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The Habitat-creation Potential of Offshore Wind Farms
Wind Energy
Abstract
Offshore wind farms are the subject of environmental impact assessments in which potential adverse effects are identified and quantified. Those impacts will then require to be mitigated through appropriate design, construction and operation methods. Where environmental impacts cannot be mitigated, operators would be required to compensate the environment or its users for any actual or potential damage. The present study shows that the placement of offshore wind turbines gives the potential for habitat creation, which may thus be regarded as compensation for habitat lost. Using current design criteria and construction methods, the analysis here indicates that the net amount of habitat created by the most common design of offshore wind turbine, the monopile, is up to 2.5 times the amount of area lost through the placement, thus providing a net gain even though the gained habitat may be of a different character to the one that lost. Hence, the study raises important issues for marine nature conservation managers. The study also provides suggestions for further work in order to increase the empirical evidence for the value of mitigation, compensation and habitat creation. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
... wind farms, tidal turbine etc.). Marine renewable energy's devices and their associated infrastructures (maintenance platforms, submarine power cables and associated protection and stabilising structures etc.) constitute permanent artificial reefs (Wilson and Elliott, 2009;Langhamer, 2012) colonised by hard-substrate benthic species, including epifauna. ...
... ecosystems conservation/restoration, fish stocks enhancement/management etc.; Jensen et al., 2000) and ii) those deployed for another primary purpose, such as oil rigs, breakwaters, or Marine Renewable Energy (MRE) facilities (e.g. windfarms, tidal turbines and wave energy converters) (Wilson and Elliott, 2009;Langhamer, 2012;Lima et al., 2019). Worldwide, the number of MRE structures rapidly increases to meet the increasing demand for renewable energy to mitigate global anthropogenic climate change (Copping et al., 2014;Lindeboom et al., 2015;Coolen et al., 2018). ...
... Thus, such reef effects can represent an ecological benefit of MRE, since artificial structures generally host higher diversity, densities and biomass of benthic organisms than the surrounding soft bottoms (Langhamer and Wilhelmsson, 2009;Broadhurst and Orme, 2014). Wilson and Elliott (2009) estimated that in the long term, a wind-turbine facility provides 2.5 times the amount of habitat relative to the initial loss during the installation process, even though this new habitat may be of a different character to the initial one. When their deployment requires the implementation of new exclusion areas for fishing, MRE may thus act as a refuge for commercially-exploited populations, with potential spill-over benefits for adjacent stocks and fisheries (Lindeboom et al., 2011(Lindeboom et al., , 2015. ...
In a global context of rapid development of marine renewable energy projects, the aim of this PhD thesis was to better characterise the potential impacts of submarine power cables on coastal benthic ecosystems. The work specifically focused on the impacts associated with the operational phase. The major part of this work was dedicated to the reef effect created by these cables and their protective and stabilising structures on sessile epibenthic communities and mobile megafauna. This work was mainly based on underwater imagery, either video or photo collected in situ by divers. The challenge of working with underwater imagery has led me to optimise image analyses so as to effectively monitor benthic colonisation and to quantify artificial reef habitat provision to commercial species. In addition to this reef effect, colonising organisms are exposed to magnetic fields generated by the power cables. Thus, I designed an experimental study to assess the impact of realistic magnetic fields on the behaviour of juvenile European lobsters (Homarus gammarus). Finally, we explored the ecological impacts of excluding anthropogenic activity from the cables routes and potential benefits for benthic macrofauna. By coupling both in situ and ex situ approaches, my PhD research better characterises the environmental impacts associated with submarine power cables. These results will help to assess the ecological footprint of future power grid connections.
... This association may only be a localised effect, where fish aggregate around individual turbines and migration between turbines can be dependent on the distance between them (van Hal et al., 2017). Habitat loss due to monopile installation can be offset by the presence of the monopile providing habitat area up to 2.5 times that lost due to its placement, thus increasing net gain (Wilson and Elliott, 2009). Biodiversity of lower trophic level species has been demonstrated to increase due to the turbines providing additional settling surfaces (De Mesel et al., 2015). ...
... In particular, the effects of introducing hard substrate to ecosystems already characterised as such (cobble/rock etc.) is not reported, however, consideration is given in OWF planning processes to ensure minimum disturbance to key habitat features (English et al., 2017). Addition of scour stone protection on the base of turbines may provide additional habitat for shelter dwelling organisms (Wilson and Elliott, 2009;Wilson et al., 2010). However the association of fish species with turbines Coates et al., 2016) may increase predator/prey interactions and cause a shift in the dynamics of the ecosystem. ...
... The published literature has largely focussed on interactions between offshore wind developments and seabirds (15 out of 78 publications reviewed by ), marine mammals , substrate and infaunal disturbance Coates et al., 2016),fish populations . The potential habitat enhancement and subsequent benefits have also been discussed (Wilson and Elliott, 2009;Krone et al., 2013aKamermans et al., 2018;Sas et al., 2018;Coolen et al., 2019;Tonk and Rozemeijer, 2019). There is a need for research ...
Interaction between the Yorkshire coast static gear crustacean fishery and offshore wind energy development. Being Abstract Globally the offshore wind energy sector has seen an increase in the number of and spatial scale of offshore wind farms in the last decade. Offshore wind farms can be seen as many EU member states answer to meeting their energy demands from renewable sources. The increase in offshore wind developments can create spatial conflict with other marine users such as commercial fisheries. Their ecological effects on macro-benthic crustaceans are not currently widely understood. This thesis focuses on the short-term effects of the construction and operation of the Westermost Rough offshore wind farm and the subsequent closure and reopening of the site to fishing exploitation due to the construction process. There were limited effects of the Westermost Rough offshore wind farm on the size structure and catch rates of the commercially exploited crustaceans sampled over three survey years. The closure of the site during construction saw an increase in the size, abundance, and total egg yield of lobsters from the site. This increase in lobsters produced an adverse effect on the commercial bycatch species in the site. Reopening of the site to fishing exploitation, produced an immediate, short-term increase in effort. The increase in lobster size, abundance and total egg yield produced a dramatic decrease but within six weeks, reflected that of the control area. This thesis demonstrates that the there are few observable short-term effects of offshore wind farm construction on commercially exploited crustacean species. The thesis also demonstrates the effects of a closed area on commercial crustaceans and the effects of reopening the site to exploitation. The results can be used to assist in marine spatial management and future offshore wind interactions with commercially important crustacean fisheries.
... Understanding the influence of foundation structures on the marine environment is important for an economically optimized and sustainable design of foundation structures, as well as for an evaluation of environmental consequences [5] on the previously unaffected marine environment. Although OWFs contribute to a reduction of the carbon footprint in global energy production, they have an impact on the marine environment, possibly leading to either habitat loss or habitat gain [6,7]. In the European Union, OWFs are subject to directives on Environmental Impact Assessments (Directive 2014/52/EU). ...
