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Loneliness, friendship quality and the social networks of adolescents with high-functioning autism in an inclusive school setting

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Abstract

By definition, children with autism have poor peer relationships despite age and ability. When children enter adolescence, social problems typically worsen and feelings of loneliness and isolation may emerge. Thus, the overarching goal of the current study is to examine the social–emotional relationships of adolescents with autism and their typically developing (TD) classmates. Participants included 20 adolescents, 7 adolescents with autism and 13 TD classmates. All participants were enrolled in a drama class at a regular education high school in the Los Angeles area. Results indicate that adolescents with autism experienced significantly more loneliness than their TD classmates, had significantly poorer friendship quality in companionship and helpfulness, and had significantly lower social network status than their TD classmates. In addition, 92.4% of TD adolescents had secondary or nuclear social network centrality, which means that those adolescents were significantly connected and recognised in their classroom social structure although 71.4% of the adolescents with autism were either isolated or peripheral in their classroom. These findings imply that although inclusion in regular classrooms may allow adolescents with autism to be involved in the social structure of their classroom, they experienced more loneliness, poorer friendship quality and social network status as compared with their classmates. These results suggest that, perhaps, more intensive social skills' interventions that focus on friendship development are needed in adolescents with autism.

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... Loneliness was predominantly measured quantitatively using standardised loneliness scales. The most used questionnaire was the Children's Loneliness and Social Dissatisfaction Scale (Asher et al., 1984), used in its original form by four studies (Bohnert et al., 2019;Bradley, 2016;Dean et al., 2023;Locke et al., 2010). The Loneliness Rating Scale is a 24-item scale completed by children aged 8 to 12 years old to assess feelings of loneliness and social dissatisfaction (Asher et al., 1984). ...
... Ten studies compared the scores on loneliness scales for autistic and typically developing adolescents (Bauminger et al., 2003;Bossaert et al., 2012;Chang et al., 2019;De Gennaro, 2015;Feldhaus et al., 2015;Gerber et al., 2023;Lasgaard et al., 2010;Locke et al., 2010;Nomura et al., 2012;Whitehouse et al., 2009). In eight out of the ten studies, autistic adolescents reported feeling lonelier than their peers. ...
... Loneliness has been reported to be more commonly experienced by autistic young people when compared with their non-autistic peers (Bauminger et al., 2003;Chang et al., 2019;Feldhaus et al., 2015;Lasgaard et al., 2010;Locke et al., 2010). Loneliness has also been associated with higher anxiety (Bossaert et al., 2012;Chang et al., 2019;Nomura et al., 2012;Storch et al., 2012;Wendler, 2018;White & Roberson-Nay, 2009) and depressive symptoms (Whitehouse et al., 2009). ...
Article
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Evidence suggest that autistic young people are vulnerable to feeling lonely, with detrimental consequences for their wellbeing. This systematic review sought descriptions of loneliness and connection by autistic young people. The findings summarise how loneliness has been conceptualised, measured and reported for autistic young people and offer a list of strategies that are personally meaningful and promote connection and wellbeing. Three conclusions are reached: first, there is a paucity of research on how this group experience loneliness; second, descriptions of feeling connected are mostly limited to neuronormative descriptions of friendship, which can judge autistic behaviours as inadequate; third, loneliness must be reconceptualised, and appropriate assessment tools developed. These developments should be supported by research with participation of the autistic community.
... School integration in mainstream schools and learning are significantly dependent on friendships and the quality of interpersonal relationships in the school environment (Cook et al., 2016). Several contemporary studies on this point out the weaknesses and difficulties of ASD students in social skills, which affect the quality of friendship, their position in social networks and are contributing factors to their victimization in the school environment (Baird et al., 2012;Hu et al., 2019;Locke et al., 2010;van Schalkwyk et al., 2018). Friendships are an important factor in the social well-being and the social development of AHF students as well as a protective factor against their victimization, loneliness and depression (Chang & Dean, 2022;Dunn, 2014). ...
... According to the results, the majority of students 42.7% have no friends. These findings are consistent with the results of a previous study, which reported that AHF students are characterized by high levels of loneliness compared to their typically developing peers (Bottema-Beutel et al., 2019) and low quality of friendships (Locke et al., 2010). These findings confirm that friendship is an important area of difficulty for AHF children, characterized by less frequent social interaction and fewer close friendships than the typically developing students, as well as feelings of loneliness (Bauminger and Kasari's, 2000;Locke et al., 2010). ...
... These findings are consistent with the results of a previous study, which reported that AHF students are characterized by high levels of loneliness compared to their typically developing peers (Bottema-Beutel et al., 2019) and low quality of friendships (Locke et al., 2010). These findings confirm that friendship is an important area of difficulty for AHF children, characterized by less frequent social interaction and fewer close friendships than the typically developing students, as well as feelings of loneliness (Bauminger and Kasari's, 2000;Locke et al., 2010). A low level of friendship has adverse effects in adolescence, as it has been linked to school exclusion, isolation and loneliness (Sumiya et al., 2018). ...
Article
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Friendship contributes to mental well-being, is a protective factor in victimization and a challenge for children and adolescents with High Functioning Autism (HFA). The quantity and quality of their friendships depends on the quality of interventions in their environment. This study aims to investigate the quantity and quality of friendships between children with (AHF) and their peers in primary school, and the relationship between friendships and inclusive educational practices. The research sample consisted of 143 teachers of students with AHF in primary school. The qualitative approach used the Autism Inclusion Questionnaire (AIQ), while the quantitative approach used the Questionnaire on friendships between children with AHF and peers. Inferential statistics, i.e., the use of the x2 correlation test and Pearson's coefficient, was used to investigate the association and type of association between friendship practices with AHF and educational, behavioral practices. Results showed that 35% of teachers believed that children with ASD tended to have no friends and were surrounded by loneliness. Only one third of them had a good friend. However, these friendships could not be considered meaningful as they were not characterized by reciprocity and common interests. 19 out of 37 educational inclusion practices were linked to the development and improvement of friendships. They can be useful for educators, practitioners and families at this age stage.
... However, the policy of inclusion is challenging for both HFA students and teachers due to the high risk of victimization of these students (Humphrey & Hebron, 2015). Their victimization compounds their existing social difficulties with adverse effects on their psychosocial and emotional development (Locke et al., 2010). Research on bullying of AHF students is limited, and findings suggest an exacerbation of their victimization phenomena in inclusive school settings (van Schalkwyk et al., 2018). ...
... This finding of the present study is fully consistent with the research data and other studies that show that adolescents with ASD are more often victims of bullying in the form of isolation and exclusion (72%), followed by verbal victimization (66%) (Chiu et al., 2018). Other studies present similar findings which show that children with ASD are more often victims of social isolation, followed by verbal and physical ones, than children with typical development (Locke et al., 2010;Reiter & Lapidot-Leflet, 2007;Wainscot et al., 2008). Prolonged duration and chronicity of victimization is more common in children with ASD in primary and middle school (Blake et al., 2012;Christensen et al., 2012;Rowley et al., 2012a, b). ...
... The findings of the study highlight specific, inclusive educational practices, which could be used in designing targeted interventions to develop social skills, social networking (Ung, 2016), good communication, and quality friendships that could protect and act as a deterrent for loneliness and victimization of ASD students (Locke et al., 2010). ...
Article
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Bullying and victimization in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a problem of particular importance, as this category of students is at high risk of victimization by other students, which negatively affects their psychosocial and emotional development. The purpose of this study is to investigate the rate of victimization of children with high-functioning autism (AHF) by their peers in primary school, and whether this rate correlates with teachers’ education professionals’ classroom practices for the inclusion. Data collection was conducted using two questionnaires, the Autism Inclusion Questionnaire (AIQ) (Segall & Campbell in Autism inclusion questionnaire, 2007), which explores the educational practices that teachers utilize in terms of including students with ASD in the general classroom (Segall & Campbell in Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders 6(3):1156–1167, 2012), and the questionnaire on victimization of children with ASD by their peers (Belidou in Autism spectrum disorder and victimization: teachers’ views of the association with theory of mind and friendship (Master thesis), 2017). The survey was based on the responses of 143 teachers who teach primary school students diagnosed with high-functioning ASD. The results showed that 34.3% of teachers observed that AHF children are at higher risk of victimization compared to typically developing children. Also, it was found that there are several educational practices of children with autism, which are associated with the victimization of children belonging to the high-functioning autism spectrum.
... Loneliness is defined as a subjective negative feeling of being isolated from others and of lacking social contact (Hays & DiMatteo, 1987), and may result from an unmet need or desire to have friends, or from the awareness of a difference between actual and desired social status (Locke et al., 2010). Previous studies have found a consistent positive association between high autistic traits and loneliness in both autistic and non-autistic samples (Hedley et al., 2018a(Hedley et al., , 2018bJobe & Williams White, 2007;Locke et al., 2010;Mazurek, 2014;Reed et al., 2016). ...
... Loneliness is defined as a subjective negative feeling of being isolated from others and of lacking social contact (Hays & DiMatteo, 1987), and may result from an unmet need or desire to have friends, or from the awareness of a difference between actual and desired social status (Locke et al., 2010). Previous studies have found a consistent positive association between high autistic traits and loneliness in both autistic and non-autistic samples (Hedley et al., 2018a(Hedley et al., , 2018bJobe & Williams White, 2007;Locke et al., 2010;Mazurek, 2014;Reed et al., 2016). Hedley et al. (2018b) suggest that being autistic (or having higher autistic traits) increases the likelihood of experiencing loneliness, which in turn can increase one's risk of depression. ...
Article
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Higher rates of depression and of depressed mood are associated with autistic traits, and both are associated with social interaction factors, such as social self-efficacy, social motivation and loneliness. This study examined whether these social factors explain the association between autistic traits and depression. 658 participants (527 women) completed an online survey with measures of autistic traits (AQ), social self-efficacy (Social Self-Efficacy Scale), social motivation (Social Striving Assessment Scale), loneliness (UCLA Loneliness Scale) and depressive symptoms (Beck Depression Inventory-II). A mediation analysis found the relationship between autistic traits and depressive symptoms was fully mediated by the other three factors (β[indirect] = .005, z = 2.63, p < .01; β[direct] = .05, z = 1.58, p > .05), forming a pathway from autistic traits, to social self-efficacy, to social motivation, to loneliness and finally to depressive symptoms. These results suggest that targeting social self-efficacy may break this pathway and disrupt this relationship. Interventions targeting supporting positive social interaction should be considered.
