-being. Studies based on Reis and Shaver's (1988) interactional model of intimacy, in which both self-disclosure and listener responsiveness are necessary elements of an intimate interaction, have treated these two dimensions of intimacy as additive, equally important elements of intimacy (Campbell & Renshaw, 2013;Lippert & Prager, 2001;Tan, Overall & Taylor, 2012). ...
Self-disclosure ordinarily benefits individual well-being; however, if someone discloses with an unresponsive listener, self-disclosure may fail to enhance well-being. Because prior research has primarily studied the additive effects of disclosure and listener’s responsiveness on well-being, this study investigated their interactive effects on well-being in romantic relationships. Because attachment orientation is closely associated with needs for intimacy, we further inquired into moderating effects of attachment on associations between intimacy and well-being. One-hundred fifteen cohabiting couples completed 21 daily diaries in which they recorded their experiences interacting with their partners. High self-disclosure during interactions that lacked expressed understanding yielded negative rather than positive outcomes. Multiple interactions between participants’ and partners’ attachment insecurity and intimacy were especially associated with depressive symptoms and relationship satisfaction. Results highlight the importance of the relational context of self-disclosure and well-being.
... Kim and Song (2016), Reis and Shaver (1988), Laurenceau et al. (1998), Berg and Archer (1982), Dindia (1988), Dindia et al. (1997), Lippert and Prager (2001), Laurenceau et al. (2004), Collins and Miller (1994), Omarzu (2000) 2 Wheeless (1976), Laurenceau et al. (2005) 4 ...
Purpose
This study develops and validates a scale to measure social media influencers' intimate self-disclosure (SMIs' ISD), by accessing consumer perceptions of the intimacy levels of SMIs' self-disclosure. The authors further evaluate the extent to which SMIs' ISD fosters consumers' self-brand connections via consumer-SMI parasocial relationships.
Design/methodology/approach
The scale was developed through item generation, purification, and validation. First, items were generated from existing scales and revised based on feedback provided by experts. The items were subjected to exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses using an online survey with 433 participants. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to examine the predictive power of SMIs' ISD on parasocial relationships and self-brand connections.
Findings
The results suggest that the perceived SMIs' ISD is a unidimensional construct. As proposed, SMIs' ISD enhances consumer-brand connections through the underlying mechanism of consumers' sense of being in a parasocial relationship with an SMI.
Originality/value
This study advances self-disclosure and influencer marketing literature by addressing the lack of measures on SMIs' ISD from a consumer perspective and the scarcity of empirical understanding of how brands can profit from SMIs' capabilities to make intimate self-disclosure. Based on the literature review, this study is the first to empirically consider factual, emotional, and cognitive intimacy to develop scale and demonstrate the importance of SMIs' ISD in developing consumers' self-brand connections.
... El proceso interpersonal descrito por el MPI explicita comportamientos que tienen lugar aquí y ahora en el contexto de una interacción (Lippert & Prager, 2001;Reis, Sheldon, Gable, Roscoe & Ryan, 2000). Sin embargo, puede resultar en cierta medida "mecanicista" al no priorizar los aspectos funcionales del proceso, los cuales son elementos nucleares en la comprensión de cualquier fenómeno desde una perspectiva conductual-contextual (para una definición, consultar Hayes, Barnes-Holmes & Wilson, 2012). ...
Intimate relationships matter for both human's physical and psychological health. Although many theories have been developed to study this topic, there is no consensus about the underlying processes in human relationships. The Interpersonal Process Model, which has well-established empirical support, aims to address the development of intimate relationships describing them as observed behaviors. This has important implications in psychotherapy, especially for those approaches that understand the interpersonal patient-therapist relationship as a tool for change. That is the case of Functional Analytic Psychotherapy. In this paper we articulate a model of intimate relationships based on Interpersonal Process Model and the principles of Functional Behavioral Analysis, connecting it with previous results on the field of intimate relationships. Likewise, a discussion about its implications in psychotherapy and its utility to solve some Functional Analytic Psychotherapy's limitations is presented.
... Although these effects have only been measured during conflict, FOA may sensitize reactivity to any interaction that is perceived as conferring risk for conflict. Experiences of emotional vulnerability, such as disclosing painful experiences, are common in romantic relationships (Lippert & Prager, 2001). Heightened reactivity to these day-to-day interpersonal challenges may accelerate the deleterious effect of FOA on health by inducing HPA activations even between conflict episodes. ...
Family-of-origin aggression (FOA) exposure is a chronic childhood stressor that has been linked to altered stress reactivity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis in adulthood. The effects of FOA also spill over between partners in romantic couples, such that one partner's FOA history influences the other's HPA reactivity during couple interactions. However, the direction of these effects is inconsistent, with both heightened and blunted HPA reactivity observed; this heterogeneity suggests the presence of moderators. This study measured HPA reactivity during emotionally vulnerable conversations between young adult romantic partners to assess whether romantic attachment avoidance accounts for this divergence by moderating actor and partner effects of FOA on HPA. A total of 112 opposite-sex couples (224 young adults) provided information on FOA and avoidance, completed dyadic interaction procedures, and provided saliva samples to assess HPA reactivity during interactions. Multilevel structural equation models revealed that FOA did not predict either the actor's or the partner's HPA reactivity. However, FOA and avoidance interacted to produce both actor and partner effects, such that greater FOA exposure heightened HPA reactivity when avoidance was high but blunted reactivity when avoidance was low. The results support the conjecture that proximal relationship-related characteristics, such as attachment avoidance, influence whether distal relationship-related stressors, such as FOA, amplify or attenuate physiological reactivity during emotionally vulnerable interactions. Because HPA reactivity has been linked to a variety of health outcomes, identifying relationship-related buffers of associations between FOA and HPA response may inform future interventions to protect health for FOA-exposed youth. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).
... Furthermore, Slatcher et al. (2015) investigated the physiological consequences of being (mis)understood by a close other (i.e., a romantic partner). Given that understanding is an integral component of developing intimacy in close relationships (Lippert & Prager, 2001), as well as a predictor of relationship satisfaction (Finkenauer & Righetti, 2011), it logically follows that the health impact of (mis)understanding in a romantic relationship context would be stronger. ...
An experimental design was used to examine the effects of interviewer gender and (mis)understanding on physiological stress (i.e., cortisol). A total of 103 undergraduate students wrote about a recent social conflict and then discussed that conflict with either a male or a female interviewer. During these discussions, the interviewer displayed verbal and nonverbal cues of (mis)understanding toward the participants. Participants' cortisol was assessed four times throughout the study. Results from a 2 × 2 × 4 mixed‐model analysis of variance demonstrated an interaction between the gender of the interviewer, understanding condition, and time such that cortisol decreased the most over time when the interviewer used cues of understanding that matched stereotypical expectations for the interviewers' gender (i.e., when women were understanding and men were misunderstanding).
... Whereas another study exhibits that negative correlation exists between verbal expression of positive emotions and relationship satisfaction among married individuals (Simon & Nath, 2014). Nevertheless, the present research findings also oppose a substantial body of empirical evidences demonstrating that expression of positive emotions is positively correlated with relationship flourishing among the married sample (e.g., Lippert & Prager, 2001). ...
