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Relationships with Grandparents and the Emotional Well‐Being of Late Adolescent and Young Adult Grandchildren
Journal of Social Issues
Abstract
We investigated whether and under what family conditions young adult grandchildren psychologically benefit from having close and supportive grandparent relations. Relying on parental absence and family systems perspectives, we hypothesized that grandparents will be most effective in reducing depressive symptoms and increasing self-esteem of grandchildren who were raised in single-parent and step-parent families, as well as those with poorer quality relations with their parents. We analyzed data from a sample of grandchildren aged 18–23 years who were surveyed in the 1992–1994 wave of the National Survey of Families and Households (n = 925). Hierarchical multiple regressions with interaction terms found that greater cohesion with grandparents decreased depressive symptoms, particularly among grandchildren raised in single-parent families. However, cohesive grandparent relations reduced depressive symptoms more in the presence of stronger ties to parents. The model partially supports the long reach of grandparents as compensatory resources for mature grandchildren whose families of origin were absent a parent. Implications for future research on the role of grandparents in family systems are discussed.
... However, there is a lack of research on the influence of grandparent-grandchild relationships in early adulthood (i.e., roughly 22-35 years old) as individuals begin making more independent, high-stakes decisions about their personal and professional lives (e.g., pursuing a career, starting a family, etc.; Arnett, 2012;Hauser & Greene, 1991). One relational aspect thought to impact outcomes during the transition into adulthood is grandparent type (Ruiz & Silverstein, 2007;Scharf, 2016), or the role played by grandparents in the lives of youth. Grandparents can fill a non-caregiving role by engaging in what is often described as "traditional" grandparental involvement or a caregiving role by acting as one of their grandchild(ren)'s primary caregivers (Hayslip et al., 2019). ...
... In general, children raised by their grandparents experience more stress and trauma than children in adjacent-generation families due to increased financial burden, social-emotional stress, and adverse physical and mental health outcomes (Choi et al., 2016;Hayslip et al., 2019). However, a growing literature highlights grandparent resourcefulness as a defense against adverse emotional and psychological outcomes (Lee et al., 2015;Mendoza et al., 2020), with these efforts often leading to strong, close relationships during childhood and adolescence that are believed to persist into adulthood (Ruiz & Silverstein, 2007;Scharf, 2016). ...
... While similar scores between those with caregiving and non-caregiving grandparents provide promise, the unbalanced, small samples do not allow for conclusive statements regarding this observation. Though not substantially different, the finding that young adults with caregiving grandparents, on average, rated the quality of their current relationships with grandparents more positively than their counterparts with non-caregiving grandparents aligns with Ruiz and Silverstein's (2007) hypothesis that grandchildren raised by grandparents enjoy close relationships after entering adulthood due to the intimate, parental relationship during childhood. ...
While it is well documented that grandchildren benefit from strong, positive relationships with grandparents, less is known about the influence of these relationships as individuals establish their lives in early adulthood. Further, how this impact varies based on grandparent type (i.e., whether grandparents take on a “traditional” non-caregiving or “custodial” caregiving role) has not been investigated, despite the growing number of youth raised, at least in part, by their grandparents. Using an explanatory sequential mixed methods design, this study explores the influence of grandparent type during childhood on life satisfaction, perceived relationship quality, and life building in early adulthood. Descriptive and comparative analyses of survey data captured in the quantitative strand (N = 94) informed the subsample that completed semi-structured interviews in the emphasized qualitative strand (N = 9). The integrated findings revealed that past and present grandparent relationships remain salient in early adulthood, though the context and substance of these relationships is often nuanced with shifts over time and across individuals. Despite the importance of context, we failed to observe significant differences in life satisfaction or perceived relationship quality by grandparent type. Taken together, the findings suggest the substance of the relationship, more so than the structure, may be impactful for individuals building their life and reflecting on their values in early adulthood. In addition to elucidating areas for continued exploration, this work highlights the need for researchers and practitioners to consider variation in family structure when designing research and developing supports to reinforce positive, mutually beneficial grandparent–grandchild relationships.
... The impact of multigenerational care on child development has been researched extensively in various non-Chinese societies (e.g. Foster & Kalil, 2007;Sadruddin et al., 2019;Schatz & Ogunmefun, 2007), but there was no consensus with regards to whether it was positively or negatively associated with the SED of children in single-parent families (see Chung, 2008;Edwards, 2003;Edwards & Ray, 2008;Harrison et al., 2000;Musil & Standing, 2005;Ruiz & Silverstein, 2007;Sheridan et al., 2011;Ye, 2011). Some studies found children with multigenerational care developed better socioemotional competence than those cared for by a parent (Chung, 2008). ...
... Relationships with grandparents and shared activities between grandparents and children provided a working model for children's sense of self and interpersonal relationships, which facilitated the formation of new relationships with peers and other adults (Sheridan et al., 2011). An intimate and secure relationship with grandparents also provided comfort, confidence, and compensatory resources for children during difficult times, which further promoted a higher self-esteem and resilience (Ruiz & Silverstein, 2007). ...
... In contrast, some studies reported the negative effects of multigenerational care on child development. Single-parent children with both grandparental and parental care may face more depression and other mental health problems than those with only parental care (Dunn et al., 1998;Sun, 2013) possibly because of the abandonment of parental responsibility (Ruiz & Silverstein, 2007) or the low quality of the parent-child relationship resulting from a conflict between grandparents and parents (Barnett et al., 2012). For single-parent families who were dependent on grandparent care, discrimination among the family (Voyk, 2011), outdated educational skills of grandparents (Balsells et al., 2017), and excessive pressure faced by grandparents (Kelch-Oliver, 2008) contributed to explaining the adverse SED outcomes of children. ...
Children from single‐parent families are at risk for problems related to social–emotional development (SED). This study investigated the associations between familial care types and single‐parent children's SED, and the possible pathways through the mediation of parent–child relationship. This study analysed 431 single‐parent children (50.0% girls) drawn from a local database with a total of 2507 children studying in Grades 4 to 8. We compared the SED of single‐parent children in multigenerational care and those in parental care. We then tested the possible mediating effect of parent–child relationship between familial care types and children's SED. The study found that there were no deficits in the SED of single‐parent children in multigenerational care compared with those in parental care. Multigenerational care had no direct relationship with the SED of single‐parent children after the mediator of the parent–child relationship was entered. The parent–child relationship mediated the associations between familial care types and four dimensions of the single‐parent children's SED. These findings provided support for multigenerational and parental care, and also directions for family care strategies and developing social service programmes to promote the SED of single‐parent children in China.
... Moreover, parental influences are important for the relationship between grandparents and grandchildren during their young adulthood (Dunifon & Bajracharya, 2012;Sciplino et al., 2019). The grandparent-grandchild relationship can be mediated by parents in two ways: through parents' encouragement to increase or decrease the frequency of contact or through the parents' quality of the relationship with their children and parents (Brown, 2003;Dunifon & Bajracharya, 2012;Ruiz & Silverstein, 2007;Sciplino & Kinshott, 2019). The quality of the relationship tends to be higher when grandparents are close to the grandchild's parent (Fowler, 2015;Mueller & Elder, 2003). ...
... The evidence for children's socioemotional health outcomes in multigenerational families is mixed. For example, among children and adolescents, the results of studies have indicated that grandparental involvement is linked to lower levels of depressive symptoms (Ruiz & Silverstein, 2007), emotional distress and higher prosocial behavior among grandchildren (Attar-Schwartz et al., 2009) and can have both positive and negative relationships with a child's physical health outcomes, e.g., growth and developmental status, health problems, child eating behaviors and obesity (Pulgaron et al., 2016;Sadruddin et al., 2019). Co-residence with grandparents may be associated with lower rates of depression, higher emotional intelligence scores, and heightened pro-social behaviors, as well as strengthened communication skills, language development skills, and overall educational outcomes (Sadruddin et al., 2019). ...
... Grandchildren who are closer to their grandparents declare fewer depressive symptoms than those with weaker ties. Strong ties with grandparents reduce depressive symptoms, particularly among grandchildren raised in single-parent families (Ruiz & Silverstein, 2007). Grandchild aging anxiety is also associated with the quality and frequency of contact, as well as emotional closeness, but only for the domains of psychological concerns and fear of older people (Wise & Onol, 2020). ...
The aim of the current integrative review was to achieve a better understanding of the associations between the grandparent-grandchild relationship and early adult grandchildren’s psychological and health outcomes. The current article examines the grandparent’s role in view of different aspects of the grandparent-grandchild relationship by analyzing two themes that emerged in the reviewed studies: the general grandparent-grandchild relationship and the relationship with a grandparent with an impairment. Gaps in the research literature, implications for practice and directions for future research are discussed.
... For instance, both American and European grandchildren perceived a stronger emotional closeness with their grandparents who provided them with different forms of emotional support, such as providing advice, engaging in active listening, and spending time together (Huo et al., 2018;Michels et al., 2011). In a similar vein, studies have shown that high levels of affectual and consensual solidarity with grandparents are associated with fewer depressive symptoms in adolescents and young adults (Attar-Schwartz et al., 2009;Ruiz & Silverstein, 2007). Therefore, emotional closeness and support from grandparents can be important coping resources for young adults to alleviate their pandemic-related stress. ...
... For example, grandparents' emotional and instrumental support and frequent contact are important resources for alleviating young adults' distress in the transition to adulthood (Attar-Schwartz et al., 2009. In a similar vein, grandparents' involvement is beneficial for young adults' psychological health outcomes, such as life satisfaction, self-confidence, pro-social behaviors, and maturity (Ruiz & Silverstein, 2007;Yorgason et al., 2011). Young adults also tend to perceive grandparental involvement as a generally positive and normative aspect of their lives (Griggs et al., 2010). ...
We aimed to discover young adults’ perceived intergenerational and digital solidarity patterns with grandparents and their life satisfaction during the COVID-19 pandemic in South Korea. Data collection was conducted from April to June 2022 in the Seoul-Incheon-Gyeonggi metropolitan area. The sample was 261 young adults who reported solidarity with their living grandmothers and 161 young adults who reported solidarity with their living grandfathers. The latent profile analysis indicated three profiles for grandmother–young adult and grandfather–young adult groups: tight-knit and digitally connected, detached, and sociable. Results showed that the sociable profile was predominant, suggesting emotionally connected relationships but lower instrumental support between Korean young adults and their grandparents. In addition, young adults in the tight-knit and digitally connected profile reported higher life satisfaction compared to detached and sociable profiles. The study highlights the significance of strong intergenerational connections in enhancing young adults’ well-being during challenging times such as COVID-19.
... Since the VGAE model produces a feature vector that is not explainable, it does not allow us to investigate which and how much of the family tree properties are influencing the EFS and NFS metrics. Hence, we replace the VGAE model by manually defining five features of the family tree as follows: 1) average nuclear family size [29,30,31]; 2) male-to-female ratio [32,33]; 3) generation age difference [34,35]; 4) step-siblings and divorce [36]; 5) the oldest members' average satisfaction [37]. Using these features, we train both a linear regression model [38] as well as a non-linear model obtained using TPOT. ...
... This study reveals that it is able to fairly estimate a family's members' satisfaction using the family's tree. This connection seems to be highly complex and based on the data encoded in the family tree's graph such as generation differences, gender dynamics, and size of groups to manage a complex relationship such as a family, all already established in various studies [29,32,34,36,37]. Formally, to reveal this connection, we use a graph autoencoder followed by an automatic machine learning tool to obtain a regression model. ...