... As social demands and expectations increase in complexity, social difficulties may grow more evident (Adreon & Stella, 2001). During this developmental period when "fitting in" grows in importance, autistic adolescents are more likely to experience loneliness and encounter peer victimization, thus inhibiting access to the social contexts necessary for authentically practicing skills to build social competence (Locke et al., 2010;Orsmond et al., 2004;Parker & Asher, 1987;Sterzing et al., 2012;Van Roekel et al., 2010). Specifically, findings from a previous longitudinal study demonstrated that adolescents on the autism spectrum were significantly more likely to never see peers outside the school context (43.3%), receive phone calls from peers (54.4%), or be invited to social gatherings (50.4%) in comparison to other adolescent groups enrolled in special education (Shattuck et al., 2011). ...
... Specifically, findings from a previous longitudinal study demonstrated that adolescents on the autism spectrum were significantly more likely to never see peers outside the school context (43.3%), receive phone calls from peers (54.4%), or be invited to social gatherings (50.4%) in comparison to other adolescent groups enrolled in special education (Shattuck et al., 2011). Furthermore, adolescents may have an increased awareness of their own skill deficits and social isolation during this developmental period (Kuusikko et al., 2008;Locke et al., 2010;Williamson et al., 2008). Due to developmental differences in expectations and challenges, it is important to consider the age of the child or adolescent when understanding social context. ...
Article
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Purpose: Internalizing conditions, such as anxiety and depression, and difficulties with developing and maintaining friendships are common among autistic children and adolescents. Participation in extracurricular activities may buffer against these challenges as they provide naturalistic opportunities to bring peers with shared interests and skills together. As such, the purpose of the current study was to examine associations between sport and club participation and (1) friendship success and (2) co-occurring anxiety and depression in a large sample of autistic youth. Methods: Secondary analysis was performed using data from the 2018-2019 National Survey of Children's Health. Participants were 562 autistic children (ages 6-11 years) and 818 autistic adolescents (ages 12-17 years). Within each age group, a series of binary logistic regression analyses were conducted. Results: Club participation was not associated with friendship or internalizing conditions. However, participation in sports was positively associated with friendship success among both children (OR = 2.07, p = .006) and adolescents (OR = 2.35, p = .001). Results also found that adolescents who participated in sports were 34% less likely to have diagnosis of depression (p = .048). Conclusion: Findings suggest that participation in sports may play a meaningful role in protecting against depression during adolescence and serve as a context for friendship development across childhood and adolescence. Future research should address barriers to extracurricular activity participation and identify the specific components of sports that are most beneficial to autistic youth to inform activity offerings and the development of interventions targeting friendship formation and mental health outcomes.
... Adolescents with IDD share common developmental aspirations with their neurotypical peers, but different from neurotypical peers, their disability plays a role in their developmental trajectory (Locke et al., 2010). For example, the impact of family, friends, peers, school, and extracurricular activities on positive developmental outcomes is significant for adolescents with and without IDD (Maxey & Beckert, 2017). ...
... While adolescents with IDD face similar developmental tasks as their neurotypical peers, they are more likely to encounter physical, social, and developmental challenges (Atkins, 2016;Chung et al., 2012;Rose et al., 2015). They also confront barriers to engaging in recreational, social, academic, and extracurricular opportunities, leading to higher levels of stress and isolation compared to their neurotypical peers (Atkins, 2016;Feldman et al., 2016;Locke et al., 2010;McNaughton et al., 2003;Whitehouse et al., 2009). Therefore, it is important to understand the unique developmental trajectory of adolescents with IDD rather than making unrealistic comparisons to their neurotypical peers, thus best supporting the optimal development of adolescents with IDD. ...
Article
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Background Although diagnosis and identification of IDD is improving, adolescents with IDD receive limited attention in research, particularly concerning their psychosocial development. Measures developed and normed with typically developing populations may not be appropriate for IDD populations and may result in biased assessment. Aim: This study aimed to develop and validate modified psychosocial development assessments for adolescents with intellectual and developmental disabilities (IDD), addressing the absence of such assessments. Method It involved two phases: modifying existing instruments and validating the revised versions. Four stakeholder groups participated: adolescents with IDD, parents, and scholars in adolescent developmental and disabilities. Validation included two groups: neurotypical adolescents completing both measures and IDD adolescents completing modified measures. Results Confirmatory factor analyses identified the need to adjust or eliminate scales for better understanding by individuals with IDD. The modified instruments provided suitable measures for assessing psychosocial development in adolescents with IDD. Discussion All the scales allowed for accommodation toward comprehension for those with IDD except for identity formation. Further work is needed to understand the challenges associated with assessing identity formation in adolescents with IDD. The active involvement of and participation from adolescents with IDD and their parents in this research was paramount to understanding their comprehension and needs. Conclusion This study highlights the importance of tailored assessments for accurate measurement of IDD individuals' development, benefiting the assessment of all adolescents.
... [3][4][5][6] These social differences begin in early childhood and persist into adolescence and adulthood. [7][8][9] However, many autistic children are able to connect to peers, and report to having at least one friend. [10][11][12] Having a mutual friendship has been associated with greater school satisfaction. ...
... In separate studies, 7-to 9-year-old autistic students did not endorse loneliness at school, 2 whereas autistic adolescents reported more loneliness than classmates of the same age. 3,7,39,40 These findings suggest there may be developmental changes in the way autistic students understand or feel loneliness. ...
... The other student had a very similar response, indicating that the image reminded her of a feeling of being "isolated and misunderstood". The sense of isolation and loneliness has been reported in other research [35,36], with suggestions that autistic students may experience more loneliness in inclusive settings. However, these outcomes may also be related to both teachers and students having lower expectations of socialization for autistic students. ...
... It is difficult to determine if this teacher's response is influenced by lived experience and/or by popular autism culture, but there are multiple examples of images of autistic children on the internet looking isolated from others. The teacher's response is problematic as it generalizes the conception that autistic students prefer to be alone when research indicates they report feeling isolated and lonely, as indicated by the students in this research [35,36]. Rather than believing these students are happy in this state, attention to explicit support in developing friendships may be beneficial [37,38]. ...
Article
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Individuals’ understandings of autism vary significantly, with multiple factors influencing their conceptions of autism. Varying conceptions between teachers and students in inclusive school settings may lead to diminished educational experiences for both groups. Our research was focused on exploring the influences on teachers’ and autistic students’ conceptions or misconceptions of autism. We were also interested in whether more implicit influences, including the commodification of autism, influence teachers’ and autistic students’ conceptions of autism. To ensure the research respected the needs of the young autistic participants, the purposes and processes involved in the research design were presented to a group of autistic adults for feedback and recommendations. Therefore, this paper presents two distinct aspects of the research: the outcomes of engagement with autistic adults in the design phase of the research and the outcomes of engaging with the research participants, six teachers, and four autistic adolescents. The qualitative research involved semi-structured interviews and photo-elicitation responses. A key starting question encouraged the participants to share a feeling, memory, or image on hearing the word autism, and following an exploration of their responses, they were invited to select a photo from those presented that reminded them of autism. The autistic adults contributed to the selection of the final twelve black-and-white images used in the photo-elicitation process. The adults were asked to select those they felt most closely represented their conceptions of autism. Of interest, only one photo was chosen in common by all research participants, but their explanations for choosing the image varied. Responses to other selected photos are also shared to highlight the varied conceptions of autism generated by the teachers and autistic students and the explicit and implicit influences on their conceptions. The influence of lived experiences and the commodification of autism were evident in the participants’ responses.
... Autistic people feel the consequences of struggling to meet typical social expectations and display "normal" communication patterns. Not only do they experience higher rates of isolation and loneliness relative to their non-autistic peers (Locke et al., 2010), but they also have fewer friends and have trouble initiating social interactions (Orsmond et al., 2013). Many autistic adults express their desire to connect and experience more intimacy in their lives. ...
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Autistic people face a unique form of discrimination against their sexual agency. Disabled people have historically been viewed as non-sexual, infantile beings with an inability to be sexually desirable. This paper explores the social construction of narratives surrounding autistic sexuality focusing on how the external environment contributes to a disabled person's unique experience and challenges in their romantic and sexual lives. Using intersection, queer, social constructionist, and feminist perspectives, issues surrounding autism, sexuality, and society, are examined. Sociological studies for future direction are proposed. Studies aim to amplify and uplift autistic voices, understanding autistic people as experts in their own experiences. Shifting perceptions of autism, disability, and sexuality—in academia, media, and society—make way for autistic people to reclaim their sexual agency and access the resources and support they deserve.
... Autistic children are 4.5 times more likely to experience poorer mental health compared to neurotypical peers and other neurodivergent children (Dellapiazza et al., 2020;Schreck & Richdale, 2020), particularly generalised anxiety conditions (Kerns et al., 2020). Social anxiety is also common, as autistic children can find it increasingly difficult to navigate the wider socialisation demands of adolescence (Spain et al., 2018;White et al., 2009), leading to loneliness and difficulty in building peer networks (Locke et al., 2010). ...
Article
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Transition from primary to secondary school is an educational milestone that coincides with other key developmental changes associated with the onset of adolescence. Although previous studies have examined the impact of school transition on autistic students, no studies thus far have examined whether the impacts experienced are similar across different neurodivergent populations. In this paper, we examined how the transition to secondary school affects anxiety experienced by autistic children, children with Down syndrome (DS) and Williams syndrome (WS). Sixty‐one parents completed an online survey at two time‐points, answering questions about their neurodivergent child's anxiety, adjustment, well‐being, skills, and experiences of the transition to secondary school. The children themselves completed a short interview, which included completing a set of standardised measures with a researcher. Both neurodivergent children and parents expressed concerns about bullying and adjustment to new environments during transition from primary to secondary school. Although wide variability was found in our sample, no significant differences were revealed in the overall levels of parent‐reported anxiety pre‐ and post‐transition. However, different factors predicted anxiety during pre‐ and post‐school transition. The impact of these findings for theory and practice are discussed.
... For individuals with ASD already struggling with social skills, this complexity can create a particularly difficult adolescence . Teens with ASD experience more loneliness and have significantly poorer friendship quality than their typically developing peers (Locke et al., 2010). ...
Article
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The purpose of this study was to test the use of Pivotal Response Treatment (PRT) in the secondary school setting. There were two main goals: (a) to evaluate secondary education providers’ ability to implement PRT with fidelity following a PRT training program; and (b) to evaluate the effects of school-implemented PRT on the social communication skills of adolescents and young adults with ASD, specifically, question-asking behavior. This concurrent multiple baseline design study across dyads investigated the use of PRT in the secondary school setting with adolescents with ASD. Specifically, it examined the impact of PRT on question-asking behavior. Education providers (n = 3) were trained to implement PRT with a secondary student with ASD. All education providers improved in their ability to use PRT strategies, though struggled with fidelity. Two students exhibited clear effects with noteworthy improvement in their use of targeted question initiations. For targeted question initiations, the weighted value for the Tau-U phase contrast between aggregated baseline and intervention phases was 0.80 and statistically significant (p < .0001). PRT is a promising approach to increasing question-asking behavior in secondary students with ASD when implemented by a trained education provider. Continued research should be a matter of priority in order to expand social skills instruction for adolescents with ASD with the hope of ultimately making a positive difference in adult outcomes.