Marital flourishing can be enriched by emotions; however, only in recent years, researchers have begun to acknowledge the benefits of emotions toward the understanding of marital functioning. This paper draws on the exploration to investigate the association between emotion expressivity (positive, negative, and impulse control) and psychological flourishing (individual and relationship) among married individuals, and the moderating role of married individual’s gender and the role of their marriage; arrange or love in these associations. Self-report responses on Berkeley Expressivity Questionnaire and Psychological Flourishing Scale from a total sample of 591 married individuals (342 wives and 249 husbands), aged 21–80 years, were analyzed using linear regression analysis and moderation. Findings of the study exposed that emotion expressivity was associated with psychological flourishing among married individuals. Expression of positive emotions negatively predicted relationship flourishing and individual flourishing within marital relationship. Expression of negative emotions also negatively predicted husbands’ and wives’ psychological flourishing. Correspondingly, the strength of impulse reactions too, negatively predicted individual as well as relationship flourishing of married individuals. The interaction effect between emotion expressivity and gender was a significant predictor of psychological well-being. Likewise, the interaction effect between emotion expressivity and type of marriage was also a significant predictor of psychological flourishing. These results proposed that both gender and kind of marriage proved to be significant moderators between emotion expressivity and flourishing. The results had been discussed with regard to contemporary literature and cultural context of a non-western society.
... Communication about topics like sex (Montesi, Fauber, Gordon & Heimberg, 2011), positive events (Gable, Gonzaga & Strachmann, 2006), and emotions (Lippert & Prager, 2001), leads to more positive relationship outcomes, as relationship satisfaction, well-being, intimacyetc. Also, it is very important for partners to have a "common language", to develop a shared reality that could be central to relationship adjustment (Lewis & Spanier, 1979, Sillars & Scott, 1983. ...
Recenzie-Thomas Piketty, Le capital au XXIe siècle, Éditions du Seuil, Paris, 2013
... On the basis of couples' daily intimate interactions, these three subdimensions reflect the way in which couples feel intimate with their partner in different areas of their relationship. The degree of engagement between the partners (e.g., the feeling of closeness, sexual desire) and the quality of their communication (e.g., the depth of self-disclosure, the partner's quality of listening, understanding and responsiveness) are important predictors of happy and stable couple relationships (e.g., Greeff and Malherbe 2001;Laurenceau et al. 2005;Lippert and Prager 2001). Further characteristics of intimacy are a joint lifestyle, a mutual sharing of each partner's interest and spending time together. ...
Because emotional exchanges are central in couple interactions, individual competences to manage one’s own emotions and those of others are important to develop a good relational intimacy with a romantic partner over time. It is assumed that individual differences in attachment orientation influence the development of emotional competences and intimacy between romantic partners. While emotional competences are important for the proper functioning of romantic relationships, little is known about their mediating role in the relationship between individual’s attachment orientation and relational intimacy. In five hundred and sixty-four heterosexual subjects, the present study aimed to assess the indirect effects of emotional competences (both intrapersonal and interpersonal) on the relationship between insecure attachment orientations (both avoiding and anxious dimensions) and relational intimacy (i.e., engagement, communication and shared friends dimensions). Direct effects between our variables of interest were also explored. The results highlighted a negative association between both insecure avoiding and anxious attachment orientations and intrapersonal emotional competences. However, only the avoiding orientation was negatively related to interpersonal emotional competences. Furthermore, the anxious attachment dimension was negatively related to a feeling of engagement, in contrast to the avoiding attachment dimension that was associated with a low level of engagement, positive communication, and shared friends. Multi-group analysis highlighted gender invariance in the model. The findings suggest that although insecure attachment has a negative effect on the couple relationship, the capacity to manage one’s own emotions appears to be a protective factor for relational intimacy regarding its mediating role in these associations.
... Whereas another study exhibits that negative correlation exists between verbal expression of positive emotions and relationship satisfaction among married individuals (Simon & Nath, 2014). Nevertheless, the present research findings also oppose a substantial body of empirical evidences demonstrating that expression of positive emotions is positively correlated with relationship flourishing among the married sample (e.g., Lippert & Prager, 2001). ...
Expression of emotions may arbitrate the connections between communal orientation and psychological flourishing of married individuals that may lead to optimal functioning within a marital relationship. By using cross-sectional research design, the present study measures multiple dimensions of psychological flourishing (relationship and individual) in conjunction with communal orientation and emotion expressivity. Among married individuals from Pakistan aged 20–80 years, the authors examined the mediating effect of each spouse's emotional expression (positive, negative, and impulse strength) on the association between communal orientation and psychological flourishing. Findings highlight that communal orientation significantly predicts psychological flourishing. Positive Communal Orientation positively predicts relationship dimension as well as the Individual dimension of psychological flourishing. On the other hand, Negative Communal Orientation negatively predicts the Relationship dimension of psychological flourishing. However, Negative Communal Orientation positively predicts the Individual dimension of psychological flourishing. Furthermore, positive expressivity, negative expressivity and impulse strength significantly mediate the relationship between communal orientation and psychological flourishing. Moreover, gender differences were also found in the exercise of communal orientation and level of flourishing among husbands and wives. The evidence from the present study can be utilised to design relationship measure that can capture all the ingredients of optimal functioning of marital relationship.
... They describe an intimate relationship as one which engenders intimate interactions, through a backdrop of trust, reciprocity, commitment, and shared mutual knowledge. In fact, Prager (1995) and Lippert and Prager (2001) hasve suggested that research in this area needs to make a clearer distinction between interactional and relational intimacy, given that (1) the former can (and often does) exist without the latter (e.g., as in the strangers-on-a-plane phenomenon) and (2) intimate interactions make up only a fraction of the interactions in an intimate relationship. ...
Intimacy is an important quality in romantic and sexual relationships and is associated with greater overall well-being. Current research on intimacy focuses on the dyadic nature of intimate experiences, where individuals both disclose important information about themselves and are responsive to each other. Intimacy is especially relevant for sexual relationships, given that perceiving one's partner as being responsive during sexual activity (i.e., as being understanding, caring, and accepting) is associated with greater sexual satisfaction. Intimacy during sexual activity, also known as sexual intimacy, is related to but distinct from intimacy in general.
... Feeling understood by others is also closely connected to perceiving that relationships are intimate (Lippert & Prager, 2001) and meaningful (Liu & Rook, 2013) and to identifying with in-groups (Gómez, Jetten, & Swann, 2014). Moorman (2011) found that older adults were more satisfied with their marriage when they believed that their spouse understood their medical treatment preferences. ...
People want to be understood by others, yet their perceptions of being understood are only modestly related to actually being understood by others. In this article, we provide an integrative theoretical model and review of research on the processes that contribute to feeling understood and misunderstood by others. The model highlights situational, dispositional, and relational factors that influence feeling understood and underscores the importance of feeling understood for relationship and personal well-being. We also clarify definitional and measurement issues that have impeded progress in prior research.
... Emotional self-exposure was found to be more significant for creating intimacy than exposure of information (Laurenceau, Barrett, & Pietromonaco, 1998). In addition, the intimacy that participants experience is related to emotional exposure and perception of the partner's understanding of the situation described by the exposing partner (Lippert & Prager, 2001). Furthermore, self-exposure and reactivity that lead to intimacy cause general positive assessment of the relationship and greater satisfaction and confidence in the marriage (Reis & Shaver, 1988). ...