Individuals' satisfaction with their nuclear and extended family plays a critical role in individuals everyday life. Thus, a better understanding of the features that determine one's satisfaction with her family can open the door to the design of better sociological policies. To this end, this study examines the relationship between the family tree graph and family members' satisfaction with their nuclear and extended family. We collected data from 486 families which included a family tree graph and family members' satisfaction with each other. We obtain a model that is able to explain 75\% of the family members' satisfaction with one another. We found three indicators for more satisfied families. First, larger families, on average, have more satisfied members. Moreover, families with kids from the same parents - i.e., without step-siblings also express more satisfaction from both their siblings and parents when the children are already adults. Lastly, the average satisfaction of the family's oldest alive generation has a positive linear and non-linear correlation with the satisfaction of the entire extended family.
... Both salutary and health-damaging effects are likely to be driven by grandparental care practices (e.g., Chambers et al., 2021), which have also been proposed as an explanation of the overall adverse impact of grandparents on their grandchildren's cancer risk factors (Chambers et al., 2017). Studies investigating the role of grandparents in grandchildren's psychological well-being found that greater cohesion with grandparents reduced depressive symptoms in adolescent/adult grandchildren, whereas more frequent contact increased symptoms (e.g., Moorman and Stokes, 2016;Ruiz and Silverstein, 2007). Previous research provided no indication, however, of a grandparent effect on grandchildren's self-esteem (Ruiz and Silverstein, 2007) or risky health behaviors (Dunifon and Bajracharya, 2012), but coresidence with a grandparent was found to be associated with an increased risk of child mental health problems (externalizing or internalizing problems) in a European sample (Masfety et al., 2019). ...
... Studies investigating the role of grandparents in grandchildren's psychological well-being found that greater cohesion with grandparents reduced depressive symptoms in adolescent/adult grandchildren, whereas more frequent contact increased symptoms (e.g., Moorman and Stokes, 2016;Ruiz and Silverstein, 2007). Previous research provided no indication, however, of a grandparent effect on grandchildren's self-esteem (Ruiz and Silverstein, 2007) or risky health behaviors (Dunifon and Bajracharya, 2012), but coresidence with a grandparent was found to be associated with an increased risk of child mental health problems (externalizing or internalizing problems) in a European sample (Masfety et al., 2019). Recently, Tanksanen and Danielsbacka (2018) suggested that previously proposed positive "grandparent effects" might actually reflect "grandchild effects" in the sense that grandparents invest more resources (time or money) in healthier grandchildren performing better. ...
A plethora of studies provide evidence of family relationships’ key role in individuals’ well-being across the entire life course and particularly at older ages. When discussing the relationship between health inequalities and family relations, the present chapter thus places a particular emphasis on grandparents and grandchildren. After briefly reviewing the link between adult parent–child relationship qualities and health inequalities (Section 2), we then take the grandparents’ perspective (Section 3) to discuss, first, the effects of grandparenthood (that is, the transition into a new social and family role in later life and the status of being a grandparent) and, second, the effects of active grandparenting (such as the provision of grandchild care) on grandparents’ well-being. We then complement the grandparents’ perspective by assessing research on health inequalities in grandchildren (Section 4). The chapter concludes with policy recommendations and perspectives for future research (Section 5).
... The role of a grandparent is multi-dimensional, as it takes on many forms and varies in intensity (Bengtson, 2001;Ruiz & Silverstein, 2007). The participants seemed to realize that without being prescriptive or dogmatic, they could live life in a way that could subtly have a positive impact on the child: "As far as I am concerned, the role of a granny is not that of an educator, it is not her duty or the duty of the grandpa to educate … the education process is covert, not deliberate. ...
... On the one hand, this relationship creates a sense of wholeness and purpose in the life for aging grandparents. On the other hand, by spoiling grandchildren, teaching them about religion and spirituality, sharing the family history, passing on experiences, knowledge and skills, as well as transferring values, grandparents have a positive effect on the development and socialization of their grandchildren (Bengtson, 2001;Ruiz & Silverstein, 2007). ...
Emigration is increasingly becoming a reality for South Africans. To date, research on emigration has largely focused on the economic effect and the associated loss of expertise on the country. To a lesser degree research has focused on the devastating effects of distance and the lower intimacy levels on intergenerational relationships of transnational families. The relationship as it was known has changed, face to face communication is replaced by technology-mediated communication (TMC). Using open-ended interviews, this qualitative study used a thematic analysis to explore the personal experiences of South African grandparents, as they transitioned into their role as transnational grandparents (TNGs). The theoretical framework underpinning this research was ambiguous loss. “Missing out” was a central theme identified, which featured throughout the study like a golden thread.
... The quality of grandchild-grandparent relationships is also related to grandchild mental health and coping. Higher levels of emotional closeness with grandparents are associated with lower levels of depressive symptoms (Ruiz & Silverstein, 2007) and reduced difficulty coping with life events (Attar-Schwartz, 2015) in older adolescents and young adults. Among college students, grandparent sharing of memories and gift giving is negatively related to depression, and loneliness (Mansson, 2013). ...
... These findings are consistent with prior research demonstrating the importance of close and supportive grandparent-grandchild relationships for mental health of grandchildren from childhood to early adulthood. For example, higher levels of emotional closeness with grandparents is associated with lower levels of depressive symptoms (Ruiz & Silverstein, 2007) and improved coping with difficulties (Attar-Schwartz, 2015) in late adolescence and early adulthood. ...
This study examines changes in college students‘ relationships with their grandparents during the COVID-19 pandemic and lockdown, and whether these relationship changes were associated with college students‘ coping with the pandemic and mental health. 441 college students (76% female) completed an online survey. The majority of participants reported changes to the grandparent-grandchild relationship. Reduced contact and closeness was the most commonly reported change and was related to greater participant COVID-19 concerns and anticipatory grief for grandparents. A small number of participants reported increased closeness, which was related to their lower anxiety and depression. For younger students, grandparent contracting COVID-19 was associated with lower COVID-19 concerns and greater negative reactions to lockdown restrictions.
... Grandparents provide economic support and help in caring for their grandchildren and performing household chores, as well as providing emotional support, comfort and a sense of continuity and stability in their grandchildren's lives (Hetherington, 1989;Ochiltree, 2006). For example, it was found that close relations with a grandparent were associated with fewer depressive symptoms (Ruiz & Silverstein, 2007). Specifically, several studies have shown that grandparents play an important role in supporting children and grandchildren during and after divorce proceedings and that their involvement in the adolescents' lives is associated with increased wellbeing in adolescence (Attar-Schwartz & Fuller-Thomson, 2017;Soliz, 2008). ...
... King, Elder, and Conger (2000) found that children's likelihood of being ill-affected by their parents' divorce was lower among children with warm and close relations with at least one of their grandparents. Finally, it was found that emotional closeness to grandparents, particularly on the custodial mother's side, was related to better socio-emotional adjustment even by children of divorced parents compared to children with no emotional closeness to their grandparents (Attar-Schwartz, Attar-Schwartz, & Fuller-Thomson, 2017;Ruiz & Silverstein, 2007). ...
The quality of life (QoL) evaluations of children of divorced parents have been little studied. The literature focuses on the consequences of divorce for their wellbeing as reported by adults or examined using tools designed from the adult perspective. This study examines how risk (parental conflict) and resilience factors (perceived overall social support, closeness to grandparents, and open discourse with them about divorce) are related to the self-reported QoL of children of divorce. Cross-sectional online questionnaires for a child and one parent were completed by 122 children aged 7-17, from 86 Israeli families. Hierarchical linear models were employed, with mixed models accounting for the interdependency of children's data within each family. All risk and resilience factors were examined from the children's perspective, except parental conflict that was examined also from the parent's perspective. Parental conflict was found to be negatively associated and overall social support and close relationship with grandparents were positively associated with children's QoL evaluations. The more the children were involved in parental conflict, the more QoL measures were associated with it. The study also supported three models in which perceived overall social support and perceived grandparental support moderated the association between parental conflict and QoL evaluations. The importance of examining the wellbeing of children of divorce from their own perspective is discussed. In terms of practical implications, the findings suggest the need to reduce the involvement of children of divorce in parental conflict and to strengthen their social support systems, particularly their relations with grandparents.
... Authoritative grandparents guide children to cope with various problems in life and learn more effectively, enhance children's coping ability and problem-solving abilities, promote children to have a more positive emotional state, and can nurture them more healthily. Existing research shows that authoritative grandparenting styles make children more adaptable and beneficial to children's psychological and behavioral development (Lussier et al., 2002;Ruiz and Silverstein, 2007). Authoritative grandparenting styles can meet children's physical and psychological needs in time. ...
Introduction
When parents migrate to other cities for work, their children who are left behind show a high prevalence of behavioral problems, which affect social function. Although previous studies have found that emotional competence significantly predicts problem behavior, little is known about the mechanism(s) through which self-regulation and authoritative grandparenting styles affect emotional competence and problem behavior. This study examined the associations between emotional competence and problem behavior of preschoolers and the mediating role of self-regulation and the moderating role of authoritative grandparenting styles.
Methods
Participants included 449 left-behind preschool children (46.3% girls, mean age = 53.65 months). Grandparents reported their parenting styles with children and teachers reported children’s problem behavior. Children’s emotional competence and self-regulation were completed one-on-one by trained research assistants, following a standard protocol.
Results
The results revealed that children’s emotional competence is negatively related to problem behavior. Self-regulation partially mediates the effects of emotional competence on problem behavior. Authoritative grandparenting styles moderated the relationship between emotional competence and problem behavior in children, but not the relationship between self-regulation and problem behavior. Significantly, authoritative grandparenting styles enhanced the promoting effect of emotional competence and reduced children’s problem behavior.
Discussion
Our findings underscore the importance of intrinsic elements of child self-regulation, as well as adopting more authoritative parenting behaviors in their daily interaction with children, on developing stronger emotional competence and reducing problem behavior in preschoolers.
... Conversely, they might adhere more strictly to traditional values, potentially reinforcing conservative gender norms (Tu et al., 2023). The emotional warmth characteristic of many grandparent-grandchild relationships could create a nurturing environment for open dialogue about societal expectations, including gender roles (Ruiz & Silverstein, 2007). Moreover, grandparents' dual role as both family elders and primary caregivers creates a unique dynamic. ...
Adolescent depression in skipped-generation families is a growing concern, yet the role of grandparenting styles and gender attitudes remains understudied. Data from 1,039 adolescents (511 girls, 528 boys) in rural Chinese skipped-generation families were analyzed. Mediation analyses examined associations between grandparenting styles, gender attitudes, and depression. Higher grandparental rejection correlated with higher depression (Estimate = .35, p < .001), while higher emotional warmth correlated with lower depression (Estimate = −.32, p < .001). Emotional warmth was associated with more egalitarian gender attitudes (Estimate = .12, p < .001). Gender attitudes partially mediated the association between emotional warmth and depression among girls, but not boys. A significant gender difference was found in the association between gender attitudes and depression ( p <.05). Grandparenting styles and gender are associated with depression in adolescents from skipped-generation families. Mental health interventions should focus on educating grandparents to provide emotional support and promoting egalitarian gender attitudes, especially among girls.