... Unlike their non-autistic peers, autistic individuals may not attain, or find it relatively difficult to attain, many of the social milestones of adolescence (10-to 19-years-old; World Health Organization [WHO], 2022) and young adulthood (20-to 24-years-old; WHO, 2022), including friendship (O'Hagan & Hebron, 2017), academic achievement (Estes et al., 2011), and employment (Lee & Carter, 2012). This can mean autistic individuals are less likely to have access to the resources offered by achieving these milestones, such as social networks (Locke et al., 2010), intimate relationships (Stokes & Kaur, 2005), self-esteem (Brown et al., 2012), financial independence , and secure employment ) when compared to non-autistic people. Further, some autistic adults experience high negative affect (van der Linden et al., 2020), low positive affect (Lord et al., 2020), and increased negative mood (Taylor & Gotham, 2016) following difficult life experiences (Cai et al., 2018), such as bullying (Hong et al., 2016) and navigating complex social relationships (Cheak-Zamora et al., 2019). ...
Article
Subjective wellbeing (SWB) represents an individual's perception of wellness that is supported by homeostatic mechanisms. These mechanisms are proposed to be maintained by low negative affect and high positive affect, although less is known about these mechanisms and SWB in autism. The current cross‐sectional study aimed to compare patterns of positive affect, negative affect (Positive Affect and Negative Affect Scale), and SWB (Personal Wellbeing Index‐School Children) between autistic ( n = 53) and non‐autistic ( n = 49) individuals aged 10–22 years ( M age = 13.97, SD = 3.13). Between‐group t ‐tests revealed that compared with same‐age peers, autistic participants scored lower SWB overall ( p < 0.001). In both groups average SWB scores fell into the higher range, however, autistic participants were three‐times more likely to fall below this range when compared to non‐autistic participants. Negative affect had a higher intercept in the autistic sample, but no difference in slopes were observed. A hierarchical multiple regression revealed that diagnosis, positive affect, and negative affect significantly predicted SWB in our sample. Between‐group t ‐tests found no significant difference in positive affect or negative affect across age between the autistic and non‐autistic samples. In autistic participants, positive affect increased across age as SWB decreased, whilst negative affect remained stable, a pattern inconsistent with homeostatic SWB. The current study is overall consistent with the homeostatic explanation for SWB within autism; however, we identified potential differences between autistic and non‐autistic participants in the contribution of positive affect and negative affect to homeostatic protect mood across development.
... In reality, however, a lack of understanding of disability, as well as disparities caused by disability still exist. In particular, people with developmental disorders (DD) have been reported to feel more isolated and less socially connected [4], and to have a lower QOL [5,6]. ...
Article
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Background In Japan, effective educational methods to promote understanding of developmental disorders (DD) among young people have not been established, something that is necessary for an inclusive society. Aims This paper aimed to identify both the positive aspects and areas for improvement in a problem-solving program for middle and high school students on the topic of DD called inochi Gakusei Innovators Program (i-GIP). The study also sought to determine the changes in attitudes toward DD that occurred as a result of participating in the program. Method Semi-structured interviews were conducted online, with middle and high school students who participated in i-GIP, university students who helped manage the program, and cooperators with DD or their families. Inductive thematic analysis was conducted, and codes and themes were identified. Results Positive aspects of i-GIP included its project-based learning approach, raising awareness and understanding of developmental disorders, and the proactive attitude of the students. Areas for improvement in the program were identified, including program administration and addressing challenges related specifically to DD. Changes in attitudes and behavior toward DD were reported, along with improvements in interpersonal relationships. Conclusions and implications This study suggests that incorporating a project-based approach can be a useful manner to learn about DD among young people.
... Research suggests that autistic pupils in mainstream settings are motivated to form a sense of belonging in school [76,77]. Nonetheless, school connectedness tends to be lower in autistic students than in their neuro-majority peers [78], and they are more likely to experience loneliness and isolation in school [79]. The prevalence of bullying towards autistic children is a significant barrier to school belonging [80]. ...
Article
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Lockdowns at the peak of the COVID-19 pandemic led to extended school closures globally, and in many countries school attendance has not recovered to pre-pandemic levels. In England, education leaders have expressed concern both about increased anxiety among pupils and chronic absenteeism post-pandemic, against a backdrop of over a decade of increasing mental health need among children and young people. This article presents a narrative review with the aims of (a) con-ceptualising emotionally based school avoidance (EBSA), and (b) identifying strategies for supporting children and young people experiencing psychological barriers to attending school. The underlying reasons for school being experienced as a hostile environment by a minority of pupils are explored, with research findings specifically relating to the school experiences of neurodivergent pupils in mainstream settings included as an illustrative example. The psychological constructs of belonging-ness and agency are discussed as potential mechanisms of change. Finally, psychologically informed strategies to address EBSA are reviewed, drawing on the framework of multiple systems of support. To reduce absenteeism in pupils experiencing EBSA, and thus avoid exacerbating educational inequalities in disadvantaged groups, it is essential to understand psychological barriers to school attendance and to work collaboratively and compassionately with pupils and families towards solutions.
... Communication and language development occurs within a social context both in neurotypical and autistic development (Carpenter et al., 1998;Hoff, 2006;Mundy et al., 2007;Tomasello, 1992;Tomasello & Farrar, 1986). In autism, differences in the quantity and quality of social interaction (Clements et al., 2018;Kasari et al., 2010;Locke et al., 2010;Petrina et al., 2014) have cascading effects on the later development of language and communication skills (Kasari et al., 2008;Mundy & Bullen, 2022;Thurm et al., 2007). For example, individual differences in early social motivation, as well as early social communication skills such as reciprocal imitation and coordinated joint attention are linked to later expressive and receptive language and communication skills in autism (Adamson et al., 2009;Bottema-Beutel, 2016;Bruinsma et al., 2004). ...
Article
Rhythm is implicated in both social and linguistic development. Rhythm perception and production skills are also key vulnerabilities in neurodevelopmental disorders such as autism which impact social communication. However, direct links between musical rhythm engagement and expressive communication in autism is not clearly evident. This absence of a direct connection between rhythm and expressive communication indicates that the mechanism of action between rhythm and expressive communication may recruit other cognitive or developmental factors. We hypothesized that social interactions, including general interpersonal relationships and interactive music‐making involving children and caregivers, were a significant such factor, particularly in autism. To test this, we collected data from parents of autistic and nonautistic children 14–36 months of age, including parent reports of their children's rhythmic musical engagement, general social skills, parent–child musical interactions, and expressive communication skills. Path analysis revealed a system of independent, indirect pathways from rhythmic musical engagement to expressive communication via social skills and parent–child musical interactions in autistic toddlers. Such a system implies both that social and musical interactions represent crucial links between rhythm and language and that different kinds of social interactions play parallel, independent roles linking rhythmic musical engagement with expressive communication skills.
... Furthermore, individuals with ASD, particularly those with other Special Educational Needs and Disabilities (SEND), typically have a smaller number of friendships [5] and possess more limited social networks [9] in comparison to their peers [22]. Park et al. [33] found in 34 relevant studies indicated that ASD students faced deficits in social interaction and communication, externalizing and internalizing symptoms, and integrated inclusive school settings were associated ©2023 NSP Natural Sciences Publishing Cor. ...
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Students with developmental disabilities are exposed to high rates of bullying compared to typical people and individuals with autism are exposed to even higher rates [7]. This descriptive qualitative study aimed to investigate the types and causes of bullying experienced by students with autism in full-inclusive programs in three cities in Saudi Arabia (Tabuk, Aljof, and Arar). Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 12 parents and educators who met the inclusion criteria. The interviews were analyzed using the " Dedoose" program, leading to the identification of seven themes. The participants reported instances of verbal bullying, including offensive language and threats. Physical bullying, such as hitting, stealing, and property damage, was also mentioned. Additionally, some children experienced sexual bullying through verbal, gestural, or electronic cues. Cyberbullying, including exclusion and the dissemination of videos and images, was found to affect children with autism. Social bullying, characterized by exclusion, isolation, and disgust, was also reported. This study found that bullying is related to disability and lack of awareness. It is important to note that the study focused on three cities in the northern region of Saudi Arabia, and future research may consider other regions to encompass demographic and cultural diversity. The study highlights the need for increased awareness among peers, parents, and teachers regarding bullying, with recommendations for preventive measures and support strategies.
... participation, the type of activity that the child chooses, and how to use time;social contexts and cultural behavior can affect children's involvement in leisure activities [13,14]. According to relevant studies, people with ASD face problems simply in making friendships and other close relationships [15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22]. Children with ASD show a lower desire to interact and participate than their peers of the same age and the same growing periods [23]. ...
Article
Background and Objectives: Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is one of the most common neurodevelopmental disorders in children and causes defects in social functions, behaviors, and limited and repetitive interests.One of the symptoms of ASD is a disturbance in sensory function, which can disturb the social participation of affected people. Therefore, the present study was done to determine the relationship between the sensory processing pattern and social participation in children with autism aged 6 to 12 years. Methods: This applied research was carried out in 2022 using a cross-sectional descriptive and analytical method. The research population included 6-12-year-old children with ASD in Tehran. A total of 54 children participated in this study, of whom 49 cases were included in the study after meeting the inclusion criteria. Data collection tools included the Gilliam autism rating scale-3, the children participation assessment scale-parent version (CPAS-P), and sensory profile-2. Finally, the data were analyzed by descriptive and analytical statistics using SPSS software, version 26. Results: The overall score of autism in the studied children was 76.22±33.82. Among the variables of sensory processing, the highest mean score was related to low registration (51.17±18.55) and the lowest was related to sensation seeking (40.16±93.92). No significant relationship was observed between most variables of sensory processing patterns and social participation in CPAS-P. However, there was an inverse and significant statistical relationship between social participation and sensory-seeking pattern. Conclusion: The results showed that sensory seeking is related to social participation in children with autism. There is an inverse and significant statistical relationship between social participation and sensory search pattern and no relation with the others. Therefore, more severe sensory problems in these children are associated with more prominent social problems.