This study compares Palestinian and Jewish married couples in Israel on the
importance of differentiation of the self (DS) and couples’ intimacy to marital
satisfaction. A comparison of both societies’ cultures was conducted on the
continuum of individualism and collectivism. Data collection was unique due
to the participation of both married partners. The sample included 167
married couples from central and northern Israel. Data analysis was guided by
two interlocking strategies: analysis of each spouse separately and dyadic
analysis (actor-partner interdependence model, APIM) of the couples as units.
The findings situate the diversely perceived intimacy of couples and DS as
more important to marital satisfaction than social-cultural variables. Even
though Palestinian and Jewish married couples were rated differently on both
scales of DS and couples’ intimacy, their scores on marital satisfaction were
similar. In addition, Palestinian and Jewish couples held different tendencies
of both traits of individualism and collectivism, but these tendencies interacted
similarly with other study variables, making the model similar for both
(i.e., correlations were in the same direction).
Our analysis differs from studies conducted elsewhere in the world with
couples and supports Bowen’s theory concerning DS as universal. These
results have several implications that may contribute to the edification of
clinical therapists, improved development of services, and the practice of
culturally sensitive therapy in the treatment of Palestinian and Jewish couples.
This research may also help Western-oriented therapists for couples and
families to better tailor their methodologies to the distinct characteristics of
these national groups. Furthermore, the findings may shed new light on Eastern- and Western-oriented populations in Israel and elsewhere in the
world, encouraging further studies of the challenges that contemporary
married couples face.
Suggested Citation:
Rizkalla, Niveen and Rahav, Giora, Differentiation of the Self, Couples' Intimacy, and Marital Satisfaction: A Similar Model for Palestinian and Jewish Married Couples in Israel (2016). 7 Iɴᴛ’ʟ. J. Jᴜʀɪs. Fᴀᴍ. 1 (2016). Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3224001
... Enhancing a person's sense of security in a relationship promotes self-disclosure to the partner. For example, diary studies indicate that the perception of a relationship partner as a responsive, security-enhancing figure facilitates self-disclosure and strengthens feelings of intimacy and love (e.g., Lippert & Prager, 2001;Shelton, Trail, West, & Bergsieker, 2010). Along the same lines, Mitchell et al. (2008) conducted a study of community couples who were videotaped during discussions about relationship injuries. ...
... Accordingly, Figuerres (2008) has considered intimacy to embrace the concepts of satisfaction, attraction, unity and intimacy in marital relationship. Lippert and Prager (2001) and Sanderson (2008) demonstrated that couples who are not intimate with one another report to have lower levels of marital satisfaction; whereas, couples who have higher levels of ass.ccsenet.org Asian Social Science Vol. 12, No. 9;2016 203 self-disclosure, trust and mutual interdependence report to have higher levels of interpersonal satisfaction and more stable relationship. ...
The present research aimed to investigate the relationship between spousal intimacy, perceived equity and marital quality in married employees of National Iranian Oil Company. To this aim, the research employed a correlational method. The statistical population of the research included all the married employees of National Iranian Oil Company, out of which, a sample of 400 employees (186 females and 214 males) was selected through random cluster sampling. The research tools included Intimacy Scale (IS), Perceived Equity Measure (PEM) and Quality of Marriage Index (QMI). The results of data analysis using Pearson correlation coefficient indicated that there is significant relationship between intimacy with spouse and perceived equity. Moreover, the results of regression analysis indicated that, the variables of intimacy with spouse and perceived equity can be good predictors for the criterion variable of quality of marriage.
... In another study, Lippert and Prager (2001) investigated the definitions partners' (N=113 dyads) used to classify and evaluate their daily relationship experiences, to determine which interactions they considered intimate. Results indicated that the significant unique variance in interaction intimacy was accounted for by self-disclosure, partner-disclosure, self-expressed positive feelings, and partner-disclosed emotions. ...
This thesis investigated the link between ASD traits and relationship development and experience in both adults with ASD and their TD partners, through a series of online questionnaires. Firstly, for a large sample of female and male adults with ASD, we found that poor relationship development outcome was predicted by higher severity of social skills impairment. When males and females were considered separately, we found that higher severity of communication deficits predicted poor relationship development outcome for males only, and higher severity of social skills deficits predicted poor relationship development outcome for females only. We also found that higher severity of circumscribed interests predicted better relationship development outcomes for the whole sample. Next, in a comparison of relationship functioning across three partner groups (TD partners within a TD/TD dyad, ASD partners within an ASD/TD dyad and TD partners within an ASD/TD dyad), findings indicated that TD partners within an ASD/TD dyad had the poorest relationship outcome. Lastly, we investigated actor and partner effects of ASD traits on relationship outcome for a sample of ASD/TD dyads using an APIM. We found minimal evidence to suggest that ASD traits negatively impact relationship outcome of ASD/TD dyads. However, we consistently found that TD partner’s ASD trait severity positively influenced both ASD and TD partner’s relationship outcome, suggesting that mutual understanding between partners is protective against the challenges faced within ASD/TD relationships.
... In couples, relationship satisfaction has a protective function (e.g. Knoll et al., 2009;Lu & Argyle, 1992;Tucker, 2002) on the link between social exchange processes and well-being with several suggested processes (Johnson & Bradbury, 1999;Lippert & Prager, 2001;Reissman, Aron, & Bergen, 1993). Relationship satisfaction is linked with attribution processes. ...
Background:
Social support that goes unnoticed by receivers (i.e. invisible support) seems to be most beneficial for the receivers' well-being. The providers' well-being, however, has been neglected so far. This study examines how invisible support is related to the providers' well-being and whether this association is dependent on the providers' relationship satisfaction.
Methods:
Overall, 97 non-smoking partners of smokers who were about to quit smoking were examined. Invisible support was assessed dyadically: partners' reports on smoking-specific provided social support together with smokers' reports on received support were assessed at baseline. Partners' relationship satisfaction was also assessed at baseline. Partners' positive and negative affect were measured at baseline and six-week follow-up.
Results:
No main effects of invisible instrumental or emotional support occurred. However, partners' relationship satisfaction moderated the association between invisible instrumental support and change in partners' negative and positive affect: For partners with lower relationship satisfaction more invisible instrumental support was related to increased negative affect and decreased positive affect, whereas for partners with higher relationship satisfaction the inverse effects occurred.
Conclusions:
The study's results emphasise that invisible instrumental support might have emotional costs for the providers. Relationship satisfaction seems to serve as a protective factor.
Penelitian ini dilakukan untuk mengetahui pengaruh dua variabel independen dan variabel dependen. Sampel penelitian ini adalah istri di Sempaja Selatan Samarinda. Teknik pengambilan sampel menggunakan Purposive Sampling dan 96 sampel istri yang ada di Sempaja Selatan Samarinda. Instrumen yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah skala keintiman, empati, dan kepuasan pernikahan. Skala yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah skala likert. Validitas menggunakan metode analisis cronbach alpha pada kolom korelasi item-total koreksi, dan pengujian Keandalan menggunakan Cronbach Alpha. Pengujian hipotesis menggunakan model regresi berganda. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa ada pengaruh keintiman dan empati dengan kepuasan pernikahan pada istri di Sempaja Samarinda Selatan. Ini ditunjukkan oleh nilai F = 39,78, R2 = 0,461, dan p = 0,000. Kemudian dari hasil analisis regresi bertahap menunjukkan bahwa ada pengaruh negatif antara keintiman dan kepuasan pernikahan dengan beta = -0,171, t = -2,099, dan p = 0,039. Kemudian dalam empati dan kepuasan pernikahan dengan beta = 0,721, t = 8,846 dan p = 0,000. Sedangkan nilai signifikansi < 0,05 menjelaskan bahwa pengaruh yang ada antara keintiman dan empati terhadap kepuasan pernikahan sangat signifikan
Our goal is to use prototype analysis to distinguish the folk or culturally held understandings of love, romantic love, and sex and to specify, from the obtained data, the semantic relationship among these three associated concepts. By considering the semantic distinctions between these three concepts, we come to an unintended insight: if romantic love is a socio-cultural universal it does not appear to have the same evolutionary history as love or sex and this may account for its somewhat ambiguous status in the scholarly literature on romantic love. We demonstrate that, in the United States, sex, in and of itself, is seldom conceived of as a relationship while love and romantic love are primarily viewed as relational. Our findings, though preliminary, strongly suggest that romantic love is a synthesis of two evolutionary drives: love (or bonding) and sex.