... Although Test 1 (U cw = 0.43, KC = 6.7), 2 (U cw = 0.63, KC = 6.7) and 4 (U cw = 0.37, KC = 14.9) partially reveal lower scour depths for a 0D node distance, an acceptable prediction value (improved R 2 from R 2 = 0.89 to R 2 = 0.91 for 0D scour depths) with less underpredicted scour depths is reached in general for Tests 1-5 with the adjusted term in Equation (6). The comparison of final scour depths, therefore, indicates a less pronounced influence of the structural design for lower KC and U cw values and a slightly more pronounced impact of the distance to the lowest node for higher KC values and current-dominated hydrodynamic conditions. ...
... Measured dimensionless scour depth S end /D plotted over U cw for Tests 1-5 0D and Tests 1-5 1D for the upstream side of the structure ((a), Pile 1), as well as for the downstream side ((b), Pile 3), in comparison to Equation(6). ...
This research advances the understanding of jacket-type platform induced local and global erosion and deposition processes for combined wave–current conditions. To this end, a laboratory study was carried out comparing the equilibrium scour depth for two structural designs that are differentiated in the geometrical distance of the structure’s lowest node to the seabed. Measurements of local scour depths over time have been conducted with echo sounding transducers. An empirical approach is proposed to predict the final scour depths as a function of the node distance to the seabed. Additionally, 3D laser scans have been performed to obtain the digital elevation model of the surrounding sediment bed. Novel methodologies were developed to describe and easily compare the relative volume change of the sediment bed per surface area due to structure–seabed interaction, enabling spatial analyses of highly complex erosion and deposition patterns. The seabed sediment mobility around the structure is found to be highly sensitive to a change in node distance. The decrease of the node distance results in a higher erosion depth of sediment underneath the structure of up to 26%, especially for current-dominated conditions, as well as an increased deposition of sediment downstream of the structure over a distance of up to 6.5 times the footprint length. The results of this study highlight the requirement to consider the interaction of the structure with the surrounding seabed within the design process of offshore structures, to mitigate potential impacts on the marine environment stemming from the extensive sediment displacement and increased sediment mobility.
... The installation of OWFs may have some favourable effects onto the local abundance of marine organisms as well ( Fig. 1.3). The deployment of turbines and scour protection layers results in habitat creation (Wilson and Elliott, 2009). The added hard substrates increase the habitat availability for many species (Andersson and Öhman, 2010;Langhamer, 2012). ...
... The added hard substrates increase the habitat availability for many species (Andersson and Öhman, 2010;Langhamer, 2012). The addition of the scour protection layers surrounding the base of monopiles and gravity-based foundations can further change the natural habitat (Wilson and Elliott, 2009;Langhamer, 2012). This habitat creation ( Fig. 1.4) increases the heterogeneity of the marine environment (Petersen and Malm, 2006;Langhamer, 2012). ...
... Fisheries exclusion could lead to an increase in the species abundances and growth by reducing mortality rates of target species (Leonhard et al., 2011;Lindeboom et al., 2011) that could potentially contribute to a spill-over effect . Hence, OWFs might have the potential to act as refugia for many species (Wilson and Elliott, 2009). The crevices of the scour protection layer can provide protection against predators and currents for several fish species (Bohnsack, 1989;Reubens et al., 2011). ...
In the North Sea, the offshore wind farm (OWF) industry is rapidly developing, with new wind farms being under construction, licenced or planned. These installations induce changes to the marine environment, by adding artificial hard substrates into soft-bottom areas. Multiple vertebrate and invertebrate species are attracted to these structures altering the biodiversity, arising concerns about the impacts of OWFs on the environment, including effects on ecosystem functioning.
In this PhD thesis, the effects of offshore wind turbines on the local food web properties were investigated at two levels: (a) detailed food web structure on one gravity-based foundation (Chapters 2 and 3), and (b) local (Belgian part of the North Sea) effects on primary productivity and on fish (Chapter 4 and 5). Colonising assemblages along the entire depth gradient of a gravity-based foundation in the Belgian part of the North Sea (BPNS) and fish species in close proximity to the same turbine were sampled to get insights in the in situ food web structure. Laboratory experiments with fully colonised PVC panels obtained from a tripod inside an OWF in the BPNS allowed for detailed ex situ observation of the carbon assimilation by colonising species.
In Chapters 2 and 3, the food web structure of the colonising assemblages along the depth gradient of the offshore wind turbine, its scour protection layer (SPL) and the surrounding soft substrate were investigated. The objective of Chapter 2 was to investigate whether structural differences in community composition would be reflected in the food web complexity and whether resource partitioning could contribute to the co-existence of such dense communities. This chapter, therefore, focused on the local food web properties between and within different communities along the depth gradient to investigate resource partitioning at both levels (i.e. community-specific study). The aim of Chapter 3 was to investigated whether trophic plasticity is one of the mechanisms contributing to the wide distribution and survival of invertebrate organisms occurring at different depths along the depth gradient of the gravity-based foundation (i.e. species-specific study). For the purposes of these two chapters, stable isotope analysis was performed on the organisms collected from the turbine foundation. The results (Chapter 2) showed that structural community differences are reflected in the food web structure of communities occurring in different depth zones. Resource partitioning was detected both between and within the assemblages. The highest food web complexity was found at the SPL and the soft substrate, where a strong accumulation of organic matter is expected. This high food web complexity was further supported by the results of the species-specific study (Chapter 3), demonstrating that the organisms occurring in these two zones exploited a wider range of resources compared to the organisms found higher up at the turbine. Moreover, this study indicated that most of the investigated invertebrate species found at the offshore wind turbine are trophic generalists, with depth-specific resource use strategies. This suggests that trophic plasticity contributes to the co-existence of invertebrate species within and across the depth zones. In these two chapters, the importance of the SPL and the soft substrate near the turbine foundation is highlighted, since in these zones high resource quantity is accumulated, supporting the presence of organisms of multiple trophic levels.
In Chapter 4, the carbon assimilation by colonising assemblages that typically occur at offshore wind turbines in the North Sea was investigated. While the role of colonising species in reducing the primary producer standing stock has previously been modelled for the southern North Sea, real data to validate these models are still scarce. Therefore, an ex-situ pulse-chase experiment was conducted to track the processing of organic matter by colonising organisms on the wind turbine foundations. The results indicated that the blue mussel Mytilus edulis showed the highest biomass-specific carbon assimilation, while the local amphipod Jassa herdmani population as a whole assimilated the highest amount of carbon. This study showed that J. herdmani and M. edulis contributed the most to the local consumption of the primary producer standing stock, since their assimilation was ca. 97 % of the total faunal carbon assimilation. The results of this experiment were upscaled to the total number of all the currently installed turbines (264 monopiles, 48 jackets, and 6 gravity-based foundations) in the BPNS. The total amount of carbon assimilated by the total number of J. herdmani and M. edulis individuals on every type of foundation was calculated and compared with the total annual primary production in the BPNS. It was estimated that 1.3 % of the local annual primary producer standing stock is grazed upon by M. edulis and J. herdmani. This value was compared with the amount of carbon that is not assimilated by the soft sediment macrofauna due to the loss of habitat by the installation of the different foundation types. The data suggest that the presence of offshore wind turbines and their subsequent colonisation by colonising fauna remarkably increases the carbon assimilation compared to the permeable sediment macrofauna inhabiting the same surface area (i.e. footprint of the turbines). As compared to the soft sediments, the presence of jacket foundations causes the highest and the gravity-based foundations the lowest increase in the local carbon assimilation.