... Even while this field of study is starting to gain more attention, relatively limited data is still known about the challenges faced (friendship, social networks) by adolescents with high-functioning autism and so far with a delayed diagnosis (Chen et al., 2020;Locke et al., 2010). This research gap could be filled by investigating the efficacy of Social Stories for adolescents with high-functioning autism, exploring how the intervention can be adapted for this age group, and assessing the impact of the intervention on social functioning in this population. ...
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People with high-functioning autism (HFA) demonstrated significant social skill deficits compared to those typically developing. Relatively limited data is still known about the challenges faced (friendship, social networks) by adolescents with HFA and so far with a delayed diagnosis. The case study aimed to investigate social stories’ effectiveness by using an intensive intervention approach on a late-adolescent female with autism. A 17-year-old girl with a recent diagnosis of HFA was selected as a case study from a private Speech and Language Therapy Center to involve in an immediate intervention program. A single-case research design was used to monitor changes after an intervention. Specifically, observation and training lasted four weeks, plus two weeks of maintenance. The intervention was done exclusively with social stories personalised to her needs. The targeted behaviours were to enhance social interaction skills, especially her ability to make friends and improve communication. There was a positive response from the young female in the intensive intervention program. Moreover, she displayed more positive peer interaction throughout the intervention program (6 weeks). She managed to participate and ask peers to companies in High school, to start a conversation, and to call them into her house in a positive way 44 times in 6 weeks. In addition, after every intervention week, we recorded an increase in her positive interactions with peers. The results demonstrate that social story use enhances HFA adolescents' social engagement. This study provides insights into the relationship between intensive social story intervention, social communication and social interaction behaviours between adolescents with a recent diagnosis of HFA and peers. Moreover, the findings support the effectiveness of social stories in encouraging social interaction of a late adolescent with HFA.
... Notably, students with social challenges specifically rarely reach their full academic potential (Domitrovich et al., 2017), which may contribute to negative long-term vocational outcomes (Clarke et al., 2021). School-aged neurodivergent learners are also more likely to experience loneliness and victimization (Locke et al., 2010;Zeedyk et al., 2014), which may contribute to mental health issues and lower quality of life (Demir et al., 2012) as well as school absenteeism (Anderson, 2020). Successful inclusive school settings require accommodation of learning environments for neurodivergent students Pellicano et al., 2018), yet research indicates that regular school staff are not well prepared to practice inclusion of neurodivergent students (Bölte et al., 2021b;Leifler et al., 2022a). ...
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Purpose Differences in socio-communicative behaviors contribute to social challenges for autistic learners at school and, in turn, are associated with increased risks of educational underachievement, social exclusion, and mental health issues. Given that intervention delivery in natural contexts may enhance skills generalization, build support capacities in society, and have practical advantages for youth and families, SKOLKONTAKT™ has been adapted from the clinically based social skills group training KONTAKT™ for mainstream educational settings to mitigate these risks. Methods A pilot, randomized controlled trial with active controls was conducted in a mainstream Swedish high school. Autistic learners and students with social skills challenges (N = 33; MAGE = 17.5) were randomized to SKOLKONTAKT™ (n = 17) or active control (n = 16). Efficacy was measured at post and follow-up (3 months) on social skills [Social Skills Group Assessment Questionnaire (SSGQ); primary outcome] by parent-, self-, and (masked) teacher-report as well as self-reported life quality and social goal attainment. Results Despite COVID-19 challenges, 70.6% (n = 12) completed SKOLKONTAKT™, and 87.5% (n = 14) completed control groups. SKOLKONTAKT™ improved on a series of items on SSGQ as well as subjective life quality beyond controls. A larger proportion of social goals were attained, and side-effects were of little impact and proportionally fewer in SKOLKONTAKT™. Conclusion SKOLKONTAKT™ is a safe, feasible, and promising intervention option for autistic learners in mainstream educational settings. A larger-scale study is desirable to confirm the effects identified in this pilot study.
... However, the financial stability associated with employment is an economic necessity for most adults, and many autistic individuals of all ages express a desire for more social connections (Bauminger & Kasari, 2000;Dewinter et al., 2017). Further, loneliness is a widespread concern for autistic individuals across the lifespan (Locke et al., 2010;Umagami et al., 2022). In short, though some members of the autism community might contest the validity of these outcome measures, employment and social connection are sensible benchmarks of success for the vast majority of adultsboth with and without an ASD diagnosis. ...
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There is a wealth of literature characterizing social difficulties in autism spectrum disorder (ASD). However, little work has replicated longitudinal findings from typical development that adolescent social competence predicts positive adult outcomes in ASD. The current study examined social competence trajectories from 2 to 26 and the utility of three social competence measures collected in adolescence in predicting work, residential status, friendship, and romantic outcomes in a longitudinal cohort (n = 253) of ASD. Using group-based trajectory modeling, we identified two patterns of social competence development: a low trajectory characterized by slow linear gains throughout childhood and plateauing in adulthood, and a high trajectory characterized by steeper linear gains in childhood followed by decline in adulthood. Regression models indicated one social competence measure, Vineland Social-AE scores, significantly predicted employment, residential status, and friendships in adulthood. One other social competence measure, SSQ total scores, also significantly predicted friendship in adulthood. Only nonverbal IQ at 9 predicted the likelihood of having ever had a romantic relationship. These findings highlight the role of social competence in both atypical and typical development and suggest the social impairments associated with ASD do not necessarily impact all realms of social functioning equally.
... Emotional loneliness refers to the lack of intimate friends and profound relationships. As Donbavand (2021) observes, several accounts have offered similar typologies and emphasized social aspects of loneliness (Franklin 2009;Hawkley et al. 2008;Locke et al. 2010;Woodhouse et al. 2011). For instance, it has been highlighted that developments since the 1970s in people's view on marriage and social bonds altered the understanding of the nature of bonds "to the point where norms, expectations and experiences have become very confused" (Franklin 2009, p. 344). ...
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Presumably, everyone has, at some point in their lives, felt lonely. Loneliness is, in that particular sense, omnipresent. What it feels like to be lonely can, however, vary significantly. Loneliness is far from being a homogeneous phenomenon. Different kinds of loneliness need to be distinguished, considering its causes, contexts, a person’s capacities to cope with it, and many other factors. This paper introduces the notion of a specific kind of loneliness: experiential loneliness. Experiential loneliness, it will be argued, consists in particular ways of experiencing the world, oneself, and others. Although feelings of being lonely in one way or another can emanate from one’s experience of the world being structured in a particular manner, such kinds of loneliness need not—at least, not always and the whole time—lead to emotional feelings that are concerned with one’s loneliness or the lack of meaningful social relationship. Loneliness can give rise to quite different emotional feelings that sometimes even cover up their provenience from underlying experiential loneliness. The notion of experiential loneliness, it is suggested, helps to tie back certain styles of thinking, desires, feelings, and behaviors to contexts of loneliness. Moreover, it will be argued that the notion can also elucidate the development of feelings of being lonely in contexts in which others are not only around but also available. To develop and enrich the notion of experiential loneliness as well as to exemplify its usefulness, a closer look will be taken at the case of borderline personality disorder, a condition in which sufferers are often plagued by loneliness.
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The challenges faced by transition-age youth (TAY) with level one autism spectrum disorder (L1-ASD) during the transition to adulthood can be exacerbated by disability-related hurdles, particularly in employment and post-secondary education. Existing social skills training interventions for TAY with ASD often include building social narratives and teaching targeted social skills, which are often geared towards individuals with more pronounced forms of ASD. To address the gap, this paper presents the Development of Interpersonal Skills Through Narratives and Technology (DISTNT) curriculum. The DISTNT curriculum innovatively combines social narratives with technology, specifically mobile applications, to enhance social skill development in TAY with L1-ASD with a specific focus on employment. This paper outlines the curriculum’s conceptual framework, structure, and practical applications, offering insights and recommendations for practitioners seeking effective interventions for this population.
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There is increasing interest in the use of games to scaffold social skills training for autistic children and youth. However, there is no consensus on how to best approach their design, so that learning opportunities are maximised. This article presents a systematic scoping review of empirical studies that use games as social skills training for autistic children and youth. We set out to describe the different types of game-based interventions observed, to identify those that typically bring successful outcomes (while noting the social skills targeted in each), and to highlight the psychological intervention approach taken. Through a search of five databases, 3070 studies were identified and reduced, through screening, to a sample of 17 studies. Each study reported that their game successfully promoted social skills training for autistic people. Although not a part of the criteria, all studies included a technological element. However, across the sample, there was also a lack of specificity in how ‘social skills’ were defined and in which skills were chosen as the focus of the intervention. Moving forward, we recommend a more theoretically driven approach to defining behavioral targets for game-based interventions, as well as the inclusion of autistic voices earlier and more centrally in the design processes. Lay Abstract There is growing interest in using games to help autistic children and youth learn social skills. However, there is no clear agreement on the best way to design these games to ensure they are most effective. In our research, we reviewed studies that used games to teach social skills to autistic children and youth. We aimed to describe the different types of games, identify which ones were most successful and understand the psychological methods used. We searched five databases and found 3070 studies, which we narrowed down to 17 that met our criteria. Each of these 17 studies reported that their game helped improve social skills in autistic children. Interestingly, all these studies used some form of technology, even though this was not a requirement. However, we noticed that many studies were not clear on what specific social skills they were targeting or how they defined ‘social skills’. For future work, we suggest that game-based interventions should be more clearly based on established theories. In addition, it is important to involve autistic people in the design of these games to ensure they meet their needs effectively.
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Autistic children are often reported less socially connected, while recent studies show autistic children experiencing more loneliness in school than allistic (i.e. non-autistic) children, contradicting the traditional view that autistic children lack social motivation. This study aimed to understand individual differences in how social connectedness is construed, between and within groups of autistic and allistic pupils, using a multimethod approach. Forty-seven autistic and 52 neurodiverse-allistic classmates from two special primary schools participated (8–13 years). Proximity sensors worn by pupils on playgrounds during recess measured (1) total time in face-to-face contacts, (2) number of contact partners, and (3) centrality in playground networks. Peer reports measured (4) reciprocal friendships and (5) centrality in classmate networks. To evaluate their feelings of connectedness, pupils rated the level of loneliness in school. Compared with allistic pupils, autistic pupils had fewer reciprocal friendships, but similar total time in social contacts, number of partners, classmate/playground centrality, and levels of loneliness. Lower levels of loneliness related to higher classmate centrality in autistic children, but longer time in social contacts in allistic children. For these autistic children, being liked as part of a peer group seems essential. Understanding relevant differences in children’s needs could lead to a more welcoming school climate. Lay abstract Many previous studies reported that autistic children have fewer social connections. Yet, recent studies also show that autistic children more often feel lonely in school than allistic (i.e. non-autistic) children. This outcome seems to go against the traditional view that autistic children do not desire to have social connections. Therefore, this study aimed to find out how autistic and allistic children feel about their social connections. We included 47 autistic and 52 neurodiverse-allistic children from two special education primary schools (aged 8–13 years). We tested their social connections and loneliness in school, through a new approach. This new approach includes questionnaires, and sensors for tracking social contacts on playgrounds during school breaks. We found that allistic children felt more loneliness when they spent little time in social contacts during school breaks. Yet, autistic children felt more loneliness when their peers did not like to play with them. For these autistic children, feelings of loneliness may go beyond face-to-face contacts. Being liked as part of a peer group was key. Understanding differences in children’s needs can lead to a more effective design for a welcoming school climate.