... Grandparents have been argued to be an important source of support for their grandchildren and vice versa, especially in divorced families (Bengtson, 2001). Although findings mostly relate to support exchanges with biological grandparents (e.g., Muller & Litwin, 2011;Ruiz & Silverstein, 2007), research suggests that stepgrandparents and stepgrandchildren may also be important for each other (Chapman et al., 2016;Sanner et al., 2019). Furthermore, stepgrandparents can be important for the (step)parents, i.e., the middle generation, as the older generation often assists them with child care. ...
Objective: To describe stepgrandparent-stepgrandchild contact and examine how contact varies across stepfamily structures and with the strength of family relationships existing prior to stepfamily formation. Background: Stepgrandparenthood is on the rise. Little is known, however, about how stepgrandparents enact their likely ambiguous role and how this depends on the opportunities associated with and provided by the broader family context. Method: Using Dutch survey data, descriptive information about stepgrandparent-stepgrandchild contact was presented. Random intercept multilevel models were used to analyze 2,261 stepgrandparent-stepgrandchild dyads nested in 1,373 children to assess the role of stepfamily structure and existing family relationships. Results: Stepgrandparents saw their stepgrandchildren on average several times a year. When the child and/or the stepparent coresided with the biological parent and in the case of half-siblings, contact levels were higher. When the stepparent had biological children living outside the stepfamily’s household, stepgrandparents had less contact with stepgrandchildren. Contact was also lower when the divorced biological parents of the child had a nonconflictual relationship. Conclusion: Overall, the frequency of stepgrandparent-stepgrandchild contact is low. Coresidence is critical for a higher contact frequency, indicating the importance of contact opportunities and strong within-stepfamily relationships. Strong ties of the stepfamily to a former family may compete with stepgrandparent-stepgrandchild relationships.
... These insights underscore the value of engaged grandparents as a supportive resource for mothers and grandchildren, provided that the relationship between grandparents and mothers is harmonious and non-intrusive regarding parental caregiving practices (Αubel 2021). According to Ruiz and Silverstein (2007), grandparents stepping in as a secondary support system can help address emerging family challenges, benefiting the well-being and development of grandchildren, especially in diverse family structures, like single-parent or stepparent households. ...
When people become parents, they experience significant life changes. These include feelings of joy and satisfaction, but simultaneously, the parental role comes with obstacles and obligations added to many people's already challenging daily routines. The present study was focused on mothers, and examined the impact of maternal parenting stress on psychological resilience, by considering demographic characteristics such as age, education, employment status, and grandparental support system. We conducted a quantitative, web-designed survey with a sample of 151 mothers of children in various age groups (from 1-12 years old), from Greece and Cyprus, who were 18+ years old. Participants completed the CD-RISK online (Connor and Davidson 2003), the Parental Stress Scale (Berry and Jones 1995), and a personal information form (PIF) with demographic information. Results indicated that mothers experienced parenting stress at moderate to high levels, even if their resilience was positively or negatively influenced by other factors, such as the participation of others (grandparents) in the care of their children. Findings also showed that mothers experienced parental stress as an independent factor in resilience. It seems like providing practical social support structures for mothers aged 26-45 and single mothers could contribute positively to alleviating their stress symptoms.
... As a buffer against family-related stress, grandparents could reduce grandchildren's level of depression, alleviate peer problems and general behavioral problems, and limit antisocial behavior Wild & Gaibie, 2014). Furthermore, intergenerational education has been found to improve children's life confidence, mental health, and life satisfaction (Ruiz & Silverstein, 2007;Yorgason et al., 2011). In fact, the positive influence of grandparenting may vary in different family structures: grandparents could act as family stabilizers in families undergoing divorce, incarceration, parental death, or economic hardship (Botcheva & Feldman, 2004;Chen, 2016;Dunifon & Kowaleski-Jones, 2007;Tan et al., 2010). ...
Grandparenthood has been a research focal point for gerontologists since the early 1980s. While most research focuses on systematically examining the effects of grandparenting on older adults, little is known about the long-term effects on child development. This study aims to examine the long-term effects of grandparenting on individual multidimensional development and distinguishes the critical period of grandparenting from life-course perspective. Drawing on a nationally representative sample from the China Labor-force Dynamics Survey (CLDS), we use ordinary least squares (OLS) and logit models to examine the associations between early-life (aged 0–15 years) grandparenting and multidimensional development in adulthood. Results show that early experience of grandparenting has profound adverse effects on later development: early childhood (preschool/0–6 years) is the critical period in terms of later mental health, non-cognitive ability. In addition, the cumulative effect is confirmed that the longer the duration of grandparenting, the greater the cumulative disadvantages in individual development. Our findings provide empirical support for views of grandparenting effect from a life-course perspective and highlight the enduring impact of early grandparenting to later multidimensional development of adult, as well as the important role of timing and cumulative effects of grandparenting.
... On a more intimate level, the mental health benefits of intergenerational relationships are well-established for older adults (Earl & Marais, 2023;Davey & Eggebeen, 1998). Comparably less has been done looking at similar benefits for youth, though some research has demonstrated benefits to close grandparental relationships (Ruiz & Silverstein, 2007). ...
This manuscript provides a first-person narrative review of the author’s research
exploring age-based oppression, including the story of how these ideas devel
oped in cultural and historical context. Projects reviewed in this paper began
from a wish to better understand potential factors impacting the geropsychol
ogy workforce shortage. Over time, research has expanded to encompass other
questions related to ageism, adultism, discomfort with death, and media rep
resentations of emerging adults and older adults at the start of the COVID-19
pandemic. A measure of adultist concerns is also described along with findings
from several studies using this scale. Qualitative comments from graduate stu
dents in psychology and counseling are reviewed through the lens of adultism,
suggesting multiple connections between students’ lack of interest in working
with older adults, adultist concerns, and attitudes about intergenerational rela
tionships. Lastly, discussion questions and learning activities are suggested to
help educators engage the topic of age-based oppression in a variety of settings.
... Therefore, it merits further investigation into the long-term implications of grandparental involvement for adult grandchildren's development involving prosocial tendencies. As with research on children and adolescents, young adults who maintain high-quality relationships with their grandparents are more likely to display favorable adjustment outcomes, such as reduced depression symptoms and enhanced subjective and relational well-being (Li et al., 2018;Mansson & Booth-Butterfield, 2011;Ruiz & Silverstein, 2007). In the same vein, it was reasonable to assume that the positive effect of intergenerational interactions on young adult grandchildren could extend to contributing to young adults developing higher levels of tendencies toward prosocial behaviors. ...
Prosociality has long been emphasized by collectivist societies that prioritize group interdependence. Therefore, understanding what contributes to prosocial tendencies within the collectivist cultural context is of theoretical and practical interest. Previous Western studies have suggested a vital role of grandparents in young people’s prosocial tendencies. However, whether this association holds in non-Western cultural contexts and how grandparents are related to prosocial tendencies in grandchildren remains unclear. Therefore, the current study explored empathy (cognitive/affective) as a potential mediator to explain the relationship between grandparental involvement and grandchildren’s prosocial tendencies from a Chinese adult grandchildren’s perspective. A sample of 321 young adults aged 18–30 years participated in this study. Using structural equation modeling, we found that perceived grandparental involvement was only significantly and directly related to increased cognitive empathy, whereas both cognitive and affective empathy were significantly and directly associated with heightened prosocial tendencies. Moreover, mediation results showed that perceived grandparental involvement indirectly contributed to prosocial tendencies in young adult grandchildren solely through the mediating role of cognitive empathy. Echoing the social learning theory, this study suggested that interacting with caring and supportive grandparents can connect with the likelihood of individuals developing abilities to take others’ perspectives, which, in turn, motivates them to exhibit greater tendencies toward prosocial behaviors. These findings shed light on the salience of grandparents in young people’s moral development.
... In contrast, participants from the grandfamily groups only shared narratives passed down from their grandmothers. Grandparent caregivers, especially grandmother caregivers, may be more nurturing and their stories may have a more lasting impact on their grandchildren than non-caregiving, male grandparents (Horsfall & Dempsey, 2015;Ruiz & Silverstein, 2007). Past research has considered the role of gender in intergenerational narratives shared by parents, finding that stories shared by and about mothers contain more interpretive and emotionally rich content than those shared by fathers, which focus more on actions and accomplishments . ...
... Finalmente, es importante mencionar que, aunque nuestra infancia ya no crece conviviendo con la familia extensa como antaño, el papel de los abuelos y las abuelas ha experimentado un protagonismo muy significativo en las últimas décadas, en buena parte como consecuencia tanto del incremento de la esperanza de vida (que hace que se pueda experimentar durante más años el rol de abuelo o abuela y con mejores condiciones físicas) como de las dificultades de conciliación de la vida laboral y familiar que tienen padres y madres hoy en día y, sobre todo, en los hogares con estructuras familiares no tradicionales (así, el protagonismo de abuelos y abuelas es mayor especialmente en los hogares liderados solo por un padre varón; Ramos et al., 2021). Su trabajo como cuidadores y cuidadoras, mentores y mentoras, aportadores de experiencias diferentes y estimuladoras, de afecto incondicional, etcétera, se ha demostrado que contribuye significativamente al bienestar emocional de nietos y nietas (Ruiz y Silverstein, 2007), al tiempo que también han sido probados los beneficios de esa relación sobre los propios abuelos y abuelas, siempre y cuando esa responsabilidad de cuidados esté acorde con sus condiciones físicas y no resulte desbordante (Kim et al., 2017). ...
Esta monografía proporciona una visión integral del ámbito de la intervención familiar en la actualidad; de la mano de especialistas, se ofrece un panorama actualizado en el que se insiste en la importancia de poseer unas bases conceptuales sólidas, un marco legislativo adecuado, un rigor metodológico en la intervención, así como en la necesidad de implementar estrategias basadas en evidencias que partan de situaciones reales. La obra se dirige tanto a profesionales como a estudiantes que se inician en esta materia y que están interesados en conocer los fundamentos básicos, el estado de la cuestión y los principales retos a los que se enfrenta la intervención familiar. Los autores que participan ofrecen, desde diferentes perspectivas, las herramientas necesarias para comprender y llevar a cabo actuaciones eficaces y respetuosas con la diversidad familiar y cultural, así como para abordar situaciones de desprotección infantil.
... Increased time also increases the types of support a grandparent may provide these children, including financial, emotional, and housing support. Grandparent involvement decreases depressive symptoms for youth, especially in single-parent households (Ruiz & Silverstein, 2007) and ones where grandchildren have strong relationships with their parents (Dunifon, 2013). There has been research into grandparents raising children (e.g., Pittman, 2023) but not how grandparents support youth's housing stability. ...
Objective
This study documents the importance of grandparents for lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ+) Latinx youth and how cisnormativity shapes these relationship dynamics.
Background
Most research on LGBTQ+ youth's family relations centers on the parent–child relationship. Grandparents are important for racially marginalized families, particularly Latinx families. Additionally, Latinx LGBTQ+ youth are impacted by precarious familismo—the disparate experiences with family members in which their gender and sexuality are simultaneously accepted and rejected.
Method
The data for this project are from the Family Housing and Me (FHAM) project, a landmark longitudinal study on the impact of non‐parental relatives on the lives of LGBTQ+ youth. This paper analyzes a subsample of 35 qualitative interviews with Latinx LGBTQ+ youth (16–19 years old) who live in South Texas or the Inland Empire of California, the majority of whom are transgender or nonbinary.
Results
Grandparents played an important role in the lives of Latinx LGBTQ+ youth interviewees, including providing many of the positive benefits of familismo. The youth also described “disparate experiences” of precarious familismo in how their grandparents simultaneously attempted identity support of their gender identities and reinforced cisnormativity. Youth often navigated these experiences by expressing low expectations that their grandparents would fully understand their gender identities, which we refer to as generational gender expectations.