Chapter 5 aimed at understanding the feeding ecology of fish species that are attracted to artificial reefs, such as OWFs, in the BPNS. Two pelagic (Scomber scombrus and Trachurus trachurus), two benthopelagic (Gadus morhua and Trisopterus luscus) and one benthic (Myoxocephalus scorpioides) species abundantly present close to a gravity-based foundation were sampled. Stomach content and stable isotope analyses were performed to respectively investigate the short- and the long-term dietary composition of these fish species. Both short- and the long-term analyses showed that the benthic and benthopelagic species (species highly associated with the SPLs) feed on the colonising species J. herdmani and Pisidia longicornis. These results imply that these species utilize artificial reefs, such as OWFs, as feeding grounds for a prolonged period. The short-term dietary analysis of Trachurus trachurus indicated a diet based on J. herdmani, but the long-term analysis suggested that this species feeds on zooplankton. Thus, this species feeds only occasionally on the colonising fauna, using the artificial reefs as oases of enhanced resources. Scomber scombrus in contrary does not utilize the artificial habitats of OWFs as feeding grounds at all, since both analyses indicated a diet based on zooplankton. The dietary results of this chapter on the benthic and benthopelagic species corroborate the hypothesis that their local production could potentially be increased. However, this study did not support such statement for the pelagic species.
In conclusion, OWFs do influence the local food web properties, with the occurrence of colonising organisms slightly lowering the water column primary producer standing stock, but also being an important resource for organisms of higher trophic levels. Altogether, the major role of suspension feeding organisms with key roles M. edulis and J. herdmani was highlighted in this thesis. These organisms were responsible for the reduction of the local annual primary producer standing stock and they increased the local food web complexity, mainly through their biodeposition process. Furthermore, the importance of SPLs as newly introduced habitats was highlighted throughout this thesis: (a) a high food web complexity was found in this area; (b) their invertebrate species exploit a wide range of resources; and (c) fish species associated with SPLs remain in the area to feed for a prolonged period. Moreover, an over-representation of trophic generalists and an under-representation of trophic specialists were observed, suggesting that more generalist organisms will occur in the North Sea in the future due to the development of more OWFs. Finally, it was shown that the introduction of jacket foundations causes the highest increase in carbon assimilation compared to the other types of foundations, reducing significantly the carbon content of the water column. From the above, it is implied that foundations with SPLs, such as gravity-based and monopile foundations, are possibly more beneficial for the local food webs, but further investigation is necessary to completely understand the effects of OWFs on the marine food webs.
... Reviewed literature suggests that OWFs provide similar functions for marine organisms as ARs [18,64,65,[69][70][71]79,111,112] and OWF foundations have even been termed Windmill Artificial Reefs (WARs) [71,113]. These structures act as ARs by providing habitat, food, shelter and spawning opportunities, leading to the aggregation of various fish species around the foundations [65]. ...
... These structures act as ARs by providing habitat, food, shelter and spawning opportunities, leading to the aggregation of various fish species around the foundations [65]. Importantly, scour protection enhances the habitat complexity and thereby augments the reef effect, as highlighted by previous studies [29,70,95,112,113]. ...
... A fundamental objective of this review is to extract knowledge from AR designs and apply it to scour protection research with the aim to potentially enhance favourable ecological functions. Even though the ultimate purpose of scour protection is to prevent the scouring of sediment (Figure 1), scour protection may also provide preferred habitats for several species [112]. The level of complexity, the distance between artificial structures, as well as the building material and water depth are the primary characteristics that determine the efficacy of an artificial structure in terms of supporting fish abundance and biodiversity [12,112,118]. ...
As the development of large-scale offshore wind farms (OWFs) amplifies due to technological progress and a growing demand for renewable energy, associated footprints on the seabed are becoming increasingly common within soft-bottom environments. A large part of the footprint is the scour protection, often consisting of rocks that are positioned on the seabed to prevent erosion. As such, scour protection may resemble a marine rocky reef and could have important ecosystem functions. While acknowledging that OWFs disrupt the marine environment, the aim of this systematic review was to examine the effects of scour protection on fish assemblages, relate them to the effects of designated artificial reefs (ARs) and, ultimately, reveal how future scour protection may be tailored to support abundance and diversity of marine species. The results revealed frequent increases in abundances of species associated with hard substrata after the establishment of artificial structures (i.e., both OWFs and ARs) in the marine environment. Literature indicated that scour protection meets the requirements to function as an AR, often providing shelter, nursery, reproduction, and/or feeding opportunities. Using knowledge from AR models, this review suggests methodology for ecological improvements of future scour protections, aiming towards a more successful integration into the marine environment.
... The biomass and species diversity of epistructrual communities at OWFs are much higher than would be found on natural hard substrate (Wilson & Elliott 2009), with species composition varying with both depth and time, as recorded at both FINO 1 (Krone et al 2013;Joschko et al 2008), and the Kentish Flats OWF (Bessel 2008). Krone et al (2013, , pp. 4-5 Krone et al (2013) at the FINO 1 OWF. ...
... 3. Mediated through the associated epibenthic community, OWF constructions can act as stepping stones for the dispersal of exotic species (Glasby et al 2007). The artificial habitat is open for colonization by new species assemblages (Wilson & Elliott 2009), which could not quickly establish in soft-bottom sea regions. One example of this is Telmatogeton japonicus, the marine splash midge, which is native to Australasian waters. ...
The increasing demand for renewable energy is projected to result in a 40-fold increase in offshore wind electricity in the European Union by 2030. Despite a great number of local impact studies for selected marine populations, the regional ecosystem impacts of offshore wind farm structures are not yet well assessed nor understood. Our study investigates whether the accumulation of epifauna, dominated by the filter feeder Mytilus edulis (blue mussel), on turbine structures affects pelagic primary productivity and ecosystem functioning in the southern North Sea. We estimate the anthropogenically increased potential distribution based on the current projections of turbine locations and reported patterns of M. edulis settlement. This distribution is integrated through the Modular Coupling System for Shelves and Coasts to state-of-the-art hydrodynamic and ecosystem models. Our simulations reveal non-negligible potential changes in regional annual primary productivity of up to 8% within the offshore wind farm area, and induced maximal increases of the same magnitude in daily productivity also far from the wind farms. Our setup and modular coupling are effective tools for system scale studies of other environmental changes arising from large-scale offshore wind-farming such as ocean physics and distributions of pelagic top predators.
... At the same time, the development of new sites for large OWFs, for example, in the Atlantic Ocean on the east coast of the United States, is ongoing (Rodrigues et al., 2015). Today, the offshore wind energy sector is starting a phase of massive expansion worldwide, affecting marine ecosystems (Drewitt and Langston, 2006;Wilson and Elliott, 2009;Bailey et al., 2014;Bergström et al., 2014;Slavik et al., 2019) as well as stakeholders of different socio-economic sectors that are active or interested in the 4252 T. Hoeser et al.: DeepOWT same areas, like the fishing industry, shipping routes, military exclusion zones, cultural heritage, residents of coastal areas, or the recreational industry (Henderson et al., 2003;Wever et al., 2015;Gusatu et al., 2020;Gus , atu et al., 2021;Virtanen et al., 2022). To foster the development of offshore wind energy and to provide all stakeholders with free access to data in order to ensure the most sustainable development possible, we introduce the DeepOWT (Deep-learning-derived Offshore Wind Turbines) data set, which reports offshore wind turbine (OWT) locations along with their deployment time series for 5 years, from 2016 until 2021, on a global scale. ...