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Background and aims Autistic pupils have the right to be heard in matters concerning their education and to be active agents in shaping their school experiences. Despite this, educational policies and research have rarely included the voices of autistic children, failing to identify what they consider to be beneficial and meaningful in their own education. This study aimed to (i) summarise existing literature exploring autistic pupils’ experiences at school from their own perspectives and (ii) identify gaps for future research through a consultation with autistic pupils. Methods A scoping review was conducted to identify studies exploring first-person accounts of autistic pupils’ school experiences (primary and secondary; aged 4–18 years) published between 2005 and 2023. Thematic analysis was conducted to identify overarching thematic categories across the included studies. Review findings were discussed through a consultation with a Child and Youth Advisory Group (CYAG) comprised of autistic pupils in Ireland (N = 3), to seek feedback and inform a future research agenda. Main contribution Thirty-six studies were included in the review and six themes were identified: Experiences of feeling misunderstood, of bullying and masking, of feeling excluded, of anxiety, of sensory needs in school, and of being overwhelmed during transitions. Consultation with the CYAG highlighted that these six themes were consistent with autistic pupils’ experiences but that reports of positive experiences were missing in the literature. Conclusions This study identified several gaps in the literature on the school experiences of autistic pupils, based on both the scoping review and consultation with the CYAG. While the CYAG validated the themes identified in existing literature, there is a need for greater diversity in the samples included and increased focus on the potential positive aspects of the school experience. Implications. These findings have important research implications. In particular, further studies are needed with autistic pupils at primary school level, including those who are minimally or non-speaking, as well as ensuring pupils with positive school experiences are also represented. Findings also highlight the need for continued collaboration with autistic pupils themselves in matters concerning their education.
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Background Young autistic people often experience social isolation and loneliness. Despite social isolation and loneliness increasing in later life in non-autistic populations, no studies have examined whether middle-aged and older autistic adults are at an increased likelihood of these experiences. Methods 428 adults (autistic n = 265) aged 40–93 years (mean = 60.5 years) completed questionnaires related to social connectedness/isolation, loneliness, and mental health. Group differences and associations were examined. Results The autistic group was less socially connected and lonelier than the non-autistic group. While there were few gender differences in social connectedness, women were lonelier than men in both groups, including when controlling for age and mental health. Social connectedness decreased with age in both groups, loneliness only increased with age in the autistic group. For both social connectedness and loneliness, age associations were significantly stronger in men than women. Conclusions Autistic adults may be particularly susceptible to social isolation and loneliness in midlife and older age. While autistic women were lonelier than autistic men, autistic men may be at greater risk of increasing social isolation and loneliness with older age. This study highlights the need for evidence-based interventions to address social isolation and to reduce loneliness for autistic people as they age.
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People with disabilities experience persistent, multifaceted disadvantage across the life course. The origins of life course disadvantage among people with disabilities may stem, in part, from exclusion during developmentally sensitive periods in childhood. Time use among adolescents represents a potentially important mechanism implicated in the emergence of disability-related disadvantage, but previous research has largely neglected the time use of school age adolescents with disabilities. Utilizing nationally representative time diary data, this study investigated disability-related differences in adolescents’ time use, and how these gaps vary by sex and age. Results indicated that disability-related differences in time use are widespread and substantial in magnitude. Adolescents with disabilities spend more time in screen-based leisure, alone, and with mothers, and less time in educational activities than non-disabled adolescents. Boys with disabilities additionally spend less time in structured leisure and with peers than non-disabled boys. Differences in time alone, with peers, and in screen-based leisure increase in magnitude at older ages. We conclude that differential time use in adolescence may contribute to multiple persistent disadvantages experienced by people with disabilities over the life course.
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This study aimed to investigate the impact of external factors on the experiences and family relationships of autistic adolescents and their families. A qualitative approach was used, with in-depth interviews conducted with 30 participants, including autistic adolescents, siblings and parents from within families with an autistic adolescent family member. The findings suggest that external factors significantly influence the well-being of autistic adolescents and their families. The school environment was identified as a significant factor, with sensory overload, bullying and adverse interactions with teachers having a negative impact on the mental health and quality of family relationships for participants. In addition, the study highlighted that isolation and stigma were major concerns for families, suggesting a need for public efforts to raise awareness and understanding of autism. The lack of appropriate support and services was also identified as a significant challenge that families face. The study highlights the need for person-centred approaches to service provision, which involves including autistic adolescents and their families in the design and delivery of support and services. The study recommends collaboration among schools, service providers, and families, as well as efforts to promote autism-friendly environments in schools and the broader community. Lay abstract The influence of the environment on different groups of people with disabilities has rarely been studied in the context of neurodevelopmental disabilities, such as autism, in adolescence. This study explored how external responses to autism affect the experiences, outcomes and family relationships of autistic adolescents and their family members, including siblings and parents. This study adds to the knowledge of factors that contribute to the social disadvantage and exclusion autistic adolescents and their families face in their communities. Interviews with 30 participants from families with an autistic adolescent show that external factors greatly impact the well-being of autistic adolescents and their families. The school environment, including sensory overload, bullying and negative interactions with teachers, was found to be a key factor that negatively influenced mental health and family relationships. The study also revealed that isolation and stigma are major concerns for families, indicating the importance of public awareness campaigns to increase understanding of autism. In addition, the lack of adequate support and services presented significant challenges for families. The study emphasises the importance of person-centred approaches to providing services, which involve including autistic individuals and their families in designing and delivering support.
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Bu çalışma, özel eğitim okullarında öğrenim gören çocukların sosyal medya kullanım düzeyini ve bu öğrencilerin sosyal medya kullanımı ile ilgili birtakım verileri elde etme amacıyla hazırlanmıştır. Yedi alt problem çerçevesinde yapılan bu çalışma nitel desenleme yöntemiyle yürütülmüştür. Araştırmanın çalışma grubunu 2022-2023 eğitim öğretim yılında Nevşehir ili merkez ilçede öğrenim gören 19 özel gereksinimli öğrenci oluşturmaktadır. Araştırmada veri toplama aracı olarak yarı yapılandırılmış görüşme formu kullanılmıştır. Araştırma sonucunda işlenen veriler içerik analizi yöntemiyle analiz edilmiştir. Elde edilen veriler nitel araştırmaya uygun olarak temalara ve kodlara ayrılıp tablolaştırılmıştır. Tablolar yorumlanarak elde edilen bulgular üzerinde yorumlar yapılmıştır. Çalışmanın bulgularına göre öğrencilerin en çok kullandığı sosyal medya hesapları Instagram, YouTube ve Tiktok olarak ortaya çıkmıştır. Öğrenciler sosyal medyayı kullanma amacı olarak bilgi edinme ve eğlenme unsurlarını gerekçe gösterirken sosyal medyada geçirdikleri sürenin günlük 1-2 saat arasında olduğunu ifade etmiştir. Yine öğrenciler sosyal medyanın hem yararının hem de zararının olduğunun bilincindedir. Araştırma neticesinde öğrencilerin velilerinden zararlı içerik kullanım konusunda eleştiriler aldıkları ortaya çıkmıştır. Araştırma sonucuna göre öğrenciler sosyalleşme açısından olumsuz etkilendiklerini ifade etmişlerdir.
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Interventions based on the principles of applied behavior analysis (ABA) have been determined to be evidenced-based prac- tices and are widely used with individuals with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) across the world. Originally developed in the USA, implementation of these interventions has become widespread in the last decade in Turkey. Given the significance of culture in guiding ABA practices, this meta-analysis investigated the prevalence and the magnitude effects of ABA-based interventions and whether specific participant and intervention characteristics moderated such effects in Turkey. Seventy-one ABA-based intervention studies were assessed based on What Works Clearinghouse (WWC, Kratochwill et al., Remedial and Special Education, 34(1), 26–38, 2013) design standards (DSs) including (a) systematic manipulation of independ- ent variables, (b) interrater reliability, (c) three demonstrations of the intervention effect, and (d) adequate number of data points collected for each condition. Forty-three studies that met WWC (Kratochwill et al., Remedial and Special Educa- tion, 34(1), 26–38, 2013) DSs were analyzed and calculated with baseline-corrected tau (Tarlow, Behavior Modification, 41(4), 427–467, 2017). Furthermore, performance-criteria-based effect size values (PCES; Aydin and Tanious, Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 2021) were calculated for 27 studies that had mastery criteria. While the overall tau appeared to be large 0.71 (p = 0.072, se = 0.254), the overall effect size for PCES revealed a small effect of 0.73. The comparisons of all sub-categories’ effect sizes of moderator variables were not statistically significant based on Kruskal Wallis or Mann Whitney U tests. Additionally, findings revealed that studies were predominantly implemented by highly trained researchers in segregated one-on-one settings, and did not include adults with ASD nor challenging behavior. Overall, there has been significant growth in ABA-based interventions in Turkey that show promise in improving the lives of individuals with ASD. However, further research and cultural considerations are essential for a comprehensive understanding of their impact in the Turkish context. Findings from two different effect size analyses and recommendations for future studies are discussed.