Conclusion
Research on LGBTQ+ youth should integrate the study of non‐parental relatives to fully understand support networks and family systems for LGBTQ+ youth. Additionally, cisnormativity plays an important role in family life and familismo.
... It is suggested that grandparents hold particular values for grandchildren whose parents' marriages are not successful, as they often play vital roles within the family when certain family functions are incomplete. For example, Ruiz and Silverstein (2007) indicated that close relationships with grandparents could help protect grandchildren who feel depressed due to being raised by a single parent or living with step-parents. In such scenarios, grandparents can dedicate more time to accompany their grandchildren, listen to their daily school experiences, and provide emotional support. ...
As Taiwan's population ages, intergenerational communication has become more prevalent in daily life. To gain insights into this form of communication, the researchers conducted a survey to explore topic selections and satisfaction levels in conversations between senior high school students and their grandparents in Taiwan. There is a lack of existing literature derived from Chinese-speaking communities regarding this research topic. The questionnaire comprised two parts: one focusing on actual and anticipated communication topics, and the other assessing participant satisfaction levels with the discussed topics during intergenerational talks. The differences between the answers given by grandparents and grandchildren were compared using SPSS. Significant differences might compromise the possibility of creating satisfying grandparent-grandchild relationships. Convenient sampling method was adopted, yielding 76 sets of samples providing corresponding views on intergenerational communication regarding topic selection and satisfaction levels. Findings revealed that senior high school students preferred discussing family, leisure, and health topics with their grandparents. Conversely, grandparents were inclined to discuss health, occupation, and family matters with their grandchildren. Notably, family emerged as the most popular topic, and this topic generated the highest satisfaction levels in both generations. However, the most significant disparity in topic selection between grandchildren and grandparents was observed in the area of occupation. Grandparents showed a preference for discussing occupation with their grandchildren, while the grandchildren tended to ignore this topic. The differences in age and generational perspectives could contribute to this gap and potentially lead to dissatisfaction in intergenerational conversations. The results of this study hold the potential for enhancing and promoting the quality of intergenerational communication within family contexts. By understanding the preferred topics and recognising potential sources of dissatisfaction, efforts can be made to bridge the intergenerational gaps and foster better communication between grandparents and grandchildren. Such improvements can strengthen family bonds and promote a positive and harmonious intergenerational dynamic.
... It is suggested that grandparents hold particular values for grandchildren whose parents' marriages are not successful, as they often play vital roles within the family when certain family functions are incomplete. For example, Ruiz and Silverstein (2007) indicated that close relationships with grandparents could help protect grandchildren who feel depressed due to being raised by a single parent or living with step-parents. In such scenarios, grandparents can dedicate more time to accompany their grandchildren, listen to their daily school experiences, and provide emotional support. ...
As Taiwan's population ages, intergenerational communication has become more prevalent in daily life. To gain insights into this form of communication, the researchers conducted a survey to explore topic selections and satisfaction levels in conversations between senior high school students and their grandparents in Taiwan. There is a lack of existing literature derived from Chinese-speaking communities regarding this research topic. The questionnaire comprised two parts: one focusing on actual and anticipated communication topics, and the other assessing participant satisfaction levels with the discussed topics during intergenerational talks. The differences between the answers given by grandparents and grandchildren were compared using SPSS. Significant differences might compromise the possibility of creating satisfying grandparent-grandchild relationships. Convenient sampling method was adopted, yielding 76 sets of samples providing corresponding views on intergenerational communication regarding topic selection and satisfaction levels. Findings revealed that senior high school students preferred discussing family, leisure, and health topics with their grandparents. Conversely, grandparents were inclined to discuss health, occupation, and family matters with their grandchildren. Notably, family emerged as the most popular topic, and this topic generated the highest satisfaction levels in both generations. However, the most significant disparity in topic selection between grandchildren and grandparents was observed in the area of occupation. Grandparents showed a preference for discussing occupation with their grandchildren, while the grandchildren tended to ignore this topic. The differences in age and generational perspectives could contribute to this gap and potentially lead to dissatisfaction in intergenerational conversations. The results of this study hold the potential for enhancing and promoting the quality of intergenerational communication within family contexts. By understanding the preferred topics and recognising potential sources of dissatisfaction, efforts can be made to bridge the Journal of Communication, Language and Culture Vol 4, Issue 1, January 2024 22 intergenerational gaps and foster better communication between grandparents and grandchildren. Such improvements can strengthen family bonds and promote a positive and harmonious intergenerational dynamic.
... Higher levels of grandmother involvement have been found to serve as a protective factor for grandchildren at risk (Barnett et al., 2010), and strong relationship with grandparents could break the intergenerational transmission of mother's depression to the younger generation (Silverstein & Ruiz, 2006). In another study, researchers found that having higher social cohesion with grandparents may reduce grandchildren's emotional wellbeing in both single-parent families and intact families (Ruiz & Silverstein, 2007). Although these studies reached a consensus that grandparenting may moderate the effect of parenting on children's socio-emotional outcomes, they did not specify whether the three generations live in the same household. ...
Grandparents taking part in bringing up grandchildren has become increasingly common across the world. However, the research discussing the impact of grandparenting in the family system is scarce. The goal of this study is to explore the role of grandparents in parent-child interactions, specifically the moderating role of grandparental sensitivity within family dynamics. In this study, we visited 67 Chinese families (including 52 three-generation families) with young children (2–3 years old) in a southern city to videotape the caregiver-child interactions during designated activities. We coded parental and grandparental sensitivity and the children’s positive and negative affect during the interactions. Results showed that both parental and grandparental sensitivity positively correlated with children’s positive affect while negatively correlated with children’s negative affect. Furthermore, for families in which parental sensitivity was high, higher grandparental sensitivity could boost the children’s positive affect further. This study underscores the importance of high grandparental sensitivity as a moderator in enhancing children’s positive affect in the family context, echoing the affectual solidarity dimension in Bengtson’s intergenerational solidarity model.
... A lack of effective communication may further intensify conflicts and their consequences (Hoang et al., 2020). Most studies have found that children raised mainly by grandparents tend to report deteriorating health compared with those cared for by parents (Fan et al., 2010;Hong & Zeng, 2022;Joshi & Lebrun-Harris, 2022;Liu et al., 2018;Pilkauskas & Dunifon, 2016;Ruiz & Silverstein, 2007;, but exceptions have also been documented (Fruhauf et al., 2022;Pong & Chen, 2010;Tanskanen & Danielsbacka, 2017). ...
The prevalence and intensity of grandparenting have continued to increase in the era of rapid aging. However, little is known about grandparents with different health statuses as primary caregivers and their implications for children's health. A nationally representative cohort of over 8990 Chinese children interviewed from 2010 to 2018 was used. Random effects logit models were constructed to assess the association of the primary caregiver type (grandparents vs. parents) and caregiver health with child health. Subsequently, additive interactions between the primary caregiver type and caregiver health were estimated to determine whether children cared for by grandparents with poor health were the most vulnerable children in terms of health. Deterioration of health status was found among children cared for mainly by grandparents, manifested as a higher likelihood of illness, depressive symptoms and unmet health care needs. However, children looked after by healthy grandparents tended to exhibit better health than their counterparts who were cared for by unhealthy parents. Grandparents as primary caregivers might not have a universally detrimental effect on child health. Thus, interventions to prompt child health could consider grandparents as caregivers, especially healthy grandparents.
... In this sense, grandchildren can also learn from their grandparents how to be affectionate, how to communicate their needs, and how to commit to relations and show care for others. The quality of the grandparent-grandchildren relations can affect the grandchildren's well-being and development (Ruiz & Silverstein, 2007). However, when grandparents become too much involved in raising their grandchildren, this can result in conflicts with their own children as sometimes educational methods and values may differ considerably. ...
Becoming a grandparent represents one of the new social roles that may be embraced during late midlife and older adulthood. The social role of grandparent is associated with a series of beliefs, emotions, and behaviours and impacts the individual development as well as that of the next generations. Regarding the personal development of grandparents, studies point out that there are both benefits and drawbacks for personal growth in later years. In this chapter, I will explore the meanings attributed to the grandparent roles and examine the diversity of experiences of being a grandparent as well as how grandparenthood may affect development in late midlife or older age. Because family members often influence each other concerning development, I will explore how grandparents can affect the development of their grandchildren and, in turn, how grandchildren can make an impact on the development of their grandparents. Next, I will explore how the role of grandparent is associated with personal growth in different areas (i.e. cognitive, social, emotional, personality, physical). Finally, I will analyse how to apply positive psychology principles to foster the developmental potential of grandparenthood.
... The salient areas of study within this shift of focus have been custodial grandparents vis-a-vis epidemics (e.g., HIV and drug epidemic of the 1980 and 1990) or other factors that impact the safety of children (e.g., child abuse) (Fuller- Thomson & Minkler, 2000;Minkler, Roe, & Robertson-Beckley, 1994;Whitley, Kelley, & Sipe, 2001). Others have examined grandparents as resources during stressful times, such as divorce or illness in family life courses (Ruiz & Silverstein, 2007;Silverstein & Ruiz, 2006). In both circumstances, the grandparents negotiate the challenges of raising children and the trajectories of their aging processes. ...
Regardless of nation and culture, grandparents have been instrumental in the survival of families and communities as well as the preservation of cultures. This study explored the meaning and roles of grandparenting among Maori grandparents in New Zealand as a possible platform for advancing the conversation on the significance of grandparents in the lives of people across cultures. Participants interviewed included 17 Māori grandparents to great, great grandparents in Aotearoa New Zealand, living in intergenerational homes. A phenomenology approach was used to analyze the data. Five themes were extracted that elucidated the meaning of the roles of grandparenting from the perspective of Māori grandparents: Elders’ responsibilities from a cultural perspective; support, resources, and assets; sociopolitical and economic challenges; current state of Elders’ and role in family, and benefits and rewards. Implications and recommendations are discussed towards a more systemic and culturally responsive support of grandparents.
... Moreover, a systematic review aimed at assessing the influence of GP on some health risk factors associated with cancer, such as weight, diet, physical activity, and tobacco use found that overall GPs had a positive and beneficial impact on their grandchildren's cancer risk factors [26]. For psychological health outcomes, Ruiz and Silverstein used data from the second wave of the National Survey of Families and Households (NSFH) and also found that, among youth aged 18-23, grandchild-reported closeness with GP was associated with lower levels of depression [27]. Additionally, among Latino families living in the US, Xie et al. found that GP encouraged their grandchildren to participate in various physical activities, which, in turn, improved grandchildren's physical and mental health [28]. ...
Grandparents (GP) play influential roles in grandchildren’s health, behavior, and life. However, this relationship has not been examined in the Arab region. This study assesses whether the presence of GP in the household is associated with grandchildren’s health and wellbeing. Health status was determined by a child experiencing chronic health conditions or an acute illness, and wellbeing was determined based on school attendance and child labor. Data were collected through surveys conducted in 2010 and 2015 of representative samples of Palestinian refugees living in Lebanon. Multivariate logistic regression showed that, even after controlling for potential confounders, including the presence of parents in the household and household food insecurity (FI), the presence of live-in GP was associated with lower odds of children experiencing acute illnesses (OR 0.74 95% CI 0.62–0.92) and higher odds of attending school (OR 2.22 95% CI 1.28–5.33), but not child labor. The presence of GP in the household may be protective to grandchildren’s health status and school attendance in this population.