While most online accounts are designed assuming a single user, past work has found that romantic couples often share many accounts. Our study examines couples' account sharing behaviors as their relationships develop. We conducted 19 semi-structured interviews with people who are currently in romantic relationships to understand couples' account sharing behaviors over the lifecycle of their relationship. We find that account sharing behaviors progress through a relationship where major changes happen at the start of cohabitation, marriage, and occasional breakup. We also find that sharing behaviors and motivations are influenced by couples' relationship ecology, which consists of the dynamics between the couples and the social environment they live in. Based on these findings, we discuss implications for further study to support couples' sharing needs at different relationship stages and identify design opportunities for technology solutions to facilitate couples' sharing.
The authors discuss in the article interpersonal communication in cohabitation relationships of women with a borderline personality disorder. 91 women aged between 21 and 40 who were in a consensual relationship participated in the research. The classification of the respondents to the criterion group was determined by the result obtained in the Borderline Personality Inventory (BPI) by F. Leichsenring in the Polish adaptation of Lidia Cierpiałkowska. 43 women were included in the criterion group, and the control group consisted of 48 women. The research also used the Marriage and Partnership Communication Questionnaire by Maria Kaźmierczak and Mieczysław Plopa. The analysis of the obtained results showed that women with borderline personality disorder show more depressing and less supportive and engaged communication behaviors compared to women without this disorder, both in self-perception and in the assessment of the partner’s communication behavior.
This 2004 book showcases research and theory about the way in which the social environment shapes, and is shaped by, emotion. The book has three sections, each of which addresses a different level of sociality: interpersonal, intragroup, and intergroup. The first section refers to the links between specific individuals, the second to categories that define multiple individuals as an entity, and the final to the boundaries between groups. Emotions are found in each of these levels and the dynamics involved in these types of relationship are part of what it is to experience emotion. The chapters show how all three types of social relationships generate, and are generated by, emotions. In doing so, this book locates emotional experiences in the larger social context.
This 2004 book showcases research and theory about the way in which the social environment shapes, and is shaped by, emotion. The book has three sections, each of which addresses a different level of sociality: interpersonal, intragroup, and intergroup. The first section refers to the links between specific individuals, the second to categories that define multiple individuals as an entity, and the final to the boundaries between groups. Emotions are found in each of these levels and the dynamics involved in these types of relationship are part of what it is to experience emotion. The chapters show how all three types of social relationships generate, and are generated by, emotions. In doing so, this book locates emotional experiences in the larger social context.
How do therapist keep men interested in long-term relationship?
This paper explores the behaviours and meanings associated with intimacy and sexuality among older adults with diverse partners living in subsidised senior housing. It utilises survey and qualitative data from a mixed methods of ageing/HIV exposure to illustrate gendered views on sexual and intimate behaviours, and attitudes towards transactional/commercial sex. Data suggest that women were cautious about engaging in intimate relationships, while men sought them and the companionship they provided to address loneliness. Reasons for non-intimacy were age and health problems. Generally speaking, both men and women had positive attitudes towards sex. Men took risks by having multiple partners and using condoms irregularly; women believed they could avoid risks by taking time to get to know their partners, but never used condoms. Forty per cent of men who saw sex workers were not regular condom users. They traded risk of gossip, violence and infection for companionship with women seeking money and physical safety. Findings have implications for policies, counselling and interventions for older sexually active adults in institutional and residential settings.
The present study focused on intimacy processes in the relationships of men diagnosed with localized prostate cancer and their partners. Using the actor–partner interdependence model (APIM), we examined the interpersonal process model of intimacy, which proposes associations between self- and perceived partner disclosure about cancer and perceived partner responsiveness as predictors of global relationship intimacy. The study’s outcomes were patients’ and spouses’ ratings of global relationship intimacy. Both actor (my disclosure predicts my intimacy) and partner (my partner’s disclosure predicts my intimacy) effects were examined, as well as possible moderating effects for cancer-related concerns. Two hundred and nine couples in which one or both partners reported elevated cancer-specific distress completed measures of self- and perceived partner disclosure and perceived partner responsiveness regarding discussions about prostate cancer, global relational intimacy, and cancer-related concerns. Results were consistent with the interpersonal process model of intimacy in that perceived responsiveness mediated the association between self- and perceived partner disclosure about cancer and global relational intimacy for both patients and spouses. Results also indicated moderation of the links between disclosure and relational intimacy by level of patient cancer-related concerns such that the links were stronger when concerns were higher. Finally, there was also evidence of moderated mediation such that indirect effects of disclosure on relational intimacy via perceived partner responsiveness were stronger when concerns were higher. Interventions for distressed couples coping with prostate cancer would benefit from focusing on facilitating disclosure and responsiveness, particularly among distressed couples who report cancer concerns.
Individuals with social anxiety disorder (SAD) experience significant impairment in their social relationships. Here, we examine the relational difficulties associated with social anxiety across the lifespan. We conclude that socially anxious people unwittingly engage in behaviors that interfere with authentic self-expression and short-circuit relationship development, thereby cutting off the social connections that might modify their negative self-beliefs and social fears. The end result is that they often live in a state of emotional solitude - alone in the crowd.
In stresstheoretischen Ansätzen innerhalb der Paarforschung wird die gemeinsame Zeit ebenfalls als eine (begrenzte) Ressource betrachtet, die vor allem durch Alltagsstress negativ beeinflusst wird. Im Stress-Scheidung-Modell identifiziert Bodenmann (Stress und Coping bei Paaren, Hogrefe, Göttingen, 2000b), die gemeinsame Zeit als eine von vier Schlüsselfaktoren, die den Mechanismus allmählicher, gegenseitiger Entfremdung in Partnerschaften durch chronischen Alltagsstress erklärt.
Two longitudinal studies of marital interaction were conducted using observational coding of couples attempting to resolve a high-conflict issue. We found that a different pattern of results predicts concurrent marital satisfaction than predicts change in marital satisfaction over 3 years. Results suggest that some marital interaction patterns, such as disagreement and anger exchanges, which have usually been considered harmful to a marriage, may not be harmful in the long run. These patterns were found to relate to unhappiness and negative interaction at home concurrently, but they were predictive of improvement in marital satisfaction longitudinally. However, three interaction patterns: were identified as dysfunctional in terms of longitudinal deterioration: defensiveness (which includes: whining), stubborness, and withdrawal from interaction. Hypotheses about gender differences in roles for the maintenance of marital satisfaction are presented.