Article
Many autistic people and people with non-spectrum neurodevelopmental disabilities (e.g. intellectual disability) report feeling lonely, which can negatively impact their well-being. There is little longitudinal research, however, tracking changes in how autistic people experience, conceptualize, and cope with loneliness throughout their lives. A longitudinal sample of 114 people, which included autistic participants and participants with neurodevelopmental disabilities, characterized experiences of loneliness, perceptions of other people’s loneliness, and strategies used to cope with loneliness from childhood to adulthood. Level of loneliness and coping strategies were coded from Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule Modules 3 and 4 protocol forms. Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule Loneliness Ratings were correlated across time and increased from adolescence to young adulthood. The most common loneliness coping strategies were Behavioral Distraction (e.g. watching TV) and Instrumental Action (e.g. seeking social contact), which were both used by more people in adulthood than childhood. Those who used Behavioral Distraction and a greater number of coping strategies had higher Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule Loneliness–Self Ratings (i.e. were lonelier) during adolescence and adulthood. Findings highlight adulthood as a particularly vulnerable time for loneliness and indicate a need for more support and social opportunities for autistic adults and adults with neurodevelopmental disabilities who wish to make more social connections. Lay abstract We know that many autistic people feel lonely, but we don’t know whether their loneliness changes over time. Our research study followed autistic people and people with other non-spectrum neurodevelopmental disabilities from childhood through young adulthood and asked them about their loneliness. While many people told us they felt lonely or very lonely, a sizable group also told us that they do not feel lonely. We found that people who reported feeling lonely earlier in life were likely to also report feeling lonely later in life. Overall, autistic people and people with other neurodevelopmental disabilities in our study became lonelier from adolescence to adulthood. People described multiple ways they cope with feeling lonely, such as distracting themselves or reaching out to connect with another person. People who used distraction tended to be lonelier than those who did not. Our findings tell us that there is a need for greater support of social connections for many autistic people as they become adults.
Chapter
This chapter presents the role of support networks for children and adolescents with language developmental problems. Support networks include family, school environment, community, and interpersonal relationships as well as digital networks. These networks can provide the necessary tools to children and adolescents with language developmental problems in order to overcome their problems and to be duly incorporated to the society. The assets provided to children and adolescents by the above-mentioned networks can be divided into two categories: external and internal. External assets include family support, empowerment, and proper set of boundaries and expectations. On the other hand, internal assets include proper motivation and school engagement, adaptation of positive values, evolution of social competences, and creation of a positive identity.
Article
Individuals who have autism spectrum disorder (ASD) communicate differently than their neurotypical peers. Prior communication research on individuals with ASD has focused on how interventions can adapt the behaviors of those with ASD to be in line with neurotypical communication. This study treated the communication of individuals with ASD as a different, and valid, way of communicating, not something that needs intervening. We examined the face threats individuals with ASD experienced and the facework strategies they used in response. We found that individuals with ASD experienced (a) positive, (b) negative, and (c) hybrid face threats. In response to these face threats, individuals with ASD used (a) preventive, (b) corrective, and (c) future facework. Additionally, communication partners enacted facework on the behalf of individuals with ASD using (a) corrective and (b) future facework strategies. Face theory assumes that face threats (FTAs) and facework strategies are related; using thematic co-occurrence analysis, this study offered empirical evidence that FTAs and facework occur in patterned ways alongside a variety of practical applications.
Chapter
Stealth assessment is discussed in this chapter as a social communication assessment. Previously, stealth assessment roleplaying scenes consisted of scripted activities designed to elicit a specific social response. This social response was typically comprised of discrete steps assessed via direct observation. However, this has been criticized as contrived and rigid, thus limiting opportunities for demonstrating generalized skills in naturalistic environments. Role-playing games (RPGs) offer a flexible assessment approach in a way that promotes engagement and motivation through a game-based format. By having individuals participate in a less scripted game, evaluators can arrange an infinite number of interactions and opportunities to elicit diverse samples of social behavior, allowing for a more naturalistic assessment of participants' social skills. This chapter aims to describe stealth assessment of social behavior within an RPG context, including strategies for evaluators and an overview of an empirical evaluation of an RPG assessment approach.
Article
Individuals who cope well with challenges may engage in social situations more successfully. We examined the association between coping behaviors, self-perceived competence, and social anxiety in everyday social situations. A total of 133 participants between the ages of 10 and 16 years (82 autistic, 51 neurotypical) carried a mobile device that prompted them seven times each day for 7 days to record what they were doing and their perceived competence and social anxiety in that situation. We used the Coping Inventory to measure overall coping abilities (i.e. coping with the self and the environment). Multilevel analyses found that autistic adolescents were more likely than neurotypical peers to experience social anxiety while engaged in maintenance or productive activities with adults. While their ability to cope with the self was positively associated with perceived social competence, it was negatively associated with the ability to cope with environmental challenges. Furthermore, autistic adolescents with poor ability to cope with environmental challenges were more likely than those who coped well to be socially anxious when engaged in leisure activities with peers. Findings from this study can guide evaluation and intervention to improve the social experiences of autistic adolescents by helping them increase coping skills. Lay abstract Individuals who cope well with challenges may engage in social situations more successfully. We examined how well autistic adolescents coped, depending on how competent they felt and how much anxiety they experienced during social activities. We included 133 individuals (82 autistic, 51 neurotypical) between the ages of 10 and 16 years. Participants carried a mobile device that prompted them seven times a day for 7 days to record what they were doing, how competent they felt and how much anxiety they experienced. We used the Coping Inventory to understand how well participants coped with environmental challenges and met their needs for growth. Autistic adolescents were more likely than neurotypical peers to feel anxious while doing activities with adults. Autistic adolescents who had more difficulty coping with challenges were more likely to feel anxious when doing leisure activities with peers. Interestingly, autistic adolescents who coped better with challenges tended to feel less competent in social situations. However, those better able to meet their needs for growth tended to perceive their social competence positively. These findings can help practitioners develop strategies and programs to reduce the negative social experiences of autistic adolescents by helping them cope better.
Article
Our purpose in this study was to provide additional psychometric evidence of the Quality of Life for Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (QOLASD-C) scale. We used Rasch modeling to investigate the QOLASD-C functioning, the characteristics of the items comprising the scale, and the item functioning across subgroups of children with ASD based on gender and race/ethnicity. Results showed that QOLASD-C was unidimensional, met the local independence assumption, and measured quality of life (QOL). The items showed excellent fit to the model and good discriminating ability between low and high QOL. Most items showed a moderate difficulty level. No differential item functioning was observed based on children's gender and race/ethnicity. Implications for research and practice are discussed.
Chapter
Social dysfunction is a hallmark, if not the hallmark, of autism. In typical development, infants develop immediate social relationships with caregivers, starting with basic skills such as eye gaze and social smiling. In autism, basic social behaviors (specifically eye gaze, imitation, and joint attention) are impaired. However, results from across studies indicate that many individuals with autism can learn these social skills in response to appropriate interventions. Further research is needed to explain the social behaviors for an individual and ways to facilitate growth.
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Background and aims Guidelines regarding social cognitive interventions for autistic children suggest incorporating a holistic approach. This includes increasing the family’s understanding of difficulties associated with autism, integrations of natural environments, and parents as active agents in the intervention while being supported for their well-being. The current availability of holistic parent-implemented interventions for autistic children is limited, with no qualitative understanding of how parents view the benefits for themselves or their children. Method The current study expands the literature regarding holistic approaches through a qualitative understanding of parent perceptions of a parent-implemented social communication intervention for autistic children (TalkAbility™), which incorporates a 6-month follow-up. This study sought to gain a deeper understanding from parents on their perceptions of a holistic approach, including the impact on themselves, their families, and their autistic child. Results Following Braun and Clarke’s model of thematic analysis, data was coded into four themes: (a) communication difficulties, frustrations, and progress, (b) social relationships and concerns, (c) communication strategies, and (d) thoughts and emotions surrounding TalkAbility™. Conclusions Parents report that many components of a holistic approach are instrumental in encouraging social communication in their autistic child. Results highlight the importance of considering parent experiences regarding interventions for their child’s social communication skills through a qualitative viewpoint. Implications Knowing the intervention aspects that parents view as most valuable allows targeted program modifications that reflect actual parent needs. Further understanding regarding the influence of holistic parent-implemented social communication interventions on child communication skills, parenting frustrations, and parent–child relationships is needed.
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Objectives Neurodiversity affirming frameworks are a paradigm shift from a deficit-focused approach to autism to recognizing autism as a heterogeneous constellation of differences in abilities and strengths. This article completed a literature review and data synthesis to (1) identify autistic strengths used in the design of psychosocial interventions, (2) propose mechanisms of change that explain strength-based psychosocial intervention effects on mental health and wellbeing outcomes, and (3) integrate findings in a conceptual model for testing in future research studies. Methods A search for articles was completed in June 2023 and resulted in 24 articles that met the inclusion criteria. The Distillation and Matching Model methods were used to code articles and subsequent conceptual groupings generated categorical domains included in the conceptual model. Results Autistic strengths identified in the design of psychosocial interventions were grouped into four domains: (1) perceptual, (2) reasoning, (3) expertise, and (4) character strengths. Mechanisms of change were grouped into four domains: (1) affective, (2) behavioral, (3) cognitive, and (4) physiological. The resulting conceptual model presents autistic strengths that can be leveraged in psychosocial interventions and potential mechanisms of change that explain intervention effects on mental health and wellbeing. Conclusions Growing focus on the translation of positive psychology has resulted in strength-based psychosocial intervention programs. However, intervention strategies have not leveraged the diverse array of autistic strengths identified by autistic individuals, their families, and their communities. Furthermore, research is needed to determine mechanistic paths by which strength-based interventions achieve positive effects on mental health outcomes in autistic children and adolescents.
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Keterlibatan orangtua siswa berkebutuhan khusus (SBK) dalam pendidikan inklusif merupakan hal yang penting. Persepsi orangtua tentang kemampuannya dalam pengasuhan (parenting self-efficacy) akan menentukan keterlibatan mereka dalam proses pembelajaran anak. Karakteristik SBK di masa remaja memberikan tantangan berbeda bagi orangtua yang dapat mempengaruhi parenting self-efficacy dan bentuk keterlibatannya dalam pendidikan. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk melihat pengaruh parenting self-efficacy terhadap keterlibatan orangtua SBK di SMP inklusif beserta gambaran dari masing-masing variabel. Penelitian ini merupakan penelitian kuantitatif yang pengukurannya menggunakan Self Efficacy for Parenting Task Index (SEPTI) dan Family Involvement Questionnare (FIQ). Jumlah partisipan terdiri dari 192 orangtua. Hasil penelitian melalui uji regresi menunjukkan terdapat pengaruh parenting self-efficacy terhadap keterlibatan orangtua sebesar 51.5 %. Selanjutnya, mayoritas partisipan diketahui memiliki tingkat parenting self-efficacy dan keterlibatan orangtua yang tergolong sedang. Hasil tersebut juga menunjukkan masih terdapat kelompok orangtua yang membutuhkan peningkatan parenting self-efficacy dan keterlibatan orangtua menjadi lebih optimal.