... Through social inclusion in the workplace, the intergenerational collaboration will lead to innovative practices and sustainable enterprises as well as competitive business models in the dig-ital age [1,8,9]. Moreover, intergenerational collaboration often benefits all generations in terms of well-being and the growth of human potential [10][11][12][13]. Despite the various technological interventions that have facilitated collaboration between individuals from different generations [14][15][16], there are still several challenges and a digital divide that may hinder technology-based intergenerational collaboration [9,11,17]. ...
Chatbot technology is increasingly emerging as a virtual assistant. Chatbots could allow individuals and organizations to accomplish objectives that are currently not fully optimized for collaboration across an intergenerational context. This paper explores the preferences of chatbots as a companion in intergenerational innovation. The Q methodology was used to investigate different types of collaborators and determine how different choices occur between collaborators that merge the problem and solution domains of chatbots' design within intergenerational settings. The study's findings reveal that various chatbot design priorities are more diverse among younger adults than senior adults. Additionally, our research further outlines the principles of chatbot design and how chatbots will support both generations. This research is the first step towards cultivating a deeper understanding of different age groups' subjective design preferences for chatbots functioning as a companion in the workplace. Moreover, this study demonstrates how the Q methodology can guide technological development by shifting the approach from an age-focused design to a common goal-oriented design within a multigenerational context.
... It brings a sense of belonging and helps reduce social isolation and loneliness which increase at older age due to decreasing health and widowhood [4]. For the younger generation, having a meaningful relationship with their grandparents shapes their attitude toward older adults [20], has a positive effect on the ability to cope with life challenges [21,22], and contributes to better self-esteem and mental health later in life [23]. ...
Communication technologies play an important role in maintaining the grandparent-grandchild (GP-GC) relationship. Based on Media Richness Theory, this study investigates the frequency of use (RQ1) and perceived quality (RQ2) of established media as well as the potential use of selected innovative media (RQ3) in GP-GC relationships with a particular focus on digital media. A cross-sectional online survey and vignette experiment were conducted in February 2021 among N = 286 university students in Germany (mean age 23 years, 57% female) who reported on the direct and mediated communication with their grandparents. In addition to face-to-face interactions, non-digital and digital established media (such as telephone, texting, video conferencing) and innovative digital media, namely augmented reality (AR)-based and social robot-based communication technologies, were covered. Face-to-face and phone communication occurred most frequently in GP-GC relationships: 85% of participants reported them taking place at least a few times per year (RQ1). Non-digital established media were associated with higher perceived communication quality than digital established media (RQ2). Innovative digital media received less favorable quality evaluations than established media. Participants expressed doubts regarding the technology competence of their grandparents, but still met innovative media with high expectations regarding improved communication quality (RQ3). Richer media, such as video conferencing or AR, do not automatically lead to better perceived communication quality, while leaner media, such as letters or text messages, can provide rich communication experiences. More research is needed to fully understand and systematically improve the utility, usability, and joy of use of different digital communication technologies employed in GP-GC relationships.
... The role of grandparenting on both grandparent-grandchild relationships and grandparents' lives has come under recent investigation. Research suggests that the development of a close intergenerational relationship has positive effects for both grandparents [5][6][7] and grandchildren [8][9][10]. The impact of grandparents on grandchildren can be both direct (e.g., reading and playing with the child) and indirect via parents (e.g., impacts on parent stress) [11]. ...
Many grandparents today are physically separated from their families. Given that maintaining close family relationships (with both adult children and grandchildren) is associated with increased physical, mental, and emotional health across generations, it is important to determine how families can maintain close relationships with grandparents when physically separated. Technology offers one potential support: the proliferation of video chat. Recent work suggests that the frequency of video chat and the variety of behaviors engaged in during video calls predicts family closeness and enjoyment of using this communication method, regardless of the physical distance between parties. However, the frequency of grandparent-grandchild video chat varies across families. Here, we explore how demographic, physical (e.g., distance), technological (e.g., number of devices and barriers), and social factors (e.g., children are distracted) predicted: (1) whether or not video chat was used by grandparent-grandchild dyads, and (2) the frequency of video chat in the families using the technology. This work suggests that geographical distance, having met in person, and the number of devices owned were positive predictors of grandparents and grandchildren having ever video chatted. However, the factors associated with the frequency of video chat were different in the parent and grandparent models and included grandparents’ comfort with technology and the type of device used by the parent and child. These findings not only have implications for supporting grandparent-grandchild relationships but also for all family members separated by distance, immigration, incarceration, health emergencies, and displacement.
The relationship between grandparents and adult grandchildren has become more prevalent in contemporary societies. While a growing number of studies have examined the grandparent-adult grandchild relationship in western societies, research in the urban Chinese context is limited. The current study aims to gain a comprehensive understanding about young adults’ childhood and current relationships with their grandparents and how this relationship is related to young adults’ attitudes toward older adults and psychological well-being in the Hong Kong context. We recruited 371 Chinese young adults from Hong Kong and assessed a set of indicators of the grandparent-grandchild relationship (i.e., contact frequency and emotional closeness) in adulthood and childhood. Participants also reported their attitudes toward older adults, life satisfaction, and depressive symptoms. Results confirmed the prevalence of the grandparent-adult grandchild relationship in Hong Kong. Different indicators consistently suggest that stronger bonds with grandparents were related to young adults’ more positive attitudes toward older adults, higher life satisfaction, and fewer depressive symptoms. The findings suggest that grandparents are not only important caregivers in the grandchildren’s childhood, constructive relationships with the grandparents are also significantly related to the grandchildren’s attitudes and psychological well-being after they reach adulthood.
Objective
We aimed to investigate the patterns of intergenerational and digital solidarity between young adult grandchildren and their grandparents, and how different patterns were associated with young adult grandchildren's depressive symptoms during the COVID‐19 pandemic.
Background
It is known that a close bond between grandparents and young adult grandchildren positively influences young adult grandchildren's mental health. However, there is limited understanding of which patterns of relationships offer psychological benefits during the COVID‐19 pandemic.
Method
Using data from the 2022 survey of the Longitudinal Study of Generations (LSOG), we conducted latent profile analysis to identify intergenerational and digital solidarity patterns among 160 young adult grandchildren–grandmother relationships (grandmother group) and 136 young adult grandchildren–grandfather relationships (grandfather group).
Results
We discovered the same three latent profiles in both groups: tight‐knit and digitally connected, obligatory, and detached. We found that young adult grandchildren who had a tight‐knit and digitally connected relationship with grandparents reported fewer depressive symptoms than those who had a detached relationship with grandparents.
Conclusion
Consequently, maintaining digital communication with grandparents compensated for the lack of in‐person contact and contributed to the alleviation of depression among young adult grandchildren during the COVID‐19 pandemic.
Implications
Our findings indicate that understanding the dynamics involved in intergenerational solidarity provides numerous opportunities for society, communities, and families to work together in generating support across all generations.
This chapter establishes the book’s conceptual and methodological foundation, offering a comprehensive overview of research on grandchildhood and grandchild-grandparent relationships since the 1940s. It highlights the importance of understanding grandchildren within the broader context of family relationships, with a focus on how the middle generation mediates these cross-generational ties. Central to this chapter is the introduction of ‘grandchild practices’, a key concept drawn from the practice approach in family studies (Morgan, Family Connections: An Introduction to Family Studies. Cambridge: Polity, 1996, Rethinking Family Practices. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013). These practices are characterized as active, everyday, fluid, and relational actions that grandchildren engage in, shaping their relationships with grandparents. The chapter situates these grandchild practices within societal norms and expectations surrounding grandchildhood and grandparenthood, which often give rise to intergenerational ambivalence (Lüscher and Pillemer, Intergenerational Ambivalence: A New Approach to the Study of Parent–Child Relations in Later Life. Journal of Marriage and the Family 60 (2): 413–425. https://doi.org/10.2307/353858, 1998; Connidis and McMullin, Sociological Ambivalence and Family Ties: A Critical Perspective. Journal of Marriage and the Family 64 (3): 558–567. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2002.00558.x, 2002). Emphasizing the mutuality and interdependencies between grandchildhood and grandparenthood (Kahana et al. Grandparents-grandchild Relationships: A Proposed mutuality Model with a Focus on Young Children and Adolescents. In Grandparenting: Influences on the Dynamics of Family Relationships, ed. Bert Hayslip and Christine A. Fruhauf, 61–80. New York: Springer Publishing Company, 2019), as well as the relational nature of grandchildhood (Eldén et al. Grandchildhood: Care and Relationality in Narratives of Three Generations in Sweden. Childhood 31(1), 120–137. https://doi.org/10.1177/09075682231216630, 2024), this chapter provides a crucial lens for understanding the dynamic and evolving nature of these family connections.
Research on skipped generation has shown that it is a coin of two sides with competing negative and positive implications on the growth and wellbeing of grandparents and grandchildren (Wen, M., Ren, Q., Korinek, K., & Trinh, H. N., Social science research 80:145−155, 2019; Zimmer, Z., & Treleaven, E., Skip-generation household trends in low-and middle-income countries, 2021). Issues relating to health, finance, living arrangements, wellbeing, education, and sexual and reproductive health of skipped generation households (SGHs) have generated mostly negative conversations in research. However, skipped generation households are not only negative; identified positive implications include the provision of parenting to children who would otherwise have grown up without adequate care. The chapter provides a review of some evidence across Africa (Mtshali, M.G., Journal of Comparative Family Studies 46:75−83, 2015; Muruthi, J. R., Dolbin-MacNab, M. L., & Jarrott, S. E., Journal of Applied Gerontology 40:1280−1287, 2021; Sooryamoorthy, R., & Makhoba, M., Journal of Comparative Family Studies 47:309−321, 2016) and zeroes in on the broad opportunities and challenges that skipped generation households have, and their implications for the main actors with reference to Nigerian societies.
Demographers and other social scientists have examined outcomes associated with remarriage, particularly in comparison with first marriage, cohabitation, and single parenthood. This work has sought to theorize and empirically evaluate the benefits and costs of remarriage and has emphasized outcomes associated with the presence of children and formation of stepfamilies. This chapter summarizes existing research on a range of outcomes associated with remarriage including fertility, multiple dimensions of child and adult well-being, and stepfamily dynamics.
This study aimed to generate localized knowledge by investigating the perceptions and experiences of preadolescent grandchildren and grandparents regarding grandparenting and intergenerational interactions and how these processes were related to the social skills of preadolescents from three ethnic groups in Malaysia. Using a concurrent quantitative–qualitative mixed method research design, Chinese, Malay, and Indian preadolescents (N = 465; ages 9–12 years old; M = 10.27 years; SD = 1.03) from rural areas in Malaysia completed a self‐administered quantitative survey; furthermore, 25 grandparents participated in one‐on‐one interviews. Survey findings showed that preadolescent grandchildren who reported higher grandparental warmth and support had greater social skills, mediated by positive grandparent–grandchildren (GP–GC) relationships. The GP–GC relationship and preadolescent social skills association was stronger for skipped generation compared to three‐generation households. Interview findings revealed that grandparents expressed unconditional love and autonomy support in their grandparenting roles by guiding and encouraging their preadolescent grandchildren to make decisions. The GP–GC interactions served as a dynamic force in promoting preadolescents' social skills. By employing a decolonized approach and drawing on the lived experiences of grandparents from three ethnic backgrounds in rural Malaysia, the study provided an understanding of grandparenting practices and their general implications across the three ethnic groups. The interview responses highlighted both commonalities and specificities in grandparenting practices and relationship dynamics shaped by religious, class, and sociocultural dimensions in rural Malaysia.