In a study of the stability of social interaction, 78 Ss (aged 17–29 yrs) maintained a social interaction diary, the Rochester Interaction Record (RIR), for 4 1-wk periods during their freshman year at college. Stability was operationalized in 3 ways: (1) absolutely, in terms of the similarity across the 4 periods of amount of interaction and of reactions to interactions; (2) relatively, in terms of correlations between interaction measures taken at different times; and (3) in terms of the stability of social networks, defined as the consistency across time of participants' close friends. Social interaction was found to be more stable over shorter periods of time than over longer periods, and stability increased over time. In addition, opposite-sex social interaction was less stable than same-sex interaction, and this was particularly true for interactions with close friends. The present results are interpreted by considering social environments as social systems with an emphasis on the importance of social norms as mediators of social interaction (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Participants maintained a social interaction diary, a variant of the Rochester Interaction Record, to describe their close personal relationships. Relationships were defined using relative frequency of contact with different individuals and via participants' descriptions of relational partners. Individuals with whom participants had more contact were more likely to be described as close friends than were individuals with whom participants had less contact. The results suggest that the characteristics of same-sex relationships depend less on the specific partners composing the relationship than do the characteristics of opposite-sex relationships. As hypothesized, the characteristics of close same-sex relationships did not differ from the characteristics of other same-sex relationships, although interactions with best friends were more intimate than interactions with other same-sex partners. In contrast, the characteristics of close opposite-sex relationships differed from the characteristics of other opposite-sex relationships. Men and women who were romantically involved had more contact with their romantic partners than with other opposite-sex persons, and they had more contact with their romantic partners than men and women who were not romantically involved had with their most frequent opposite-sex interaction partner. For women, interactions with most frequent opposite-sex interaction partners were more affectively rewarding and instrumentally positive if these men were romantic partners, whereas for men, the affective quality and instrumentality of interactions with most frequent opposite-sex interaction partners did not differ as function of whether these women were romantic partners.
Two studies were conducted to explore the following questions: (i) does intimacy, within the context of a couple relationship, contribute to individual need fulfillment?; (ii) does self-disclosure have beneficial effects on need fulfillment without being accompanied by intimacy's others dimensions: positive affective tone and partner listening and understanding?; and (iii) does intimacy's impact on need fulfillment mediate its relationship with physical and psychological well-being? For the first study, 154 commuter university students completed questionnaire measures of well-being and the Need Fulfillment Inventory (NFI), a new paper-and-pencil test that assesses the agentic and communal dimensions of need fulfillment. Results from study 1 showed positive correlations between both agentic and communal need fulfillment and well-being. For the second study, 133 cohabiting couples were asked to complete the NFI, two measures of relational intimacy, five measures of well-being, and to keep a daily record of their interactions for a week. Factor analyses of the daily record data revealed three dimensions of verbally intimate interaction: positive affective tone, daily self-disclosure, and listening and understanding. Results supported the notion that relational intimacy, assessed globally and as a characteristic of the couples' daily interactions, is positively associated with individual need fulfillment. Self-disclosure's impact on need fulfillment was found to vary as a function of the other dimensions of intimacy present in the interactions. The pattern of moderation between self-disclosure and other dimensions of intimacy was not exactly as predicted, however; sometimes, self-disclosure may soften the detrimental effects of negative interactions on need fulfillment. Finally, the mediational hypothesis was mostly supported, which indicates that intimacy's relationship to psychological well-being is most likely accounted for by its effects on individual need fulfillment. Need fulfillment did not fully mediate the relationship between intimacy and depressive symptoms.
In light of the increase in the number and rigor of studies on adult friendship and the tendency of kin and neighbor relationships to have become more structurally similar to friendship, this is a crucial juncture at which to pause and assess what we know and do not know about adult friendship, to begin a needed theoretical synthesis, to identify gaps in the literature and to produce guidelines for future research. The purpose of this article is to present an integrative conceptual framework, incorporating both sociological and psychological perspectives, for use in these endeavors. The framework posits that the social structural and psychological aspects of individual characteristics operate together to shape behavioral motifs which, in turn, influence friendship patterns (dyadic and network structure and phases). Furthermore, dyadic and network structure and phases affect one another through interactive friendship processes. The elements of this integrative framework and the relationships among them vary by structural and cultural context.
Differences between men's and women's conceptions of intimacy and distance may be a source of misunderstanding and conflict in close relationships. Although there is already an extensive literature on sex differences in intimacy, the meaning of the findings is somewhat unclear because each set of authors adopts a unique operational definition of intimacy. Often, this definition has been affected by the tendency to equate intimacy with self-disclosure. Distance (the opposite of intimacy, if intimacy is conceptualized as closeness) has been left largely unexplored in previous research and its relation to intimacy is unclear. In the present study, the components of intimacy and distance were delineated by asking men and women to describe an intimate and a distant experience with a member of the opposite sex and a member of the same sex. Prototypes were constructed by submitting the features mentioned in each kind of experience to hierarchical cluster analysis. The results revealed more similarities than differences between men's and women's conceptions of intimacy and distance. A conceptualization of intimacy emerged with a focus on appreciation and affection rather than self-disclosure. Distance appeared to revolve around dissatisfaction with and disapproval of the partner. Analyses of variance on specific features revealed sex differences and relationship differences that were consistent with previous research. Sex differences in the description of distance reflected the status or power differential between men and women.
Research on gender and friendship has yielded a modal pattern of differences between women and men that is impressively robust. However, these differences are reported in ways that are sometimes misleading and often exaggerated, and that generally leave the impression of greater within-gender uniformity than is actually the case. In sum, the importance of gender differences in friendship is overemphasized. The present paper addresses some possible meanings of `importance' as applied to social research. It is intended to be a reminder of some widely acknowledged but easily overlooked points of interpretation concerning the kinds of data with which relationship researchers usually deal. Specific issues are the tendency to reify statistical significance, to overlook within-group variability, and to disregard the implications of gender as a subject variable. Moderation in interpreting and reporting differences and healthy skepticism are offered as simple hedges against exaggerating the importance of gender differences in friendship.
Multilevel models are becoming increasingly used in applied educational social and economic research for the analysis of hierarchically nested data. In these random coefficient regression models the parameters are allowed to differ over the groups in which the observations are nested. For computational ease in deriving parameter estimates, predictors are often centered around the mean. In nested or grouped data, the option of centering around the grand mean is extended with an option to center within groups or contexts. Both are statistically sound ways to improve parameter estimation. In this article we study the effects of these two different ways of centering, in comparison to the use of raw scores, on the parameter estimates in random coefficient models. The conclusion is that centering around the group mean amounts to fitting a different model from that obtained by centering around the grand mean or by using raw scores. The choice between the two options for centering can only be made on a theoretical basis. Based on this study, we conclude that centering rules valid for simple models, such as the fixed coefficients regression model. are no longer applicable to more complicated models, such as the random coefficient model. We think researchers should be made aware of the consequences of the choice of particular centering options.