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Purpose Autistic young people have health and care needs that may benefit from a multi-agency intervention. The “Current View” tool is routinely used in England to profile the needs of young people referred to mental health services. This study aims to examine associations between comorbidities and complex needs in autistic and non-autistic young people to assess the multifaceted needs of autistic young people. Design/methodology/approach A cohort study was conducted using data from the electronic patient record, comparing autistic and non-autistic young people to see which items in the four “Current View” tool categories were associated with autistic young people. Findings Issues associated with autistic young people were: “community issues”, “attainment issues” and “deemed child in need” (all p < 0.001). Autistic young people scored significantly more items ( p < 0.05) in the categories complexity/contextual/educational factors. Comorbidities associated with autistic young people included anxiety, “behavioural difficulties”, “peer relationship difficulties” and “self-care issues” (all p < 0.001). There was an association with increased comorbidities and complexity factors in autistic young people which suggests increased support from agencies may be beneficial. Originality/value Few studies have used data in the “Current View” tool to assess young people referred to services. More use could be made of this data for planning and delivering services.
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Students with autism are increasingly being placed in general education "inclusion" settings for the purpose of improved social integration. This article presents information on the social integration of ten students with autism in elementary inclusive settings. The purposes were to describe three social integration constructs of students with autism in inclusive classrooms, including their acceptance (social preference), visibility (social impact), and membership in a peer group (social network affiliation) and to identify the extent to which severity of autism characteristics contributed to these social integration constructs. Results suggest students with autism in inclusive settings are as accepted, visible, and members of peer groups, as well as both their peers without disabilities and those with other disabilities. Post hoc observations revealed further factors that may impact these constructs as well. (Contains 3 tables.)
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The distinction between friendship adjustment and acceptance by the peer group was examined. Third- through 5th-grade children ( N = 881) completed sociometric measures of acceptance and friendship, a measure of loneliness, a questionnaire on the features of their very best friendships, and a measure of their friendship satisfaction. Results indicated that many low-accepted children had best friends and were satisfied with these friendships. However, these children's friendships were lower than those of other children on most dimensions of quality. Having a friend, friendship quality, and group acceptance made separate contributions to the prediction of loneliness. Results indicate the utility of the new friendship quality measure and the value of distinguishing children's friendship adjustment from their general peer acceptance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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Studied social networks and aggressive behavior in school in 2 cohorts of boys and girls in the 4th and 7th grades ( N = 695). Measures of social networks yielded convergent findings. Highly aggressive subjects (both boys and girls) did not differ from matched control subjects in terms of social cluster membership or in being isolated or rejected within the social network. Peer cluster analysis and reciprocal "best friend" selections indicated that aggressive subjects tended to affiliate with aggressive peers. Even though highly aggressive children and adolescents were less popular than control subjects in the social network at large, they were equally often identified as being nuclear members of social clusters. Aggressive subjects did not differ from matched control subjects in the number of times they were named by peers as "best friend," nor did the two groups differ in the probability of having friendship choices reciprocated by peers. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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Assumptions of difficulties with social interaction, or lack of interest in social interaction, are central to many definitions and conventional understandings of autism. However, many individuals with autism describe a strong craving social interaction. This article uses autobiographical accounts written by individuals who identified as autistic as a source of qualitative research data and specifically explores the ways these texts address issues of social relationships. Using narrative inquiry, the authors explored how individuals with autism described their own notions of and experiences with social interaction. This article discusses the broad themes of (a) the desire to have connections and (b) navigation through the world of people. Last, implications for the education of individuals with autism are considered.
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This study assessed play and social behavior of young children with autism in inclusive school settings to identify important targets for intervention. Data were collected for five children with autism and for typically developing peers. All children with autism received intervention in one-on-one settings but did not have individual education plan goals that provided systematic intervention for developing play and social skills in their school settings. Results indicated the children with autism and their typically developing peers played with a comparable number of stimulus items (e.g., toys), but the children with autism engaged in these activities for shorter durations. Both children with autism and their typically developing peers engaged in similar levels of social interaction with adults. However, the children with autism rarely or never engaged in social interactions with their peers, whereas the typically developing peers frequently engaged in social interactions with other children. The results suggest important targets for intervention.
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The purpose of this paper is to review the knowledge available from aggregated research (primarily through 2000) on the characteristics of social interactions and social relationships among young children with autism, with special attention to strategies and tactics that promote competence or improved performance in this area. In its commissioning letter for the initial version of this paper, the Committee on Educational Interventions for Children with Autism of the National Research Council requested "a critical, scholarly review of the empirical research on interventions to facilitate the social interactions of children with autism, considering adult-child interactions (where information is available) as well as child-child interactions, and including treatment of [one specific question]: What is the empirical evidence that social irregularities of children with autism are amenable to remediation?" To do this, the paper (a) reviews the extent and quality of empirical literature on social interaction for young children with autism; (b) reviews existing descriptive and experimental research that may inform us of relations between autism and characteristics that support social development, and efforts to promote improved social outcomes (including claims for effectiveness for several specific types of intervention); (c) highlights some possible directions for future research; and (d) summarizes recommendations for educational practices that can be drawn from this research.
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A mediational model positing that the effects of popularity on children's loneliness and depression are passed through indexes of friendship experiences was tested using structural equation modeling. Children (193 3rd through 6th graders) completed a battery of sociometric and self-report questionnaires from which measures of popularity, multiple friendship dimensions (i.e., quantity and quality of best and good friendships), and loneliness and depression were derived. Confirmation of a slightly modified model supported the mediational hypothesis. Although popularity exerted no direct impact on the adjustment indexes, it strongly influenced friendship, which, in turn, affected depression through its strong association with loneliness. It appears that popularity is important for setting the stage for relationship development, but that it is dyadic friendship experiences that most directly influence feelings of loneliness and depression.
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In this study, we investigate peer relationships and participation in social and recreational activities among 235 adolescents and adults with autism who live at home. The prevalence of having friendships, peer relationships, and participating in social and recreational activities were all low and comparable to previous research. Both individual and environmental factors were investigated as predictors of having peer relationships and participation in social and recreational activities. Having peer relationships was predicted by individual characteristics (younger age, and less impairment in social interaction skills), but not by characteristics of the environment. Greater participation in social and recreational activities was predicted by characteristics of the individual with autism (greater functional independence, less impairment in social interaction skills, higher levels of internalizing behaviors) and characteristics of the environment (greater maternal participation in social and recreational activities, greater number of services received, and inclusion in integrated settings while in school).
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Including children with autism in regular classrooms has become prevalent; yet some evidence suggests such placements could increase the risk of isolation and rejection. In this study, we used social network methods to explore the involvement of children with autism in typical classrooms. Participants were 398 children (196 boys) in regular 2nd through 5th grade classes, including 17 children (14 boys) with high functioning autism or Asperger's syndrome. Children reported on friendship qualities, peer acceptance, loneliness, and classroom social networks. Despite involvement in networks, children with autism experienced lower centrality, acceptance, companionship, and reciprocity; yet they did not report greater loneliness. Future research is needed to help children with autism move from the periphery to more effective engagement with peers.
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This case study explored perceptions of friendship of an adolescent with Asperger syndrome. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews, photographs taken by the adolescent, and quality of life and friendship measures. Data were analyzed using grounded theory principles and organized into three themes: (1) characteristics of a friend, (2) family involvement, and (3) enjoyment of friendships and desire to have them. The adolescent appeared to enjoy having friends, was interested in pursuing friendships, and had a basic understanding of many characteristics of friendships. He described negotiating his own and his friend's focused interests. Family members played important roles in the establishment and maintenance of the adolescent's friendships.
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This study explored the social affiliations of students in three mainstream classrooms containing students receiving general education services, students characterized as academically gifted, students with learning disabilities, and students with emotional and behavioral disorders. The study provided an in-depth description of the classrooms' social networks, focusing on the social and demographic characteristics that distinguished clusters of students. Findings showed that students formed distinct peer clusters around shared characteristics; particular social characteristics were associated with a student's level of centrality in the classroom; and students with exceptionalities were well integrated into the classroom's social structure. Affiliations of students with exceptionalities suggest topics for future research.
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The current study examined three hypotheses about experience in close friendships and psychosocial adjustment. At Time 1, 51 same-sex close friend dyads (n = 102 friends, 51% female, mean age = 20 years) completed self-report measures and participated in a brief observational assessment. The hypothesis that friendship quality would be associated with clinical symptomatology and self-esteem was supported and indicated that high levels of negative friendship features were positively associated with clinical symptoms, whereas positive features were most strongly associated with self-esteem. The second hypothesis that changes in the friendship would be associated with adjustment one year later (68% participation rate at Time 2) was supported only for interpersonal sensitivity such that perceived negative changes in the relationship predicted increased symptoms. Finally, friends’ perceptions of the features and quality of their relationship were somewhat consistent, yet as hypothesized, discordant perceptions predicted higher symptomatology and lower social support and satisfaction in the relationship. The results highlight the importance of considering both positive and negative aspects of friendship in early adulthood.
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Children experiencing difficulties in their peer relations have typically been identified using external sources of information, such as teacher referrals or ratings, sociometric measures, and/or behavioral observations. There is a need to supplement these assessment procedures with self-report measures that assess the degree to which the children themselves feel satisfaction with their peer relationships. In this study, a 16-item self-report measure of loneliness and social dissatisfaction was developed. In surveying 506 third- through sixth-grade children, the measure was found to be internally reliable. More than 10% of children reported feelings of loneliness and social dissatisfaction, and children's feelings of loneliness were significantly related to their sociometric status. The relationship of loneliness and sociometric status to school achievement was also examined.
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The Friendship Qualities Scale is a theoretically grounded, multidimensional measurement instrument to assess the quality of children's and early adolescents' relationships with their best friends according to five conceptually meaningful aspects of the friendship relation. These dimensions are companionship, conflict, help/aid, security and closeness. A confirmatory factor analysis, used to evaluate the factor structure of this instrument, demonstrated that these scales represented distinct, but related, domains of friendship. Assessments of reliability indicated the high level of internal consistency within each dimension. The validity of the scale was indicated by the observation of higher ratings for (a) mutual friends than for non-mutual friends, and (b) for stable friends than for non-stable friends. These findings are discussed according to the theoretical and practical issues related to the measurement of friendship quality.
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Three conceptually distinct dimensions of classroom social position (number of mutual friendships, social network centrality, and sociometric status) were examined in relation to each other and to peer-nominated behavioral reputation among 205 7- and 8-year old children. There were moderate correlations in children’s standing across the three dimensions, but categorical analyses underscored the limits to these associations (e.g., 39% of Rejected children had at least one mutual friendship; 31% of Popular children did not). Each dimension was associated with a distinct profile of peer-nominated social behavior and, in multiple regression analyses, accounted for unique variance in peer-nominated behaviors. Number of friendships was uniquely associated with prosocial skills; network centrality was uniquely associated with both prosocial and antisocial behavioral styles; and being disliked was uniquely associated with the full range of social behaviors. Results provide empirical validation for the conceptual distinctions among number of reciprocated friendships, social network centrality and being liked or disliked.