Several studies seem to indicate the consolidation of a new type of social model around the ageing society, where new problems will emerge, new challenges to face and decisive repositionings around the family, bonds and emerging identities, among many other factors (Klein 2020, 2021; Ribeiro 1992).
Objective
The current research investigated how relationships with grandparents were associated with young adults' trust levels.
Background
To complement the grandmother hypothesis that explains the adaptiveness of human longevity from the perspective of instrumental contributions, a “grandparents' social capital hypothesis” was proposed, indicating that grandparents benefit social capital construction for their grandchildren, the effect of which could be symbolic for young adults. Older adults, who tend to have high levels of trust and the connections within extended family, could have positive impacts on young adults' trust.
Method
Using convenience sampling, we surveyed 314 Chinese young adults on quality and quantity of their interactions with grandparents, kinship support, and their generalized trust and particularized trust toward relatives through trust games. Path analysis was used to analyze the data.
Results
Quality of the relationship with grandparents, rather than quantity of contact with them, was related to young adults' higher levels of particularized and generalized trust. Kinship support mediated the associations between high‐quality relationships with grandparents and young adults' particularized trust, as well as generalized trust.
Conclusion
Grandparents could play a symbolic role in social capital accumulation for young adults through the mediation effect of kinship support.
Implications
These findings provide new evidence supporting older adults' constructive role in human societies and shed light on possible strategies to cultivate social capital in the communities.
Bien que la grand-parentalité se soit imposée comme un domaine de recherche à part entière, le point de vue des petits-enfants est rarement abordé. Ainsi, notre vision de la relation intergénérationnelle entre grands-parents et petits-enfants reflète un point de vue à la fois adulte et générationnel, donc partiel. L’une des raisons de l’invisibilité des enfants tient aux défis rencontrés par les chercheurs lorsqu’ils mènent des recherches avec des enfants sur des sujets dits sensibles, comme les relations familiales intergénérationnelles. Cet article aborde cette question à travers une étude qualitative menée dans le sud du Brésil sur le point de vue des enfants sur leur relation avec leurs grands-parents dans des familles nucléaires, monoparentales, à trois générations et reconstituées. Il défend l’importance d’une recherche qui rebat les cartes des différences entre adultes et enfants et qui utilise des méthodes multipartites encourageant la participation active des enfants à la recherche. Les résultats montrent que l’opinion des petits-enfants joue un rôle central dans les relations familiales et remet en cause les positions générationnelles assignées aux parents et aux grands-parents.
Playing together is crucial to the unique and invaluable bond between grandparents and grandchildren. However, co-located interactions and play can be limited due to time, distance, or pandemic-related restrictions. To facilitate distributed play, we developed MagiBricks, a system comprised of 3D-printed smart toy bricks and baseplates that provide feedback regarding their placement. The familiarity and appeal of toy bricks to both older adults and children make them ideal for intergenerational play. We conducted a within-subjects study with six grandparent-grandchildren pairs. We compared the interactions and perceived connectedness of the pairs while playing over a distance with either i) MagiBricks or ii) identical regular toy bricks. We found that MagiBricks affected communication dynamics, role taking, nature of play, and perception of connectedness during playtime compared to regular bricks, and were unanimously preferred. We contribute design implications for future systems leveraging (smart) tangibles and fostering intergenerational connectedness.
Grandparents are often considered as providing important resources in times of family crisis. Little is known, however, about the influence of grandparents on the well-being of grandchildren after parental divorce. Guided by the family systems theory, this article investigates the association between the quality of relationships with grandparents and grandchildren’s subjective well-being. Using data from the study ‘Divorce in Flanders’, we compare 650 grandchildren with divorced and 276 with married parents regarding three indicators of subjective well-being (life satisfaction, self-esteem and anxiety) and also examine variation within the group with divorced parents. Results show that the strength of grandchild-grandparent relationships is positively associated with grandchildren’s subjective well-being. Compared to children with married parents, having a close relationship with a grandparent is even more related to the well-being of grandchildren whose parents are divorced. Moreover, for grandchildren who experience frequent conflicts between their divorced parents, having a good grandparent relationship is most strongly linked to their well-being.
Involvement of grandparents in grandchildren’s lives is important for grandchild well-being. Studies suggest that the quality of relationships between grandparents and their adult children may “spill over” to the quality of their relationships with their grandchildren. However, no research has tested whether grandparent alcohol use disorder (AUD) disrupts intergenerational relationships. This is important because grandchildren may not benefit from closeness with grandparents with AUD. In a sample of 295 parents and their children (N = 604) from a larger longitudinal study oversampled for familial AUD, this study tested whether grandparents (G1, “Generation 1”) with AUD had poorer relationships with their adult children (G2 “Generation 2”) in terms of greater stress and less support provided and less closeness with their grandchildren (G3, “Generation 3”). We also tested whether poorer G1–G2 relationship quality predicted less G1–G3 closeness. Finally, we tested whether effects of G1 AUD on G1–G3 closeness were explained by G1–G2 relationship quality. Separate models were estimated for maternal and paternal grandparents. We found evidence for three indirect effects. First, G1 maternal grandparent AUD predicted greater stress in the G1 grandmother–G2 mother relationship, which was associated with greater closeness between maternal grandmothers and grandchildren. This indirect effect was replicated in G1 paternal grandfathers and G2 fathers. Additionally, G1 paternal grandparent AUD was associated with lower levels of support provided from G1 grandfathers to G2 fathers, which predicted less closeness between paternal grandfathers and grandchildren. The results demonstrate complex intergenerational effects of AUD on family relationships and consistent with the hypothesized “spillover” effect of intergenerational relationships.
The emergence of migrant grandparent caregivers in urban China calls for research attention to the impact on their well-being. Given the stressful nature of grandparent caregiving and changes to social support under migration, in this study, we aimed to investigate the impact of grandparental stress and social support on migrant grandparent caregivers’ affective well-being. Cross-sectional data were collected from nine kindergartens using multistage clustered sampling in Eastern China. The total sample consisted of 483 migrant Chinese grandparent caregivers (mean age = 56.54 years, 67.7% female). Structural equation modeling was used to validate the hypotheses. The results indicated that grandparental stress had a direct negative impact on positive affect (r = -0.130) and a direct positive effect on negative affect (r = 0.125). Both informal (r = 0.368) and formal social support (r = 0.126) were positively associated with positive affect, while only informal social support (r = -0.105) had a significant negative association with negative affect. Additionally, grandparent stress decreased informal social support (r = -0.414) and indirectly influenced both positive and negative affect. In turn, a lack of social support may intensify grandparental stress. The findings validate the integrated theoretical models for studying migrant grandparent caregivers in urban China. Implications for policies and interventions are also discussed.
The relationship between parental divorce occurring during adolescence and young adult psychosocial adjustment was examined, as was the role of family process variables in clarifying this relationship. Participants were young Caucasian adults from divorced (n = 119) and married (n = 123) families. Assessments were conducted during adolescence and 6 years later during early adulthood. Young adults from married families reported more secure romantic attachments than those from divorced families; however, differences were not evident in other domains of psychosocial adjustment after demographic variables were controlled. Three family process variables (parent–adolescent relationship, interparental conflict, and maternal depressive symptoms) were examined as potential mediators and moderators of the association between parental divorce and young adult adjustment. No evidence supporting mediation or moderation was found; however, the parent–adolescent and parent–young adult relationships, particularly when the identified parent was the father, emerged as significant predictors of young adult psychosocial adjustment.
This article identifies predivorce individual and family characteristics that explain a portion of the effect of parental separation on the long-term well-being of children. Using longitudinal data from the National Survey of Children (NSC), the authors discuss how much of the relationship between a separation and measures of adult well-being (including educational and economic attainment, patterns of family formation, delinquency, and psychological well-being) is due to selectivity of parents into more fragile marriages and to family conflict that often precedes the physical departure of a parent from the household. The results of the study indicate that divorce is associated with some outcomes, although much of its putative effect diminishes when predivorce factors are accounted for. The authors suggest that researchers give more careful consideration to the processes leading up to a separation as part of the divorce experience of children.
The long-term effects of parental divorce on individual's mental health after the transition to adulthood are examined using data from a British birth cohort that has been followed from birth to age 33. Growth-curve models and fixed-effects models are estimated. The results suggest that part of the negative effect of parental divorce on adults is a result of factors that were present before the parents' marriages dissolved. The results also suggest, however, a negative effect of divorce and its aftermath on adult mental health. Moreover, a parental divorce during childhood or adolescence continues to have a negative effect when a person is in his or her twenties and early thirties.
Immigration is contributing to the U.S. population becoming increasingly ethnically diverse. This article examines the role of family relations and well-being among different generations of Black Caribbean immigrants. Family disruptions, such as migration, can have complex effects on the support networks and emotional well-being of family members. Data from a recently completed national study of American Blacks in the United States, however, reveal significant similarities across ancestry and immigrant status in family contact, solidarity and well-being. It is concluded that intrafamilial relations may serve to overcome barriers of geographical distance in providing comparable levels of contact, solidarity, and well-being for both U.S.-born and immigrant Black Caribbean family members of different generations. Because of the increasing numbers of immigrant elders, these sources of family support will become increasingly more important in bridging the gaps between government resources and needed assistance in an aging society.
This study examined two contrasting views of how divorce relates to the long-term adjustment of children. The physical-wholeness position views divorce as the salient explanatory variable to adversely affect children's later adjustment through the physical dissolution of the two-parent family; the psychological-wholeness position views perceived current family conflict as the critical variable that influences adjustment, regardless of parental marital status. Results of analyses on a sample of white adolescents failed to support the physical-wholeness position; parental marital status was not significantly related to psychological adjustment or satisfaction with social life. However, results did provide strong support for the psychological-wholeness position: adolescents' psychological adjustment and satisfaction with social life were significantly related to level of perceived conflict in the family. It appears reasonable to conceptualize divorce as a crisis situation rather than as a universally negative event. Use of conflict identification and resolution interventions to reduce family conflict may prevent future problems in child development.
We derived and tested a short form of the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) for reliability and validity among a sample of well older adults in a large Health Maintenance Organization. The 10-item screening questionnaire, the CESD-10, showed good predictive accuracy when compared to the full-length 20-item version of the CES-D (kappa = .97, P < .001). Cutoff scores for depressive symptoms were > or = 16 for the full-length questionnaire and > or = 10 for the 10-item version. We discuss other potential cutoff values. The CESD-10 showed an expected positive correlation with poorer health status scores (r = .37) and a strong negative correlation with positive affect (r = -.63). Retest correlations for the CESD-10 were comparable to those in other studies (r = .71). We administered the CESD-10 again after 12 months, and scores were stable with strong correlation of r = .59.
Using data from the National Educational Longitudinal Study (NELS), we found that teenagers who live in nonmarried families are less likely to graduate from high school or to attend college, more likely to smoke or drink, and more likely to initiate sexual activity. Not all nonmarried families are alike, however. In particular, teenagers living with their single mothers and with at least one grandparent in multigenerational households have developmental outcomes that are at least as good and often better than the outcomes of teenagers in married families. These findings obtain when a wide array of economic resources, parenting behavior, and home and school characteristics are controlled for.