Closeness and intimacy are fundamental, but poorly defined, concepts in the study of personal relationships. We sought to contribute to a more precise understanding of closeness and intimacy by first examining participants' meanings for closeness in friendships, and then by comparing meanings for closeness with participants' meanings for intimacy. In a self-report survey 270 college students were asked what made their same-sex and cross-sex friendships close and how close-ness was expressed. Thirteen different meanings for close-ness were derived. Individuals assigned an average of three meanings for closeness, with the most common being self-disclosure, support, shared interests and explicit expression of the value of the relationship. Native meanings for closeness differed relatively little across sexes and relational types. Respondents envisioned three possible relationships between closeness and intimacy. Just under half the respondents appeared to view them as equivalent terms, while the remaining respondents emphasized either qualitative or quantitative differences. The chief qualitative difference was that intimacy implied a romantic or sexual dimension to about one quarter of the respondents. Quantitative differences generally took the form of believing that an intimate relationship was a more intense form of a close relationship. Closeness appeared to be a richer, more inclusive term than intimacy. Respondents generated more meanings for it and thought of a greater variety of relationships as close. There were fewer sex differences in meanings for closeness than in meanings for intimacy.
The purpose of this study was to investigate how individuals in cross- and same-sex friendships define and express intimacy. In a self-report questionnaire 164 college students were asked what they meant by the term `intimacy' in the context of cross- and same-sex friendships. Individuals assigned an average number of two meanings to the term `intimacy', though the number of meanings ranged from one to five. Results revealed substantial similarities in the meanings of intimacy in both types of friendship, as well as some gender differences. For instance, five of the seven most frequently mentioned definitions of intimacy were specified by both cross- and same-sex friends: self-disclosures, emotional expressiveness, unconditional support, physical contact and trust. One of the remaining two meanings of intimacy, i.e. sexual contact, was mentioned by cross- but not same-sex friends. Sharing activities was given as a definition of intimacy by 9 percent of the males in same-sex friendships, and 4 percent of the females in cross-sex friendships. Within cross-sex friendships, emotional expressiveness and sexual contact were specified as meanings of intimacy by a higher percentage of males than females, while physical contact was specified by a greater percentage of females in those relationships.
Reviews the literature since 1967 on subjective well-being (SWB [including happiness, life satisfaction, and positive affect]) in 3 areas: measurement, causal factors, and theory. Most measures of SWB correlate moderately with each other and have adequate temporal reliability and internal consistency; the global concept of happiness is being replaced with more specific and well-defined concepts, and measuring instruments are being developed with theoretical advances; multi-item scales are promising but need adequate testing. SWB is probably determined by a large number of factors that can be conceptualized at several levels of analysis, and it may be unrealistic to hope that a few variables will be of overwhelming importance. Several psychological theories related to happiness have been proposed; they include telic, pleasure and pain, activity, top–down vs bottom–up, associanistic, and judgment theories. It is suggested that there is a great need to more closely connect theory and research. (7 p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)
Because coping with uncertainty is an important aspect of close relationships and is critical to issues of trust, the authors expected individual differences in uncertainty orientation to play a central role in shaping people's representations of their relationships. For a 3-week period, 77 couples completed a series of questionnaires and kept diaries on their interactions. As expected, certainty-oriented persons' need for cognitive closure resulted in either high or low trust for their partners, whereas uncertainty-oriented persons typically attained only a moderate level of trust. Several other measures indicated that certainty-oriented partners found their relationships most aversive under moderate trust. Memory data indicated that certainty-oriented individuals, but not uncertainty-oriented individuals, used conclusions about trust as a heuristic for reconstructing the past in ways that maintained cognitive clarity. Uncertainty orientation also combined with gender in many interesting ways. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Examined the proposition that the acquaintance process is characterized by increasing intimacy and decreasing reciprocity of intimate communication. A scoring system developed to measure 2 dimensions of intimacy in ongoing interactions was applied to 24 married couples and 24 opposite-sex pairs of strangers who discussed items they selected from lists containing intimate and nonintimate topics. Spouses, relative to strangers, communicated with more descriptive intimacy (i.e., private facts), but not more evaluative intimacy (i.e., personal feelings or opinions), and reciprocated intimacy less. Females demonstrated significantly greater evaluative intimacy than males. Additionally, a trend toward trivializing intimate topics was found for strangers. Conversely, the tendency for spouses to personalize nonintimate topics was somewhat evident in single-speaker conversation and was significant in conjoint communication, involving simultaneous talking, interruptions, and rapid turnover dialog. Results suggest that increased acquaintance is associated with an increase in the intimacy of information exchanged and with a transition in the processes used to regulate interactions. The distinction between descriptive and evaluative intimacy appears useful for future theory and research concerning the evolution of relationships. (33 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
50 16–31 yr old university students who participated in an experience-sampling procedure carried electronic pagers with them for 1 wk, during which time they were each paged 7 times/day. In response to each page, Ss immediately completed a self-report form designed to sample current thoughts, affects, wishes, and behavior. Both intimacy and affiliation motivation were assessed via a prior administration of the TAT. Over the course of the week, Ss high in intimacy motivation revealed more interpersonal thoughts and positive affects in interpersonal situations than did Ss low in intimacy. Both intimacy and affiliation motivation were positively related to conversations and letter writing, behaviors indicative of warm and close interpersonal relations. Intimacy motivation was negatively associated with expressed wishes to be alone when interacting with others, whereas affiliation motivation was positively associated with expressed wishes to be interacting with others when alone. Sex differences are discussed, and the implications for the measurement of motivational trends in operant thought and investigations into Person × Situation interactions are outlined. (45 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
propose a model of the intimacy process
the process begins when one person expresses personally revealing feelings of information to another
it continues when the listener responds supportively and empathically
for an interaction to become intimate the discloser must feel understood, validated, and cared for
psychodynamic building blocks / building blocks from communication and exchange research / lay and psychometric conceptions of intimacy (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Asked 20 female and 38 male 1st-yr college students to maintain a daily record of their social interactions for 2 wks early in the fall semester and for 2 wks late in the spring semester. Across all interactions, females decreased time per day in interaction more than males did, primarily by reducing the length of interactions, and reported decreased satisfaction with these interactions. In interactions with 3 best same-sex friends, females also decreased length more than males did but maintained a higher level of satisfaction. Number of interactions with same-sex best friend decreased markedly for females but not for males. Results show that females socialize more intensely in a new environment than males and make use of the same-sex best friend to deal with the social stimulation. Differences between the sexes on interaction measures in the spring were minimal. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
In a study of the stability of social interaction, participants maintained a social interaction diary, the Rochester Interaction Record (RIR), for 4 1-week periods during their freshman year at college. Stability was operationalized in 3 ways: absolutely, in terms of the similarity across the 4 periods of amount of interaction and of reactions to interactions; relatively, in terms of correlations between interaction measures taken at different times; and in terms of the stability of social networks, defined as the consistency across time of participants' close friends. Social interaction was found to be more stable over shorter periods of time than over longer periods, and stability increased over time. In addition, opposite-sex social interaction was less stable than same-sex interaction, and this was particularly true for interactions with close friends. The present results are interpreted by considering social enviornments as social systems with an emphasis on the importance of social norms as mediators of social interaction.
The Emotional Self-Disclosure Scale (ESDS) was developed to assess how willing people are to discuss specific emotions with different disclosure recipients. Internal reliabilities (Cronbach's alpha) and test-retest were consistently high for each of the subscales on the ESDS for three specific disclosure recipients: female friends, male friends, and spouses/lovers. A final set of results indicated that women's and men's emotional disclosures varied as a function of their gender and the personal characteristics of the disclosure recipient. Although men and women reported a similar pattern of willingness to discuss their emotions with their male friends, additional results revealed that women were more willing than men to disclose information about their feelings of depression, anxiety, anger, and fear to their female friends and spouses/lovers. The implications of these findings for men's and women's emotional expressivity are discussed.