... The ecological impacts of OWFs are varied and have to be differentiated using the spatiotemporal scale (Drewitt and Langston, 2006;Wilson and Elliott, 2009;Bailey et al., 2014;Bergström et al., 2014;Slavik et al., 2019). Thus the spatially contextualised deployment time series in DeepOWT are an important data source for investigations of how habitats and migration routes of marine wildlife are impacted. ...
Offshore wind energy is at the advent of a massive global expansion. To investigate the development of the offshore wind energy sector, optimal offshore wind farm locations, or the impact of offshore wind farm projects, a freely accessible spatiotemporal data set of offshore wind energy infrastructure is necessary. With free and direct access to such data, it is more likely that all stakeholders who operate in marine and coastal environments will become involved in the upcoming massive expansion of offshore wind farms. To that end, we introduce the DeepOWT (Deep-learning-derived Offshore Wind Turbines) data set (available at 10.5281/zenodo.5933967, ), which provides 9941 offshore wind energy infrastructure locations along with their deployment stages on a global scale. DeepOWT is based on freely accessible Earth observation data from the Sentinel-1 radar mission. The offshore wind energy infrastructure locations were derived by applying deep-learning-based object detection with two cascading convolutional neural networks (CNNs) to search the entire Sentinel-1 archive on a global scale. The two successive CNNs have previously been optimised solely on synthetic training examples to detect the offshore wind energy infrastructures in real-world imagery. With subsequent temporal analysis of the radar signal at the detected locations, the DeepOWT data set reports the deployment stages of each infrastructure with a quarterly frequency from July 2016 until June 2021. The spatiotemporal information is compiled in a ready-to-use geographic information system (GIS) format to make the usability of the data set as accessible as possible.
... Studies presented in this section found a varying degree of potential impacts, depending on the location, the extraction technique and the (subset of ) processes under investigation, and the models and assumptions used. Effects can be classified as near-field (<1 km), far-field (>1-10 km) and regional (>10 km), as done for offshore wind farms (Wilson and Elliott, 2009). Tidal range and stream devices have different footprints in the sea and the near-field effects may be quite different, but far-field effects of removal of energy from the tidal system can be rather similar. ...
... There is a suggestion, mentioned in Section 1, that bottom-mounted structures may provide an artificial reef effect, providing food or shelter for breeding fish, and hence attracting marine mammals (Russell et al., 2014). The analysis of Wilson and Elliott (2009) indicated that habitat can be created by the most common design of offshore wind turbine, the monopile, of up to 2.5 times the amount of area lost through the placement, thus providing a net gain, even though the gained habitat may be of a different character to the one lost. In the case of floating wind turbines, there may be parallels with the impacts of WECs. ...
Offshore Renewable Energy (ORE), comprising marine (wave and tidal energy), and offshore wind, has the potential to supply large amounts of ‘green’ sustainable energy, reducing CO2 emissions. The main obstacles to deployment so far are technical challenges and cost. However, there are also concerns about how harnessing offshore energy can affect the local habitats and marine life, as well as introducing far-field and long-term changes in the physical environment of the sea, which may combine with climate change in unforeseen ways to affect marine ecosystems. The precautionary principle, combined with the requirement for monitoring, introduces obstacles (and costs) which have so far prevented the deployment of offshore renewable energy on a large scale. Here we discuss the physical changes that may occur and the impacts these may have on habitats, species and ecosystems. We explore the possible environmental impacts of offshore wind and marine energy deployment and the options for mitigation of these. This information can assist planners, regulators and developers of offshore energy systems. Some examples of existing and proposed deployments are provided (mainly focusing on the UK), in order to illustrate discussion of the environmental issues. We identify the need for better understanding of the environmental impacts at a population and ecosystem level and identify a way forward to improve the environmental consenting process.
... However, at the same time, there are provisions in the international decommissioning rules in which the complete removal of the OWF is dispensed if it poses high risks to the marine environment. In this regard, the partial removal of wind farms is put forward to protect the artificial reefs created by the marine biota in the wind farm installation site [57]. This is especially applied to the cables and scour protection, in which their complete removal can be detrimental to the new and stable ecosystem [55,58]. ...
... Barrier and wake effect provoke behavior and habitat disturbances as a critical impact, with high significance, specifically, on marine mammals and migratory birds [62,75]. These effects may generate severe avoidance of typical migratory paths, causing extra energy demand and possibly increased individuals' mortality [16,57,63]. Additionally, in extreme cases, the wake effect's extension further than the OWF could cause habitat loss [70,89]. ...
The objective of the paper is to perform a review of the environmental impacts of the installation, operation and maintenance (O&M), and decommissioning of offshore wind technologies. At first, a comprehensive review is presented on offshore wind technologies and techniques related to the installation, O&M, and decommissioning stages. Then a thorough review of environmental issues using the main available studies in the literature associated with the activities of each stage is performed. The review employs an activity–stressor–receptor–impact framework in which the possible positive or negative impacts of an environmental stressor on a specific receptor are identified for each activity, such as pile driving, cabling, blade rotation, etc. Additionally, a case study of Brazil addresses regions with biological resources, marine protected areas, and offshore wind hotspots considering atmospheric reanalysis along the coastline. Moreover, the presence of the offshore oil and gas (O&G) industry is discussed as an important influence on the development of offshore wind projects in Brazil.
... In addition to mere introduction of hard substrata, offshore structures contribute to the creation of critical habitat and refugia through their three-dimensional structure, therefore increasing the ecological carrying capacity of specific areas (Wilson and Elliott, 2009). A habitat's carrying capacity and hence the survival rate of its species are de facto functions of refuge availability for distinct life-history stages, with "habitat saturation" for a given stage possibly resulting in a bottleneck in production (Caddy and Stamatopoulos, 1990;Caddy, 2008). ...
... A habitat's carrying capacity and hence the survival rate of its species are de facto functions of refuge availability for distinct life-history stages, with "habitat saturation" for a given stage possibly resulting in a bottleneck in production (Caddy and Stamatopoulos, 1990;Caddy, 2008). When combined with increased feeding opportunities, habitat creation enhances ecological functioning and trophic efficiency alike (Bombace, 1989;Leitão et al., 2007;Wilson and Elliott, 2009). Highly productive systems, in turn, have potential to contribute substantially to biomass production (Nishimoto et al., 2019a), and records exist of juvenile reef fish recruits being more abundant at platforms than at numerous natural sites (Claisse et al., 2014;Smith et al., 2016;Nishimoto et al., 2019b). ...