Examined 2 contrasting views of how divorce relates to the long-term adjustment of children. The physical-wholeness position views divorce as the salient explanatory variable to adversely affect children's later adjustment through the physical dissolution of the 2-parent family; the psychological-wholeness position views perceived current family conflict as the critical variable that influences adjustment, regardless of parental marital status. Results from 823 White adolescents (age 13–18 yrs) fail to support the physical-wholeness position; parental marital status was not significantly related to psychological adjustment or satisfaction with social life. However, results provide strong support for the psychological-wholeness position: Ss' psychological adjustment and satisfaction with social life were significantly related to level of perceived conflict in the family. It is suggested that divorce be conceptualized as a crisis situation rather than as a universally negative event. Use of conflict identification and resolution interventions to reduce family conflict may prevent future problems in child development. (23 ref)
The present study, based on a national sample of 471 young adults, finds that closeness to fathers makes a unique contribution to offspring happiness, life satisfaction, and psychological distress. Parental divorce weakens the salience of the father-child relationship for adult children's life satisfaction. Similarly, marriage, parenthood, and full-time employment diminish the salience of both the mother-child and the father-child relationship for offspring well-being. Closeness to stepfathers is also related to some dimensions of offspring well-being. Overall, these findings suggest that fathers are important figures in the lives of young adults.
In spite of the upset children experience after parental separation, Furstenberg and Cherlin find that most children adapt successfully as long as their mother does reasonably well financially and psychologically, and as long as conflict between parents is low. The casualty of divorce is usually the declining relationship between fathers and their children.
The higher divorce rate for remarriages after divorce than for first marriages, it is argued, is due to the incomplete institutionalization of remarriage after divorce in the United States. Persons who are remarried after a divorce and have children from previous marriages face problems unlike those encountered in first marriages. The institution of the family provides no standard solutions to many of these problems, with the result that the unity of families of remarriages after divorce often becomes precarious. The incomplete institutionalization of ramarriage shows us, by way of contrast, that family unity in first marriages is still supported by effective institutional controls, despite claims that the institutional nature of family life has eroded in the 20th century. Some suggestions for future research on remarriage and on the institutionalization of married life are presented.
The implications of later life parental divorce and widowhood for relations between parents and young adult children are explored in a sample of 3,281 young adults who grew up in intact families. Family disruption that occurred after children were grown had sizable effects on parent-adult child relations. Later life parental divorce lowered relationship quality and contact between adult children and parents. The effects were stronger for father-child than for mother-child relations, and stronger for father-daughter than for father-son relations. Widowhood had negative effects on father-child but not on mother-child relations. Effects of later life marital dissolution on help exchange and financial assistance differed by sex of child and parent. Divorce disrupted parent-son more than parent-daughter support exchange. Death of the same-sex parent had stronger effects on parent-child support exchange than did death of the opposite-sex parent.
Increasing interest is being directed toward the role of grandparents and their influence on children's development and welfare. The purpose of this article is to provide a review of the literature and resources which may be used by family life educators and counselors to help grandparents enhance their relationships with their grandchildren and families strengthen the extended family network. The symbolic, indirect, and direct influences of grandparents and the impact of grandparental influence on children are discussed.
We examined the association between parental marital status, marital conflict, and culture (individualism-collectivism, divorce rate), and the subjective well-being of young adults. Study 1 assessed 2,625 men and 4,118 women from 39 countries on 6 continents. Subjective well-being was negatively associated with marital conflict among offspring of never-divorced and remarried parents. The association of marital status and the subjective well-being of offspring differed across individualism-collectivism and divorce rate. Collectivism lessens the impact of divorce after a high-conflict marriage and the impact of marital conflict when a parent remarries. Study 2 examined the association of parental marital status and conflict among 76 adopted and 87 nonadopted young adults. The negative association of divorce and of marital conflict with the life satisfaction of the offspring did not differ by adoption. The selection hypothesis was not supported.
How do work and family circumstances shape young children's emotional well-being and behavior? To what extent can parental
resources act as buffers against adverse effects? We investigate these questions using data from the National Longitudinal
Survey of Youth for a synthetic cohort of 2,342 six- and seven-year-old children born to a national cohort of young women
between 1979 and 1984. As suggested by a life-course perspective, both maternal resources and current family and parental
employment conditions directly impact children's behavior problems. Maternal resources also have indirect effects through
current work and family circumstances. Our results suggest that improvements in current work and family circumstances can
enhance children's well-being, even for children whose mothers have poorer emotional and cognitive resources.
Grandparent Research: Past, Present, and Future by Maximiliane E. Szinovacz Variations in Grandparenting Experiences Grandparenthood Over Time: Historical and Demographic Trends by Peter Uhlenberg and James B. Kirby Grandparenthood in Cross-Cultural Perspective by Charlotte Ikels Grandparenting in Family Systems: An Ecological Perspective by Valarie King, Stephen T. Russell, and Glen H. Elder, Jr. Grandparenthood in African American Families by Andrea G. Hunter and Robert J. Taylor Grandparenthood Among Hispanics by Norma Williams and Diana J. Torrez Asian Grandparents by Yoshinori Kamo Gender Variations by Glenna Spitze and Russell A. Ward Grandparenting--Dynamics and Contingencies Transitions in Grandparents' Lives: Effects on the Grandparent Role by Vira R. Kivett Intergenerational Solidarity and the Grandparent Role by Merril Silverstein, Roseann Giarrusso, and Vern L. Bengtson Grandparents' Influences on Grandchildren by Angela M. Tomlin Grandparents and Older Grandchildren by Lynne Gershenson Hodgson Effects of Adult Children's Divorce on Grandparenthood by Colleen L. Johnson Grandparents as Caregivers by Barbara A. Hirshorn Interventions in Grandparenting Clinical Interventions in Intergenerational Relations by Richard B. Miller and Jonathan G. Sandberg Public Policy and Grandparents: Contrasting Perspectives by Joan Aldous Programs for Grandparents by Maximiliane E. Szinovacz and Angela Roberts Research on Grandparenting: Needed Refinements in Concepts, Theories, and Methods by Maximiliane E. Szinovacz Bibliography Index
This research explored the influence of family structure on midlife parents’ attitudes toward the economic support of adult children and measured change in those attitudes as their oldest child moved from adolescence to young adulthood. Results suggest that family structure has long-term effects on parents’ attitudes toward financial obligations to children. Compared to intact families, both stepparents and remarried (biological) parents were less likely to agree that parents should provide economic support as children make the transition to adulthood. Among stepfamilies, perceived financial obligations were stronger when parents had had a child together in addition to children from prior relationships. Single parents reported less positive attitudes toward economic support than two-biological-parent families when their oldest child was an adolescent, but their attitudes became more positive over time.
This study examines life course and sociodemographic variations in the ways grandparents are involved with grandchildren in terms of structural, functional, shared activities, and affective-cognitive aspects of these relationships. Family life stage, as well as grandparents' gender, marital status, race, and education, influenced how the grandparent role was enacted. Younger grandparents tended to live closer to and have greater contact with grandchildren and baby-sit and share recreational activities. Older grandparents tended to provide financial assistance and more strongly identified with the role. When their grandchildren were younger, grandparents tended to interact more with them, share more activities, provide baby-sitting, and receive more symbolic rewards from the grandparent role. Many effects related to grandchildren's age were explained by the greater opportunity of grandparents to interact with younger grandchildren. The article concludes that it is important to consider the life course position of grandparents and grandchildren when ascertaining the content and meaning of the grandparent role.
The effects of parental divorce on eight dimensions of psychological well-being of white adults were estimated through multiple regression analysis of data from eight recent U.S. national surveys. Several statistically significant, estimated negative effects of an important magnitude were discovered, these being somewhat stronger and more pervasive for females than for males. The effects apparently were not substantially through the living arrangements that followed the parental divorce. For females, a moderate proportion of the estimated effects was through current marital status and thus through the greater propensity to divorce of the children of divorce. Inferences of "no important long-term effects," made on the basis of earlier survey data analyses, should be viewed with caution and skepticism.
Integrating ideas from child development with sociological models of educational attainment, we examine the relationship between family structure--whether both parents are present in the household--and children's achievement in high school. Using data from the High School and Beyond study, sophomore cohort, 1986, we ask whether differences in achievement are accounted for by differences in parents' educational aspirations and parenting styles. Children who live with single parents or stepparents during adolescence receive less encouragement and less help with school work than children who live with both natural parents, and parental involvement has positive effects on children's school achievement. Differences in parental behavior, however, account for little of the difference in educational attainment between children from intact and nonintact families.
The CES-D scale is a short self-report scale designed to measure depressive symptomatology in the general population. The items of the scale are symptoms associated with depression which have been used in previously validated longer scales. The new scale was tested in household interview surveys and in psychiatric settings. It was found to have very high internal consistency and adequate test- retest repeatability. Validity was established by pat terns of correlations with other self-report measures, by correlations with clinical ratings of depression, and by relationships with other variables which support its construct validity. Reliability, validity, and factor structure were similar across a wide variety of demographic characteristics in the general population samples tested. The scale should be a useful tool for epidemiologic studies of de pression.
In this article, we discuss recent research that has arisen from theoretical and conceptual models that use a systems metaphor for understanding families. We suggest that research stimulated by such models leads social scientists in new and important directions in understanding the social and emotional development of children in their families. These models view development as resulting from the dynamic transactions across multiple levels of family systems, which regulate a child's behavior. Thus, these models are important in considering multiple influences on development and adaptation.
This study describes the childhood residence patterns of a national cohort of youths and analyzes the effects of expanded measures of family structure on a variety of young adult outcomes. Results reveal major variability in residence patterns by race and ethnicity across a wide array of living arrangements and from birth through age 18. Family stress and socialization perspectives are used to examine the effect of summary measures of family structure across childhood on the likelihood of high school completion, teen parenting, delinquency, drug and alcohol use, and later marital disruption. Results of logistic regressions indicate that white youths benefit significantly from the presence of two parents. Controlling for a variety of social and economic background factors, duration in mother-only families relative to nonparent situations shows no significant consequences for these outcomes while residence with a stepparent has negative consequences for several outcomes across subgroups.
The purpose of this study was to explore attitudes regarding the obligations of family members to help elderly parents and stepparents. Two hundred and ninety-one adults responded to vignettes portraying possible obligations of a woman to assist a divorced parent who had not resided with her for much of her childhood and a stepparent with whom she had spent part of her childhood years. Several conclusions were drawn: (a) there is general agreement that adult children have some responsibility to help elderly divorced parents, but there is no consensus on what type of help should be given; (b) maintaining contact over the years is an important factor in judgments regarding obligations to help elderly parents and stepparents; (c) gender of the elderly family member is not related to attributing obligations to help; (d) the needs of adult children and their offspring rank higher than the responsibility to lend assistance to an elderly divorced parent or stepparent; (e) kinship alone is not enough justification to assign obligations to adult children, nor is the absence of legal and genetic ties enough to exclude stepparents from being considered as deserving recipients of help.
To date most practice methods, programs and disciplines in the health and human services are explicitly organized by age. Yet, there are a greater number of concurrent generations within families and four or even five generations are increasingly common. This article will discuss findings from a multigenerational curricular infusion project and examine key components of an innovative multigenerational practice framework that breaks downtraditional practice paradigms by cutting across age groups, populations and academic disciplines. Such an approach provides rich opportunities for multigenerational reciprocityand collaboration, and the development of important new educational models.