The present study examined the relationships between depressive symptoms and everyday social interaction in a nonclinical population. Depressive symptoms were measured using the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale, and social interaction was measured using a variant of the Rochester Interaction Record. People who were classified as at risk for depression had less rewarding interactions than people who were not at risk. Depressive symptoms and interaction quantity and quality were negatively correlated for participants above the cutpoint, whereas they were uncorrelated for those below the at-risk cutpoint. The results also suggested that, compared with nondepressed people, depressed people derive more rewards from interactions with their closest opposite-sex friends, relative to the rewards they derive from interactions with other opposite-sex friends.
H. T. Reis and P. Shaver's (1988) interpersonal process model of intimacy suggests that both self-disclosure and partner responsiveness contribute to the experience of intimacy in interactions. Two studies tested this model using an event-contingent diary methodology in which participants provided information immediately after their social interactions over 1 (Study 1) or 2 (Study 2) weeks. For each interaction, participants reported on their self-disclosures, partner disclosures, perceived partner responsiveness, and degree of intimacy experienced in the interaction. Overall, the findings strongly supported the conceptualization of intimacy as a combination of self-disclosure and partner disclosure at the level of individual interactions with partner responsiveness as a partial mediator in this process. Additionally, in Study 2, self-disclosure of emotion emerged as a more important predictor of intimacy than did self-disclosure of facts and information.
Description of the investigation, enumeration of the questions included, the scores with differences between groups (influence of race, sex, "target-differences," aspects of sex).
This article reports the development and validation of a scale to measure global life satisfaction, the Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS). Among the various components of subjective well-being, the SWLS is narrowly focused to assess global life satisfaction and does not tap related constructs such as positive affect or loneliness. The SWLS is shown to have favorable psychometric properties, including high internal consistency and high temporal reliability. Scores on the SWLS correlate moderately to highly with other measures of subjective well-being, and correlate predictably with specific personality characteristics. It is noted that the SWLS is Suited for use with different age groups, and other potential uses of the scale are discussed.
This article reviews recent research in the area of marital interaction. It suggests that sufficient consistency exists in the observational results to begin theory construction to explain three basic patterns. Theory reconstruction is then described that is designed to assess the role that emotional expression and control play in accounting for variation in marital satisfaction. Next the argument is made that the key to the assessment of emotion is specificity, and a case is made for a dialectic between specific features and cultural informants coding systems. On the basis of this discussion, the role of the autonomic nervous system is discussed in the construction of a sociophysiological theory of marriage.
Publisher Summary
Random coefficient models are promising tools for data analysis in fields such as education, health, demography, and animal studies, where data are grouped in meaningful settings and the context is believed to influence the individuals. The method is very useful for prediction when groups are small and group membership is an important predictor. This chapter analyzes data collected over individuals nested in contexts or groups. This includes individual data collected over time, as in repeated measurement or longitudinal data, where observations are nested within individuals. This chapter presents illustrations of cross-level interactions using a real data set. One of the hypotheses is that schools in the private sector have a moderating effect on the relation between homework and math achievement of students. The results of the analysis show that students in the schools of the public sector need to do more homework to achieve the same math grade as students in schools of the private sector.
Participants maintained a social interaction diary, a variant of the Rochester interaction Record, to describe their close personal relationships. Relationships were defined using relative frequency of contact with different individuals and via participants' descriptions of relational partners. Individuals with whom participants had more contact were more likely to be described as close friends than were individuals with whom participants had less contact. The results suggest that the characteristics of same-sex relationships depend less on the specific partners composing the relationship than do the characteristics of opposite-sex relationships. As hypothesized, the characteristics of close same-sex relationships did not differ from the characteristics of other same-sex relationships, although interactions with best friends were more intimate than interactions with other same-sex partners. In contrast, the characteristics of close opposite-sex relationships differed from the characteristics of other opposite-sex relationships. Men and women who were romantically involved had more contact with their romantic partners than with other opposite-sex persons, and they had more contact with their romantic partners than men and women who were not romantically involved had with their most frequent opposite-sex interaction partner. For women, interactions with most frequent opposite-sex interaction partners were more affectively rewarding and instrumentally positive if these men were romantic partners, whereas for men, the affective quality and instrumentality of interactions with most frequent opposite-sex interaction partners did not differ as function of whether these women were romantic partners.
The difficulties inherent in obtaining consistent and adequate diagnoses for the purposes of research and therapy have been pointed out by a number of authors. Pasamanick12 in a recent article viewed the low interclinician agreement on diagnosis as an indictment of the present state of psychiatry and called for "the development of objective, measurable and verifiable criteria of classification based not on personal or parochial considerations, but on behavioral and other objectively measurable manifestations."Attempts by other investigators to subject clinical observations and judgments to objective measurement have resulted in a wide variety of psychiatric rating scales.4,15 These have been well summarized in a review article by Lorr11 on "Rating Scales and Check Lists for the Evaluation of Psychopathology." In the area of psychological testing, a variety of paper-and-pencil tests have been devised for the purpose of measuring specific
Twenty discussion topics were scaled for intimacy of content using (a) category ratings, (b) Thurstone pair-comparison procedures, and (c) the method of magnitude estimation. The relationship between the magnitude values and both the category ratings and Thurstone values was curvilinear, such that stimulus differences in intimacy were larger at the low end of the continuum and smaller at the high end relative to magnitude scale differences. The implications of these results for research in the area of personal disclosure are discussed in terms of the differences in conclusions which might be reached depending upon the method used to assess the intimacy of disclosed material.
This study reports on the development of the Dyadic Adjustment Scale, a new measure for assessing the quality of marriage and other similar dyads. The 32 item scale is designed for use with either married or unmarried cohabiting couples. Despite widespread criticisms of the concept of adjustment, the study proceeds from the pragmatic position that a new measure, which is theoretically grounded, relevant, valid, and highly reliable, is necessary since marital and dyadic adjustment continue to be researched. This factor analytic study tests a conceptual definition set forth in earlier work and suggests the existence of four empirically verified components of dyadic adjustment which can be used as subscales [dyadic satisfaction, dyadic cohesion, dyadic consensus and affectional expression]. Evidence is presented suggesting content, criterion related, and construct validity. High scale reliability is reported. The possibility of item weighting is considered and endorsed as a potential measurement technique, but it is not adopted for the present Dyadic Adjustment Scale. It is concluded that the Dyadic Adjustment Scale represents a significant improvement over other measures of marital adjustment, but a number of troublesome methodological issues remain for future research.