Offshore Oil and Gas (O&G) infrastructure affords structurally complex hard substrata in otherwise featurless areas of the seafloor. Opportunistically collected industrial ROV imagery was used to investigate the colonization of a petroleum platform in the North Sea 1–2 years following installation. Compared to pre-construction communities and pioneering colonizers, we documented 48 additional taxa, including a rare sighting of a pompano (Trachinotus ovatus). The second wave of motile colonizers presented greater diversity than the pioneering community. Occurrence of species became more even over the 2 years following installation, with species occurring in more comparable abundances. No on-jacket sessile taxa were recorded during first-wave investigations; however, 17 sessile species were detected after 1 year (decreasing to 16 after 2). Motile species were found to favour structurally complex sections of the jacket (e.g. mudmat), while sessile organisms favoured exposed elements. Evidence of on-jacket reproduction was found for two commercially important invertebrate species - common whelk (Buccinum undatum) and European squid (Loligo vulgaris). Moreover, abundance of larvae-producing species experience an 8.5-fold increase over a 2-year period compared to baseline communities. These findings may have implications for decommissioning and resource-management strategies, suggesting that a case-by-case reviewing approach should be favoured over the most common “one size fits all”.
... Several studies have explored the negative and positive effects of OWE on marine biodiversity during construction and operation, including underwater noise and vibrations or the provision of hard substrate habitats Galparsoro et al., 2022;Lemasson et al., 2022;Macreadie et al., 2020;Wilson & Elliott, 2009). When Offshore Wind Farms (OWF) reach the end of their lifetime they will need to be decommissioned. ...
... Nature-inclusive design (NiD) measures may also be added towards the goals of fisheries augmentation and mitigation of environmental impacts. Examples include new materials for scour protection and introduction of fish refuge structures [59,60]. ...
This paper introduces the MARCO (MARine CO-existence scenario building) concept for using scenario exploration in stakeholder engagement processes in offshore wind. MARCO builds on spatial analyses using geographic information systems (GIS), and projections over time using system dynamics simulation models. We position the concept within the existing literature on tools for decision support and stakeholder participation, and provide a preliminary status on the spatial baselines, as well as example scenarios for area usage in offshore wind and implications, including risks and co-existence opportunities, on other sectors and nature.
... Por otro lado, la instalación de eólica marina puede conllevar la destrucción de los hábitats bentónicos y la modificación de las condiciones en la columna de agua, pero también proporciona nuevas superficies de sustrato sólido donde pueden llegar a desarrollarse arrecifes artificiales (Langhamer et al., 2009;Wilhelmsson et al., 2006) compensando la pérdida de hábitat (Wilson & Elliott, 2009). Se ha observado que estos arrecifes artificiales pueden actuar como puntos de agregación de diferentes especies (Andersson & Öhman, 2010;Krägefsky, 2014;Raoux et al., 2018;Reubens et al., 2013;Simon et al., 2011;Haberlin et al., 2022). ...
Canarias is one of the regions with the greatest diversity of cetaceans at the European level, and the development of offshore wind energy projects in the islands' waters poses challenges in terms of potential impacts on this group of animals.
Despite the rapid expansion expected for the marine wind industry, there is a significant lack of assessment regarding its environmental impacts or benefits, as well as a shortage in quantifying and studying all species present in our waters.
The objective of this report is to compile existing information on the possible impacts of offshore wind energy development on cetacean populations in the Canary Islands.
... Installing wind turbines in a heavily trawled area holds the potential to enhance species diversity, acting as fish aggregation devices (Girard et al., 2004) and serving as artificial reefs conducive to the colonization of sessile organisms (Bergström et al., 2014) potentially including propagules from non-indigenous species (De Mesel et al., 2015). The organisms that attach to the submerged structures of wind turbines may modify the downward flow of organic matter (Ivanov et al., 2021) and facilitate the evolution of a more intricate benthic food web (Wilson and Elliott, 2009). The anticipated effects may be most prominent during periods of summer stratification, characterized by naturally reduced material fluxes and constraints on benthic fauna due to limited food availability. ...
... The known negative environmental impacts of ORE development, primarily offshore wind turbines, are generally placed into six broad categories: 1. changes to atmosphere and ocean (water flow changes), 2. noise pollution, 3. electromagnetic fields (EMF), 4. habitat modification (change of habitat type), 5. barrier effects, and 6. water quality (chemical pollution) (Farr et al., 2021;Gill et al., 2020;Hammar et al., 2015). Evidence from existing wind farms would suggest that the environmental impact from these pressures has not been as severe as initially predicted (Inger et al., 2009;Wilson et al., 2010;Wilson & Elliott, 2009). However, there are concerns that current monitoring and research programmes have a narrow ecological focus that is poorly aligned with real ecosystem processes at relevant spatial and temporal scales, and may therefore lack the ability to detect ecosystem change (Dannheim et al., 2020;Maclean et al., 2014;Wilding et al., 2017). ...
In January 2023 an independent advisory group was established by the Minister for Housing, Local Government and Heritage to conduct an ecological sensitivity analysis of the western Irish Sea to inform future potential designation of MPAs (Marine Protection Areas) in the region.
This report is a significant milestone as we look to manage the Irish Sea in a coherent and sustainable way, enabling and supporting the future designation of Marine Protected areas, and integrating MPAs with the maritime sectors of shipping and fishing and Renewable Offshore Energy.
Further work under the forthcoming MPA legislation will enable potential MPA network solutions to be refined on the basis of national policy, analyses involving additional evidence and the participation and input of stakeholders.
... Improving the sustainability credentials of offshore wind by opening the door to NbS initiatives are of considerable interest to operators. Utilizing licensed sites for additional activities that will enhance or restore local marine life (Wilson and Elliott, 2009;Ashley et al., 2014;Gimpel et al., 2015), develop sustainable aquaculture and/ or for carbon sequestration (Buck et al., 2017) are being investigated worldwide. Co-location of NbS within OWFs has benefits which parallel the increase in competition for marine space (Christie et al., 2014), among ecosystem services and benefits. ...
The extent of seabed licensed for offshore renewables is being expanded with the global requirement to reduce carbon emissions. The opportunity for Nature-based Solutions for restoration, conservation, mariculture, infrastructure protection, and carbon sequestration initiatives are being explored internationally. Co-location of marine renewable or structures with conservation initiatives offers the opportunity to support populations of threatened species and contribute to wider ecosystem services and benefits. Building on experience from a North Sea project, we explore the feasibility to co-locate bivalve species at offshore wind farms. We present a three-step approach to identify offshore wind farm sites with the potential to co-locate with compatible species within a marine licensed area, based on environmental and physical conditions and biological tolerances. These steps are, (1) information collection and data synthesis, (2) data analysis through site suitability and species compatibility assessments, and (3) numerical modelling approaches to test the feasibility of pilot studies and scale-up planned operations. This approach supports feasibility assessment by identification of sites where Nature-based Solution project success is more likely or certain, thereby reducing project costs and risk of failure. An example case study is provided using Gunfleet Sands offshore wind farm (southeast England) and the restoration and conservation of the commercially valuable European Flat Oyster (Ostrea edulis).