Derived and tested a short form of the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) for reliability and validity among 1,206 well older adults (aged 65–98 yrs). The 10-item screening questionnaire, the CESD-10, showed good predictive accuracy when compared to the full-length 20-item version of the CES-D. The CESD-10 showed an expected positive correlation with poorer health status scores and a strong negative correlation with positive affect. Retest correlations for the CESD-10 were comparable to those in other studies. The CESD-10 was administered again after 12 mo. Data were based on 80% of the original sample. Scores were stable with strong correlation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The aims of this population-based study were to analyse educational attainment at ages 24–25 among children of lone parents in comparison with children living with two biological parents, to increase understanding of the factors that seem to be of major importance in increased risks of lower educational achievement and to examine how the life circumstances of non-custodial parents influence possible differences. We found that children who grew up with only one parent showed lower educational attainment than did children in two-parent families. Poorer educational performance on the part of the offspring of lone parents can be explained to a large extent by socio-economic disadvantage, especially a lack of economic resources. However, achievement varies according to cause of lone parenting, and findings strongly indicate that adjusting solely for custodial parents’ circumstances may lead to under-estimation of the relationship. Lone parenting seems to have a more detrimental effect on girls’ education, and also within groups of children with highly educated parents than among those with a relatively low level of education.
Among the more recent challenges for the family are the increasing divorce rates and the decline in marriages. This article examines the possible consequences of these trends for intergenerational family relationships. How does divorce in the parent generation, and the shift from marriage to unmarried cohabitation among adult children, affect intergenerational solidarity? These questions are explored with data from the Norwegian Life Course, Ageing and Generation Study (NorLAG, n = 5,589, age 40–79). Scandinavian countries have high divorce and cohabitation rates and may therefore be of interest as comparative cases for countries where these events are less institutionalized. The findings suggest, however, that Norway accommodates to the general norm in the sense that divorce among parents is associated with lower solidarity with adult children on most solidarity dimensions. This is more true for fathers than for mothers. There is, on the other hand, no difference in solidarity between married and cohabitating children vis à vis the parent generation. The explanations and implications of these findings are discussed.
Three traditions of social theory are examined in this article, with a special emphasis being given to the ways that the concept of “generation” has been conceived and developed over time. These include Psychodynamic, Sociological, and Gerontological approaches with attention drawn to the similarities and differences among them. It is concluded that while conceptual development has been uneven, taken together, they provide a rich basis for a critical examination of contemporary social problems with implications for policy toward intergenerational relationships.
Drawing on family systems theory, this study examined whether social cohesion with grandparents moderated the intergenerational transmission of depressive symptoms from mothers to their adolescent and young adult children. We analyzed data from 2,280 grandchildren and their mothers who participated in two waves of the National Survey of Families and Households. Results revealed that grandchildren who were least integrated with their grandparents resembled their mothers in the severity of depressive symptoms. Grandchildren who were more integrated with their grandparents bore no such resemblance. We conclude that grandparents are consequential family actors who, by conditioning parent-child dynamics, influence the long-term emotional well-being of their grandchildren. Results are discussed in terms of intergenerational interdependence and the untapped resource that older adults represent.
The effects of parental divorce during childhood and adolescence on the mental health of young adults (age 23) were examined, using the National Child Development Study (NCDS), a longitudinal, multimethod, nationally representative survey of all children born in Great Britain during 1 week in 1958 (N= 17,414). Children were assessed at birth and subsequently followed up at ages 7, 11, 16, and 23 by means of maternal and child interviews, and by psychological, school, and medical assessments. Parental divorce had a moderate, long-term negative impact on adult mental health, as measured by the Malaise Inventory total score, and controlling for economic status, children's emotional problems, and school performance preceding marital dissolution. The likelihood of scoring above the clinical cutoff of the Malaise Inventory rose from 8% to 11% due to parental divorce. This indicated that the relative risk of serious emotional disorders increased in the aftermath of divorce, but that the large majority of individuals did not exhibit such risks. Path analyses revealed that the negative effects of divorce on adult mental health operated indirectly through higher emotional problems and lower levels of school achievement and family economic status at age 16. Results related to timing of divorce, remarriage, and interactions between age 7 emotional problems and divorce, and between age 7 emotional problems and child gender, are also discussed.
Although one of the most marked demographic trends observed over the twentieth century is the increased rate of divorce, relatively
little research has explored the effects of these changing marital patterns in the context of an aging society. Using a sample
of lone elderly parents and their adult children, we analyze the direct and indirect effects of marital disruption on four
important dimensions of intergenerational transfers: coresidence, financial assistance, adult children’s provision of informal
care, and parental purchase of paid care. Our findings suggest that divorce has deleterious effects on intergenerational transfers,
particularly for elderly fathers. Remarriage further reduces exchange. Our results reveal that parents engage in lower levels
of transfers with stepchildren relative to biological children. Moreover, intergenerational transfers are sensitive to characteristics
of biological children but not to those of stepchildren. Taken together, these results suggest that exchange at the end of
the life course continues to be adversely affected by marital disruption
The purpose of this cross-sectional study was to explore the relationships in the perceived quality of the parental relationship, coping strategies, received support, and well-being in adolescents from separated/divorced and married parents. Two hundred and forty-four matched adolescents from separated/divorced and married households were drawn from an initial sample of 1044 students who were tested at five colleges and three high schools of a large metropolitan and rural area. Regression analyses supported the hypothesis that a perceived poor parental relationship, and not family status, was associated with low life satisfaction and sense of future, and high anxiety in adolescents of divorced and intact households. Path analytic techniques revealed that coping strategies and received support did not mediate the association between a perceived poor parental relationship and low levels of well-being in adolescents from divorced and intact households. However, in both groups, problem-focused coping mediated by nondirect support was associated with more life satisfaction and sense of future, and less anxiety than the direct effects of problem-focused coping alone. In addition, emotion-focused coping mediated by direct guidance was associated with higher levels of well-being than the direct effects of emotion-focused coping alone. In contrast, problem-focused coping in conjunction with direct guidance was associated with the lowest levels of adolescent well-being. The findings contribute to the field of adolescent stress and coping by suggesting that coping strategies may influence the type of support received by adolescents. The study extends current research findings by considering the combined effects of coping and received support in relation to measures of well-being. Finally the study contributes to the field of nursing by demonstrating that personal and social mediators may enhance the health oriented aspects of well-being.
This article reports findings from a study in which the functional exchange of services, emotional (expressive) and tangible (instrumental) between grandparents and adult grandchildren were examined. The reciprocal (equivalent) and nonreciprocal (excessive giving or receiving) exchange of services was measured by the frequency of exchange and perception of potential support between the dyad. Noninstitutionalized Jewish grandparents (118, 65+ years of age) with at least one adult grandchild (18+ years of age) were randomly selected from an apartment house in Miami Beach. The results showed that the majority of grandparent-adult grandchild relationships are not reciprocal in either expressive or instrumental support. Grandparents' perception of reciprocity is that they receive more than they give. Social-work knowledge of functional exchange between this dyad may strengthen the social-support network of the elderly.
When 80 grandmothers were queried about interaction pre- and post-marital breakdown, contact between them and their grandchildren
was perceived to increase, as well as participation in commercial recreation and provision of certain types of support, such
as babysitting, teaching family history and tradition, and proffering advice on personal problems. Geographic proximity and
the custodial status of adult children were important factors mediating perceived changes in contact and support.
Children's evaluations of their parents and themselves were obtained over a three-year period. In the interim, as well as prior to the study, some of these children experienced parental divorce and/or unhappy intact families. This report will compare these children's evaluations of themselves and their parents to the evaluations of children who had experienced an intact familial configuration. Notably, two sets of troubled children emerged from this study--an acutely troubled group and a chronically troubled group. These findings are discussed.
Preliminary findings from a 10-year longitudinal study of 113 children and adolescents from a largely white, middle-class population of divorced families in Northern California suggest that some psychological effects of divorce are long lasting. Forty young adults who range in age from 19 to 29 at the 10-year mark regard their parents' divorce as a continuing major influence in their lives. A significant number appear burdened by vivid memories of the marital rupture, by feelings of sadness, continuing resentment at parents, and a sense of deprivation. They are as a group strongly committed to the ideals of a lasting marriage and to a conservative morality. Young men and women, and especially young women, are apprehensive about repeating their parents' unhappy marriage during their own adulthood, and they appear especially eager to avoid divorce for the sake of their future children.Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 24, 5:545–553, 1985.
This study uses data from the 1988 National Children's Health Supplement (N = 17,110) to the National Health Interview Survey to examine the health and school adjustment of children raised solely by grandparents. We find that these children fare quite well relative to children in families with one biological parent present, a category which includes both single-parent and blended families. Furthermore, children raised solely by grandparents are not significantly different, except for academic performance, from children raised in traditional families where two biological parents are present.
The purpose of this cross-sectional study was to examine the impact of the perceived quality of the parental relationship and family status on coping strategies, received support, and well-being in adolescents from separated or divorced and married parents. Two hundred forty-four matched adolescents from separated/divorced and married households were drawn from an initial sample of 1,044 students who were tested at five colleges and three high schools of a large metropolitan and rural area. Regression analyses supported the hypothesis that a perceived poor parental relationship, and not family status, was associated with low life satisfaction and sense of future, and high anxiety in adolescents of divorced and married households. Hierarchical regression techniques revealed that coping strategies and received support did not mediate the association between a perceived poor parental relationship and low levels of well-being in adolescents from divorced and married households. The findings underscore the importance of intervening with adolescents within the context of their family relationships.
Children who experience parental divorce, compared with children in intact two-parent families, exhibit more conduct problems, more symptoms of psychological maladjustment, lower academic achievement, more social difficulties, and poorer self-concepts. Similarly, adults who experienced parental divorce as children, compared with adults raised in continuously intact two-parent families, score lower on a variety of indicators of psychological, interpersonal, and socioeconomic well-being. However, the overall group differences between offspring from divorced and intact families are small, with considerable diversity existing in children's reactions to divorce. Children's adjustment to divorce depends on several factors, including the amount and quality of contact with noncustodial parents, the custodial parents' psychological adjustment and parenting skills, the level of interparental conflict that precedes and follows divorce, the degree of economic hardship to which children are exposed, and the number of stressful life events that accompany and follow divorce. These factors can be used as guides to assess the probable impact of various legal and therapeutic interventions to improve the well-being of children of divorce.
The effects of parental divorce during childhood and adolescence on the mental health of young adults (age 23) were examined, using the National Child Development Study (NCDS), a longitudinal, multimethod, nationally representative survey of all children born in Great Britain during 1 week in 1958 (N = 17,414). Children were assessed at birth and subsequently followed up at ages 7, 11, 16, and 23 by means of maternal and child interviews, and by psychological, school, and medical assessments. Parental divorce had a moderate, long-term negative impact on adult mental health, as measured by the Malaise Inventory total score, and controlling for economic status, children's emotional problems, and school performance preceding marital dissolution. The likelihood of scoring above the clinical cutoff of the Malaise Inventory rose from 8% to 11% due to parental divorce. This indicated that the relative risk of serious emotional disorders increased in the aftermath of divorce, but that the large majority of individuals did not exhibit such risks. Path analyses revealed that the negative effects of divorce on adult mental health operated indirectly through higher emotional problems and lower levels of school achievement and family economic status at age 16. Results related to timing of divorce, remarriage, and interactions between age 7 emotional problems and divorce, and between age 7 emotional problems and child gender, are also discussed.