the issues that seem most important to us are these / does intimacy reside in persons or between persons—or doesn't the question even make sense / is intimacy a state or a process—or could it be both / how do perspectives on intimacy differ in intimate couples, and what does the existence of such differences mean for our work
the locus of intimacy / state or process / intimacy from whose perspective (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
highlights the role of cognitive factors in marital functioning and marital therapy
categories of cognitive factors in marriage / assessment of cognitions [self- and spouse reports, interview, current concerns, observation of communication, selecting assessment strategies, integrating the information] / the structure of therapy sessions / role of the therapist / cognitive restructuring interventions / treatment outcome research on the role of cognitive restructuring in marital therapy (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
"Emotion, Disclosure and Health" addresses some of the basic issues of psychology and psychotherapy: how people respond to emotional upheavals, why they respond the way they do, and why translating emotional events into language increases physical and mental health. Drawing on work in clinical, social, personality, and health psychology, as well as medical anthropology, the authors address these issues, drawing some stimulating conclusions about how an understanding of disclosure and health may be applied in clinically useful ways. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Introduces this volume on multivariate statistical and mathematical modeling procedures and covers five topics in roughly the order users encounter them in a data analysis process. This general overview sets the stage for the authors' more detailed treatments of these issues as they relate to their particular technique. A discussion of aspects of the critical but often overlooked process of preparing your data for analysis is followed by some preliminary steps you should take to begin the interpretation of your data prior to starting your formal statistical analysis. Next we discuss some of the factors to consider in selecting the best statistical technique to accomplish your research objective; each author provides a more detailed discussion of the uses and limitations of their technique. In selecting a statistical technique it is essential that users take into account any properties of the data that may limit the applicability of the alternative statistical procedures. We conclude with a discussion of critical issues to consider in interpreting the results of your statistical analyses. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This chapter gives an overview of the Rochester Interaction Record (RIR), with its rationale, usages, and limitations. The reader and potential researcher is oriented to the technique, and is furnished with an overview of the various procedural and psychometric concerns that have guided the work. Theoretically useful conclusions are the “sine qua non” of methodological innovation in behavioral sciences. The chapter also describes some of the findings that have emerged from studies using the RIR and related instruments. It explains the rationale for the RIR, including comparison with traditional methods in interaction research, the technique in terms of its essential procedural and data analytic details, a discussion of reliability and validity issues, and the application of the RIR and related methods to other problems in social psychology. The chapter provides an overview on the self-reported questionnaires, behavioral observation, and comparison of the RIR with global questionnaires.
This article presents a program of studies that map out daily conversations and so establish a geography of everyday communication. A new method (the Iowa Communication Record) is offered to extend research using diary methods and focus the researcher on communication in daily life. Three studies collectively show (a) consistent sex differences in the quality and nature of conversations across different types of relationships, (b) a consistent rank ordering of relationship types that differs from that intuitively included in previous models of relationship formation, and (c) a consistent difference between conversations held on different days of the week, with Wednesdays associated with greater degrees of conflictive communication. Self-disclosure is much less frequent in everyday life than assumed on the basis of laboratory work, and the predominant form of communication in intimate relationships is not only nonintimate but not simply distinguishable from communication in other relationship types. Communication quality distinguishes female from male partners, suggesting that previous findings on preference for female partners are truly founded in communication variables, which have previously been underrated. The article shows that closer attention must in future be paid to communicative variations created by daily events and circumstances, and the role of routine communication in daily life must be explored in future studies of social participation.
Lovers’responses to open-ended questions concerning the experience and communication of intimacy, passion, and commitment were content- and factor-analyzed. These analyses resulted in six ways of experiencing intimacy (openness, sex, affection, supportiveness, togetherness, and quiet company); two ways of experiencing passion (romance and sexual intimacy); and five ways of experiencing commitment (supportiveness, expressions of love, fidelity, expressions of commitment, and consideration and devotion). These results suggest that love, intimacy, passion, and commitment are best conceived as related, overlapping gestalts in the subjective experiences of actual lovers.
The present paper examines the widely accepted claim that women's and men's friendships can be characterized dichotomously as expressive vs. instrumental, or alternatively, as communal vs. agentic. After addressing questions about the empirical support for this claim, we present analyses based on two different kinds of data. Subjects providing these data were predominantly, although possibly not exclusively, Caucasian U.S. citizens. Study One analyzed the purposes of interaction endorsed by women and men in reports of actual meetings with same-sex friends. Women and men did not differ in the purposes reported, as both indicated meeting most often just to talk, less often to work on a task, and least often to deal with a relationship issue pertinent to the friendship. Study Two analyzed responses to a form assessing various aspects of the strength and quality of subjects' same-gender friendships. Although women and men differed on a number of variables, the differences did not form an expressive vs. instrumental dichotomy. We discuss an altered perspective on the differences and similarities in women's and men's friendships suggested by these results.
Numerous previous studies have shown that partial-interval sampling in direct observation systematically overestimates duration and underestimates frequency. Whole-interval sampling systematically underestimates both duration and frequency. This paper presents a post hoc method through which the systematic errors in duration estimates in partial-interval sampling and whole-interval sampling can be minimized.
Incl. app., bibliographical notes and references, frequently asked questions: pp. 105-138, index
Two longitudinal studies of marital interaction were conducted using observational coding of couples attempting to resolve a high-conflict issue. We found that a different pattern of results predicts con-current marital satisfaction than predicts change in marital satisfaction over 3 years. Results suggest that some marital interaction patterns, such as disagreement and anger exchanges, which have usually been considered harmful to a marriage, may not be harmful in the long run. These patterns were found to relate to unhappiness and negative interaction at home concurrently, but they were predictive of improvement in marital satisfaction longitudinally. However, three interaction patterns were identified as dysfunctional in terms of longitudinal deterioration: defensiveness (which includes whining), stubborness, and withdrawal from interaction. Hypotheses about gender differences in roles for the maintenance of marital satisfaction are presented.
Synopsis
This is an introductory report for the Brief Symptom Inventory (BSI), a brief psychological self-report symptom scale. The BSI was developed from its longer parent instrument, the SCL-90-R, and psychometric evaluation reveals it to be an acceptable short alternative to the complete scale. Both test-retest and internal consistency reliabilities are shown to be very good for the primary symptom dimensions of the BSI, and its correlations with the comparable dimensions of the SCL-90-R are quite high. In terms of validation, high convergence between BSI scales and like dimensions of the MMPI provide good evidence of convergent validity, and factor analytic studies of the internal structure of the scale contribute evidence of construct validity. Several criterion-oriented validity studies have also been completed with this instrument
A random sample of 50 adults in the general population received an open ended interview regarding their concepts of intimacy. A second random sample of 24 couples from the general population and 24 clinical couples received a standardized interview in which concepts of intimacy were systematically rated to develop an operational definition of the dimensions of intimacy. Self-disclosure was identified as a fundamental aspect of intimacy in interpersonal relationships and marriage. Expression of affection, compatibility, cohesion, identity, and the ability to resolve conflict were also considered important aspects of intimacy. Sexual satisfaction was considered less important than previous definitions of intimacy have suggested. The perception of his or her parents' level of intimacy was thought to influence the subject's own interpersonal relationships. Couples with marital maladjustment and/or psychiatric illness were less aware of aspects of their marriage which influence intimacy. They more frequently disagreed that sexuality influenced their level of intimacy. The study suggests that self-disclosure and parental interpersonal intimacy may be fundamental factors in marital adjustment which merit further research.
The divorce rate in the United States is extremely high. It is estimated that between 50% and 67% of first marriages end in divorce. For second marriages, failure rates are even higher. There are strong negative consequences to separation and divorce on the mental and physical health of both spouses, including increased risk for psychopathology, increased rates of automobile accidents, and increased incidence of physical illness, suicide, violence, homicide, significant immunosuppression, and mortality from diseases. In children, marital distress, conflict, and disruption are associated with depression, withdrawal, poor social competence, health problems, poor academic performance, and a variety of conduct-related difficulties. Though intervention techniques might be expected to reduce these grim statistics, our best scholars have concluded that marital therapy is at a practical and theoretical impasse. This article discusses the progress of research on the study of marriage.