... Wang et al. found an apparent increase in the biomass of fishes from 0.0991 ton/(km 2 * year) in 2007 to 0.5681 ton/(km 2 * year) in 2015 in the Jiangsu coastal ecosystem ( Wang et al., 2019 ). In addition, reef fishes are attracted by the attached organisms, including tube worms, barnacles, and sea squirts, through either direct consumption of those sessile species or indirectly receiving food by intake of deposited feces and dead bodies ( Wilson and Elliott, 2009 ;Maar et al., 2009 ). This benefit tends to be more obvious for larval fishes due to their poor swimming ability ( Gill, 2005 ). ...
... But wind farm implementation could also have positive effects by increasing the abundance and biodiversity of hard bottom species due to reef effects (provision of food, spawning, nursery, shelter opportunity) (Punt et al., 2009;Wilson and Elliott, 2009;Langhamer, 2012;Reubens et al., 2013;Ashley et al., 2014;Bray et al., 2016;van Hal et al., 2017;Glarou et al., 2020;Degraer et al., 2020). Indirect impacts, such as the increase in prey species that results from the creation of a no-fishing zone for safety reasons in the OWF, may in some cases have positive impacts. ...
This paper is challenging the new blue deal outlining the need for a change in the expectative. Offshore wind farms (OWFs) are not only a climate-friendly way of producing electricity but also a shifting paradigm unique opportunity, acknowledging the increasing presence of anthropogenic infrastructure in the marine environment and seeing them as the place for recreating relations with non-humans and work with them. We give some ideas that could ground a research program pairing both positive and negative aspects of OWF and study the conditions of realization of mutual beneficial relationship coming from the “mosaic of open-ended assemblages of entangled ways of life.”
... The data set is an essential layer for research to combine environmental data like sea surface conditions (Christiansen et al., 2022), underwater noise (Tougaard et al., 2008;Madsen et al., 2006;Wahlberg and Westerberg, 2005), wind resources (Frandsen et al., 2006;Cavazzi and Dutton, 2016;Badger et al., 2015), migration routes and habitats of birds, fish and mammals (Lloret et al., 2022;Drewitt and Langston, 2006;Wilson and Elliott, 2009;Bailey et al., 2014;Bergström et al., 2014;Slavik et al., 2019), shipping routes, and marine traffic (Yu et al., 2020;Ladan and Hänninen, 2012). ...
The expansion of renewable energies is being driven by the gradual phaseout of fossil fuels in order to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, the steadily increasing demand for energy and, more recently, by geopolitical events. The offshore wind energy sector is on the verge of a massive expansion in Europe, the United Kingdom, China, but also in the USA, South Korea and Vietnam. Accordingly, the largest marine infrastructure projects to date will be carried out in the upcoming decades, with thousands of offshore wind turbines being installed. In order to accompany this process globally and to provide a database for research, development and monitoring, this dissertation presents a deep learning-based approach for object detection that enables the derivation of spatiotemporal developments of offshore wind energy infrastructures from satellite-based radar data of the Sentinel-1 mission. For training the deep learning models for offshore wind energy infrastructure detection, an approach is presented that makes it possible to synthetically generate remote sensing data and the necessary annotation for the supervised deep learning process. In this synthetic data generation process, expert knowledge about image content and sensor acquisition techniques is made machine-readable. Finally, extensive and highly variable training data sets are generated from this knowledge representation, with which deep learning models can learn to detect objects in real-world satellite data. The method for the synthetic generation of training data based on expert knowledge offers great potential for deep learning in Earth observation. Applications of deep learning based methods can be developed and tested faster with this procedure. Furthermore, the synthetically generated and thus controllable training data offer the possibility to interpret the learning process of the optimised deep learning models. The method developed in this dissertation to create synthetic remote sensing training data was finally used to optimise deep learning models for the global detection of offshore wind energy infrastructure. For this purpose, images of the entire global coastline from ESA's Sentinel-1 radar mission were evaluated. The derived data set includes over 9,941 objects, which distinguish offshore wind turbines, transformer stations and offshore wind energy infrastructures under construction from each other. In addition to this spatial detection, a quarterly time series from July 2016 to June 2021 was derived for all objects. This time series reveals the start of construction, the construction phase and the time of completion with subsequent operation for each object. The derived offshore wind energy infrastructure data set provides the basis for an analysis of the development of the offshore wind energy sector from July 2016 to June 2021. For this analysis, further attributes of the detected offshore wind turbines were derived. The most important of these are the height and installed capacity of a turbine. The turbine height was calculated by a radargrammetric analysis of the previously detected Sentinel-1 signal and then used to statistically model the installed capacity. The results show that in June 2021, 8,885 offshore wind turbines with a total capacity of 40.6~GW were installed worldwide. The largest installed capacities are in the EU (15.2~GW), China (14.1~GW) and the United Kingdom (10.7~GW). From July 2016 to June 2021, China has expanded 13~GW of offshore wind energy infrastructure. The EU has installed 8~GW and the UK 5.8~GW of offshore wind energy infrastructure in the same period. This temporal analysis shows that China was the main driver of the expansion of the offshore wind energy sector in the period under investigation. The derived data set for the description of the offshore wind energy sector was made publicly available. It is thus freely accessible to all decision-makers and stakeholders involved in the development of offshore wind energy projects. Especially in the scientific context, it serves as a database that enables a wide range of investigations. Research questions regarding offshore wind turbines themselves as well as the influence of the expansion in the coming decades can be investigated. This supports the imminent and urgently needed expansion of offshore wind energy in order to promote sustainable expansion in addition to the expansion targets that have been set.
... However, such multi-use has also been considered as a viable concept in the Mediterranean: in France, for combination with future offshore wind farms [73] and in Cyprus, as a feed management system powered by a stand-alone renewable energy system [68] . ...
Plan Bleu (2022) Towards a Sustainable Development of Marine Renewable Energies
in the Mediterranean, Interreg MED Blue Growth Community project.
... Most studies investigated single pressures, with few papers addressing the interaction of two or more pressures produced by wind energy devices [27][28][29] . In total, 24 studies investigated more than one pressure, and only about half of them dealt with three or more pressures (one study investigated four pressures and three studies five pressures [30][31][32] ). Among them, three were literature reviews 30,31,33 . ...
Offshore wind energy is widely regarded as one of the most credible sources for
increasing renewable energy production towards a resilient and decarbonised energy supply. However, current expectations for the expansion of energy production from offshore wind may lead to significant environmental impacts. Assessing ecological risks to marine ecosystems from electricity production from wind is both timely and vital. It will support the adoption of management measures that minimize impacts and the environmental sustainability of the offshore wind energy sector.
... Previous studies have shown that OWFs can impact areas through the introduction and spread of alien species (De Mesel et al., 2015;Wilhelmsson and Malm, 2008), affect organic matter deposition (De Borger et al., 2021) and carbon assimilation (Mavraki et al., 2020), and alter community structures (Coates et al., 2014;Hutchison et al., 2020;Wilhelmsson and Malm, 2008) through the loss of soft-sediment habitats and the subsequent introduction of artificial hard-bottom substrates. The newly created habitat is usually larger than the lost habitat (Wilson and Elliott, 2009). The recorded impacts also in-clude the recovery of the benthic biodiversity as a result of reduced trawling activities (Bergman et al., 2015;Coates et al., 2016) as well as an increase in nurseries for commercially important and/or protected species (Krone et al., 2017). ...