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The purpose of this study was to develop a method for assessing young children's perceptions of classroom friendships and to determine whether these perceptions were associated with their adjustment during the transition to grade school. Subscales tapping 5 friendship processes (e.g., validation, aid, disclosure of negative affect, exclusivity, conflict) were extracted from a 24-item friendship interview that was individually administered to 82 kindergarten children (M age = 5.61) who possessed a reciprocated and stable “best” friend in their classroom. Children's reports of the investigated friendship processes were found to be reliable, and processes such as perceived validation and conflict predicted children's satisfaction with their friendships, and the stability of these relationships. Perceived conflict in friendships was associated with multiple forms of school maladjustment for boys, including higher levels of school loneliness and avoidance and lower levels of school liking and engagement. For both boys and girls, validation and aid forecasted gains in perceived support from classmates, and aid also predicted improvements in children's school attitudes. Perceived exclusivity in friendships was associated with lower levels of achievement. These findings, and others reported in this article, are consistent with the hypothesis that the relational features of children's classroom friendships yield psychological benefits or costs (e.g., provisions) that, in turn, affect their development and adjustment.
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The unique contributions of peer acceptance, friendship, and victimization to adjustment were examined. How these relational systems moderate the influence of one another to influence adjustment was also investigated. Friendship quality, a unique aspect of friendship, was expected to be especially important for adjustment when other relational systems were poor. A total of 238 fifth to eighth graders (boys = 109) participated in the survey-style paradigm. Youth participants completed measures assessing their friendships and peer relationships. Teachers provided assessments of adjustment. Adolescents who had lower levels of peer acceptance, number of friends, and friendship quality had greater teacher-reported maladjustment. Friendship quality was also an important buffer against adjustment problems when peer acceptance and number of friends were low. The outcomes of this article suggest that an approach that includes examining the quality of adolescents' friendships, peer interactions, and interactive models of relationship dimensions are informative for understanding adolescents' general adjustment.
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Impaired social functioning is a hallmark of autism spectrum conditions. The purpose of this study was to investigate possible relationship between social functioning and a broader autism phenotype. With a sample of non-clinical undergraduate students from a large, urban university (N = 97; mean age = 19.4 ± 2 years), characteristics associated with autism were measured as well as self-reported dating and friendship history, feelings of loneliness, and social motivation. Results indicate that those individuals with a stronger autism phenotype (e.g., rigidity, preference for sameness, high attention to detail) report significantly more loneliness (r = .52, p < 0.01) and fewer and shorter duration friendships. Also, for participants in romantic relationships, a stronger phenotype was moderately and positively correlated with length of relationship (r = .34, p < 0.05). Findings support the view that individuals with characteristics of autism and related conditions do not necessarily prefer aloneness, as once assumed, but rather experience increased levels of loneliness related to lack of social skill and understanding. Significance and limitations of these findings are discussed and future directions for research and possibilities for social skills training in this population are explored.
Article
The purpose of this study was to develop a method for assessing young children's perceptions of classroom friendships and to determine whether these perceptions were associated with their adjustment during the transition to grade school. Subscales tapping 5 friendship processes (e.g., validation, aid, disclosure of negative affect, exclusivity, conflict) were extracted from a 24-item friendship interview that was individually administered to 82 kindergarten children (M age = 5.61) who possessed a reciprocated and stable "best" friend in their classroom. Children's reports of the investigated friendship processes were found to be reliable, and processes such as perceived validation and conflict predicted children's satisfaction with their friendships, and the stability of these relationships. Perceived conflict in friendships was associated with multiple forms of school maladjustment for boys, including higher levels of school loneliness and avoidance and lower levels of school liking and engagement. For both boys and girls, validation and aid forecasted gains in perceived support from classmates, and aid also predicted improvements in children's school attitudes. Perceived exclusivity in friendships was associated with lower levels of achievement. These findings, and others reported in this article, are consistent with the hypothesis that the relational features of children's classroom friendships yield psychological benefits or costs (e.g., provisions) that, in turn, affect their development and adjustment.
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The aims of this longitudinal study were: (1) to assess the continuity and change in diagnosis, intelligence, and language skills in children with autism, Down syndrome, and other developmental delays, (2) to specify the deficits in social competence and language skills in these children, and (3) to identify precursors in the preschool period of gains in language skills and of peer engagement in the mid-school years. The initial sample consisted of 70 children with autism, 93 children with Down syndrome, 59 children with developmental delays, and 108 typically developing children, with the first three groups of children studied when they were between 2 and 6 years of age. At follow-up, 51 children with autism, 71 children with Down syndrome, and 33 children with developmental delays were assessed at mean ages around 10-13 years. The long-term follow-up showed little change in the diagnosis of autism but sizeable improvements in intellectual and language abilities within the autistic group, a pattern that was not seen in the children with Down syndrome. Unique deficits in joint attention, some forms of representational play, responsiveness to the emotions of others, and initiation of peer engagement were identified in the autistic children, whereas the children with Down syndrome seemed to have a specific deficit only in language. Joint attention skills were concurrently associated with language abilities in all groups and predicted long-term gains in expressive language for the children with autism. Children with autism, regardless of their level of functioning, were less socially engaged with classmates than the other developmentally disabled children because they infrequently initiated and accepted play bids, not because they were rebuffed by peers. Early nonverbal communication and play skills were predictors of the frequency of initiations of peer play for the children with Down syndrome as well as the extent of peer engagement of the children with autism. These results suggest that improvements in early communication and play skills may have long-term consequences for later language and social competence in these groups of children.
Article
This study examined the effects of the child's diagnosis (autism vs. Down syndrome), age, and current educational placement on parental perceptions toward inclusion for their child with disabilities. Parents of children with autism and with Down syndrome completed surveys regarding their opinions on their child's current educational placement, their desire for changing the current placement, and their views on inclusive education. Results indicated that diagnosis, age, and current placement influenced parental opinion on the ideal educational placement for their child. Parents of children with Down syndrome were significantly more likely to endorse inclusion (full-time placement in general education) as the ideal educational program for their child whereas parents of children with autism were more likely to endorse mainstreaming (consistent part-time placement with general education students). Parents of younger children and parents whose children were already placed in general education programs were more positive towards inclusion than parents of older children or students currently in special education. Findings are discussed in terms of child characteristics and prevailing educational practices.
Article
Loneliness and friendship were examined in 22 high-functioning children with autism and 19 typically developing children equated with the autistic children for IQ, CA, gender, mother's education, and ethnicity. Children between the ages of 8 and 14 were asked to report on both their understanding and feelings of loneliness and the quality of their friendship. Compared to typically developing children, children with autism were both lonelier and had less complete understandings of loneliness. Although all children with autism reported having at least one friend, the quality of their friendships was poorer in terms of companionship, security, and help. Fewer associations were found between loneliness and friendship for the autistic than for the non-autistic children, suggesting less understanding of the relation between loneliness and friendship. Implications of these results are discussed for conceptualizing the social deficits in autism.
Article
Twenty-one adolescent boys with Asperger syndrome and 21 boys matched on age and an estimate of IQ were assessed using standardized measures of social perception (Child and Adolescent Social Perception Measure, CASP), social skills (parent, teacher, and student forms of the Social Skills Rating System, SSRS), number of close friends and frequency of contact (Child Behavior Checklist) and expressive and receptive language (Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals-Revised). There were significant differences between groups on CASP scores, SSRS scores, number of friends, frequency of contact and social competence. There was also a significant difference on receptive language. The clinically and statistically significant differences between the groups on the measures of social skills help us understand the nature of the social deficits in Asperger syndrome and suggest the need to focus on specific deficits. These findings are discussed in relation to diagnostic criteria and intervention.
Article
Social interaction with peers and the understanding and feelings of loneliness were examined in 18 high-functioning children with autism and 17 typically developing children matched for IQ, chronological age, gender, and maternal education. Observations were conducted on children's spontaneous social initiations and responses to their peers in natural settings such as recess and snack time, and children reported on their understanding and feelings of loneliness and social interaction. Overall, children with autism revealed a good understanding of both social interaction and loneliness, and they demonstrated a high level of social initiation. However, they spent only half the time in social interactions with peers compared with their matched counterparts, and they interacted more often with a typically developing child than with another special education child. Despite the intergroup differences in frequency of interaction, a similar distribution of interactions emerged for both groups, who presented mostly positive social behaviors, fewer low-level behaviors, and very infrequent negative behaviors. Children with autism reported higher degrees of loneliness than their typical age-mates, as well as a lower association between social interaction and loneliness, suggesting their poorer understanding of the relations between loneliness and social interaction. Research and practice implications of these findings are discussed.
Article
This study examined friendship quality as a possible moderator of risk factors in predicting peer victimization and bullying. Children (50 boys and 49 girls, ages 10 to 13 years) reported on the quality of their best friendship, as well as their bullying and victimization tendencies. Parents reported on their child's internalizing and externalizing behaviors, in addition to bullying and victimization tendencies. Results indicated that externalizing problems were related to bullying behavior; however, friendship quality moderated this relation such that among children with externalizing behaviors, a high-quality friendship significantly attenuated bullying behavior. Internalizing problems and low friendship quality were significantly related to victimization; however, friendship quality did not moderate the relation between internalizing problems and victimization. Implications for interventions based on these findings are discussed.
Article
This study of Israeli and American preadolescent children examined characteristics of friendship in 44 children with high-functioning autism spectrum disorder (HFASD) compared to 38 typically developing children (TYP), as they interacted with a close friend Participants were 8-12 years of age (HFASD: Israel, n = 24; USA, n = 20; TYP: Israel, n = 23; USA, n = 15), and were matched on SES, receptive language vocabulary, child age, and gender (each study group included one girl). Multidimensional assessments included: individual behaviors of target children and observed child-friend interactions during construction and drawing scenarios; target child's and friend's self-perceived mutual friendship qualities; and mother-reported characteristics (friendship's duration/frequency; friend's age/gender/disability status). Overall, children with HFASD displayed a number of differences on individual and dyadic friendship measures. Both age and verbal abilities affected friendship behaviors. Children with HFASD and their friends perceived friendship qualities similarly, suggesting that preadolescents with HFASD have capacities for interpersonal awareness. Between-group similarities also emerged on several complex social behaviors, suggesting that friendship follows a developmental trajectory in autism and may enhance social interaction skills in autism.
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Reciprocity and friendships: listening to the voices of children and youth with and without disabilities
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The Company They Keep: Friendship in Childhood and Adolescence
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Social Networks and the Function of Friendships
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Continuity and change in the social competence of children with autism, down syndrome, and developmental delays
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