Artificial substrates associated with renewable offshore energy infrastructure, such as floating offshore wind farms, enable the establishment of benthic communities with a taxonomic composition similar to that of naturally occurring rocky intertidal habitats. The size of the biodiversity impact and the structural changes in benthic habitats will depend on the selected locations. The aim of the study is to assess colonisation and zonation, quantify diversity and abundance, and identify any non-indigenous species present within the wind farm area, as well as to describe changes in the epifouling growth between 2018 and 2020, with regards to coverage and thickness. This article is based on work undertaken within the offshore floating Hywind Scotland Pilot Park, the first floating offshore wind park established in the world, located approximately 25 km east of Peterhead, Scotland. The floating pilot park is situated in water depths of approximately 120 m, with a seabed characterised predominantly by sand and gravel substrates with occasional patches of mixed sediments. The study utilised a work class remotely operated vehicle with a mounted high-definition video camera, deployed from the survey vessel M/V Stril Explorer. A total of 41 structures, as well as their associated sub-components, including turbines substructures, mooring lines, suction anchors and infield cables, were analysed with regards to diversity, abundance, colonisation, coverage and zonation. This approach provides comprehensive coverage of whole structures in a safe and time-saving manner. A total of 11 phyla with 121 different taxa were observed, with macrofauna as well as macroalgae and filamentous algae being identified on the different structures. The submerged turbines measured approximately 80 m in height and exhibited distinct patterns of zonation. Plumose anemones (Metridium senile) and tube-building fan worms (Spirobranchus sp.) dominated the bottom and mid-sections (80–20 m) of the turbines, while kelp and other Phaeophyceae with blue mussels (Mytilus spp.) dominated top sections of the turbines (20–0 m). A general increase in the coverage of the epifouling growth between 2018 and 2020 was observed, whereas the change in thickness between years was more variable.
... Stone protection is often used to protect the base of turbines from sand scour. The introduction of hard substrate in the form of scour stone, can generate a complex habitat further enhancing biodiversity, potentially offsetting habitat loss by up to 2.5 times (Wilson and Elliott, 2009). This can form ideal habitat for crustaceans (Krone et al., 2017) and has been predicted to increase diversity associated with OWF by up to 55% (Raoux et al., 2017). ...
The global expansion of offshore windfarms (OWF), whilst seen as a tool to combat climate change, can often be of concern to fishing communities already challenged by spatial restrictions. Static gear fisheries, due to their strong fidelity to specific sites, can be particularly affected by spatial conflict with OWF. Here we investigate, using four sampling efforts over a six-year period, the effects of the development of the Westermost Rough OWF (UK) on a commercially important European Lobster (Homarus gammarus) population. A collaborative study was developed and conducted by the local fishery and the developer. A baseline potting survey was conducted ∼ every 4 days over the summer months of 2013 (pre-construction) and post-construction surveys were conducted in 2015, 2017, and 2019. Size, catch, and landings per unit of effort (CPUE & LPUE) of all lobsters were recorded and compared between sites and between years. Size structure and catch rates differed between years, however differences were not observed in comparisons of the windfarm and export cable to their associated control sites within each year, although there were compounding factors associated with the proximity of the control sites to the treatment sites. There was a short-term increase in size and catch rates of lobsters associated with the construction phase of the windfarm site, but this was not observed during the subsequent operational phase surveys. Although the impacts of windfarms on fisheries will vary on a case-by-case basis, this study has implications for the expansion of offshore wind developments on other static gear crustacean fisheries.
... En effet, avec 11 millions 20 de km² de domaine maritime, la France a potentiellement une très grande réserve d'énergie marine à exploiter. Les parcs éoliens en mer, qu'ils soient posés ou flottants, affectent le fonctionnement de l'écosystème (Inger et al., 2009) : -L'effet récif se caractérise par la colonisation par des organismes fixés de toutes les surfaces immergées, qui offrent de nouveaux substrats (Wilson et Elliott, 2009) : pieux pour les éoliennes posées, câbles et flotteurs pour les éoliennes flottantes. Les principales espèces retrouvées sur ces structures sont des bivalves filtreurs, et notamment les moules (Wilhelmsson et Malm, 2008;Langhamer et al., 2009;Krone et al., 2013). ...
Les effets actuels du changement climatique dû aux émissions de gaz à effets de serre, sur les écosystèmes et les sociétés sont indéniables. La France dispose de nombreux gisements lui permettant de développer les Energies Marines Renouvelables, et notamment les parcs éoliens, afin d’opérer une transition énergétique. L’objectif de cette thèse est de mettre en place une approche écosystémique estimant les effets combinés de l’implantation d’un parc éolien flottant dans le Golfe de Gascogne et du changement climatique. Premièrement, un modèle de distribution spatiale des espèces a servi à projeter la niche écologique potentielle des espèces de poissons et de céphalopodes du Golfe de Gascogne, ainsi que des espèces subtropicales non indigènes, indiquant une modification des communautés marines. Puis, plusieurs modèles Ecopath ont été mis en place pour projeter les conséquences de ces arrivées sur le réseau trophique actuel, illustrant de nombreux impacts. Enfin, une spatialisation de ces deux premières parties a été réalisée grâce au module Ecospace, pour simuler l’implantation d’un parc éolien flottant, avec ses effets sur la faune marine (i.e. effet récif, effet DCP et effet réserve), dans un écosystème déjà soumis au changement climatique. Les résultats indiquent des effets positifs sur la faune marine à l’intérieur du parc.
... Wind farms may affect seabird populations through several pathways, including: collision (Musters et al. 1996, Desholm & Kahlert 2005, Newton & Little 2009); displacement (Welcker & Nehls 2016, MMO 2018; barriers to movement (Desholm & Kahlert 2005, Masden et al. 2010; and habitat alterations (Inger et al. 2009, Andersson & Öhman 2010. Wind farms may also provide de facto marine protected areas by excluding fisheries (Halouani et al. 2020), and seabird attraction to offshore turbines may arise from potential foraging opportunities created by turbines and other infrastructure acting as epifaunal reefs, fish aggregation devices (Inger et al. 2009, Wilson & Elliott 2009, and/or platforms for resting (Savidge et al. 2014, Dierschke et al. 2016. However, the extent to which seabird collision risk is influenced by the attraction to turbines is currently poorly understood. ...
Movements through or use of offshore wind farms by seabirds while commuting or foraging may increase the potential for collision with turbine blades. Collision risk models provide a method for estimating potential impacts of wind farms on seabird populations, but are sensitive to input parameters, including avoidance rates (ARs). Refining understanding of avoidance through the use of high-resolution empirical movement data has the potential to inform assessments of the collision impacts of offshore wind farms on seabird populations. We assessed the movements of GPS-tagged lesser black-backed gulls Larus fuscus from a breeding colony in northwest England to estimate the species’ AR and avoidance/attraction index (AAI) to nearby offshore wind farms. To investigate both macro- (0-4 km) and meso-scale (0-200 m) responses to wind turbines, we used calculations of AR and AAI based on simulated vs. observed tracks. We found that birds exhibited an AR of -0.15 (95% CI: -0.44 to 0.06), indicating a degree of attraction within 4 km of the wind farms. However, AAI values varied with distance from wind farm boundaries, with a degree of avoidance displayed between 3 and 4 km, which weakened as distance bands approach wind farm boundaries. Meso-scale avoidance/attraction was assessed with regard to the nearest individual turbine, and flight height relative to the rotor height range (RHR) of the nearest turbine. We found attraction increased below the RHR at distances <70 m, while avoidance increased within the RHR at distances approaching the turbine. We explore how high-resolution tracking data can be used to improve our knowledge of L. fuscus avoidance/attraction behaviour to established wind farms, and so inform assessments of collision impacts.
... Scour and cable protection at offshore renewable sites can be defined as artificial reef habitats and have created positive reef effects on surrounding ecosystems (Krone et al., 2017;Langhamer, 2012). The use of artificial reefs as an addition or replacement to this infrastructure could significantly enhance the reef effect by increasing habitat complexity, aiding in the restoration of biodiversity (Glarou et al., 2020;Lengkeek et al., 2017;Wilson and Elliott, 2009). The use of artificial reefs and the modification of hard infrastructure to enhance biodiversity are considered of strategic importance to the UK government and statutory bodies (DEFRA, 2011;Natural England, 2021). ...
Reef Cubes® are novel artificial reef units intended to enhance habitat complexity and provide hard substrate around marine man-made infrastructure. If made with Portland Cement, Reef Cubes® could create numerous negative environmental impacts, including a high carbon footprint. Alkali-activated materials (AAMs) are a collection of alternative binders associated with lower embodied emissions but alterations to concrete chemistry can affect the development of marine fouling communities. The objectives of this study were to evaluate the effect of replacing Portland Cement with an AAM binder on the development of macrofouling communities on Reef Cubes®. 25 cm sided Reef Cubes® were manufactured using three different concrete material types and deployed in the subtidal zone of Torbay, Devon, UK. The material types were an alkali activated slag concrete (Type: AAM), a cement-limestone blend (CEM-II) concrete (Type: C) and a cement-limestone blend (CEM-II) concrete with an additional micro silica pozzolan and an exposed aggregate texture (Type: CP). After 1 year of immersion the Reef Cubes® were retrieved, and fouling communities were analysed visually or scraped and weighed to gauge biomass. Univariate metrics of species richness, species diversity, total live cover, total biomass, calcareous mass and live biomass; and multivariate community compositions were compared. There were no significant differences in species richness, species diversity, total biomass, calcareous mass and live biomass between the material types. Total live cover was significantly different; with C appearing the highest, followed by AAM and CP, however pairwise comparisons were not significant. The community compositions on the AAM and C Reef Cubes® were not significantly different. Both were significantly different to the CP material type, which had a higher abundance of erect Bryozoans. The results suggest that compared to cement-based concretes, AAMs are a satisfactory substrate for the development of epibenthic communities on Reef Cubes®. There was also evidence contrary to common artificial reef practice that exposing the aggregate and incorporating a pozzolan improves biodiversity.
... Many studies indicate that OWFs may also lead to ecosystem benefits, as consequence of reduced pressures from shipping, commercial trawling and dredging in the area. This may enable the establishment of large areas of seabed, and consequently, creation of a new habitat (Gill 2005, Inger et al. 2009, Wilson and Elliott 2009. Thus, there is a potential increase in local biodiversity (van der Molen et al. 2014). ...
... Although offshore wind farms (OWF) contribute to a reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, they also have an impact on the environment, either leading to habitat loss but also to habitat gain (Wilson and Elliott, 2009;Miller et al., 2013). While different ecological aspects have already been studied, the understanding of ecological consequences over the operational life of OWFs on the benthic environment is still limited (Miller et al., 2013;Heery et al., 2017). ...
In search of available space and higher load factors in the contested coastal areas, offshore wind parks are more often planned and installed in deeper waters or have to sustain intensified hydrodynamic loads. In consequence, complex offshore foundation structures such as jacket-type foundations are adopted more frequently, as they have an increased structural stability. However, the literature review of the present thesis reveals large knowledge gaps regarding the prediction of scouring processes around complex offshore foundations. A reliable prediction of scouring processes is an important aspect of sustainable and economically optimised foundation designs. An improved understanding of morphological processes around offshore foundations is also important to evaluate and predict the man-made impact of offshore foundations on the previously unaffected marine environment. This thesis aims at contributing to the understanding of morphodynamical processes around offshore structures, with a focus on complex offshore foundations. This is accomplished by addressing different research questions related to: (I) the scouring processes induced by a realistic representation of hydrodynamic conditions around monopiles and jacket-type structures; (II) the spatial scour depth changes and deposition patterns around offshore foundation structures; (III) the damage assessment and stability of scour protections. A series of novel hydraulic model tests were carried out to systematically work on different aspects of these topics. (I) In order to further improve the understanding and prediction of scouring under realistic hydraulic conditions, the influence of the hydrograph shape on tidal current induced scour as well as scouring induced by multidirectional waves and currents is investigated around a monopile. Further investigations are conducted regarding the scour development, scouring rate and final scour depth in combined waves and current conditions at a jacket-type foundation structure. (II) In the next step, an approach is developed to quantify and assess spatial changes of the seabed around marine structures. The systematic application of this approach allows the derivation of empirical formulations to predict complex erosion or deposition patterns. This is demonstrated by the investigation of global scour patterns in combined waves and current conditions around jacket-type foundations. In a further study, geostatistical methods are developed for the introduced methodology to further improve the spatial prediction and quantification of complex sediment displacement patterns. (III) In the final step, the characterisation and assessment of damage patterns of scour protection layers is improved by the derivation of a new approach to quantify damage patterns. Large scale experiments under combined wave-current conditions are conducted in this context for uniformly and widely graded scour protection material in a joint group.
... Concrete gravity based anchors or sinkers have a greater eco-engineering potential than other mooring solutions since they can be designed to provide habitat, shelter, and even nursing grounds for target species like lobsters, oysters, octopus and alike and generally be designed to offer greater ecosystem services for fish (both resident and transient species). Researchers like Wilson and Elliott [66] and Lacroix and Pioch [67] have reviewed this topic, and presented theoretical schemes that can be implemented in offshore wind projects, actual field studies are severely lacking, let alone full-scale implementations of such enhancement measure. To unlock this potential, and reduce the ecological footprint of future offshore projects, such enhancement measure should turn into reality and use bio-enhancing concrete for gravity-based moorings, designed to match the ecological needs of local species. ...
... ORE systems can also have potential benefits: supplying new habitat for colonization of benthic species (Wilson and Elliott, 2009;Krone et al., 2013;Nall et al., 2017;Dannheim et al., 2020), and supplying new nursery areas and feeding grounds (artificial reef effect) (Coolen, 2017;Gill et al., 2018). Similar to existing offshore infrastructure (e.g., oil and gas platforms), an MPP may require establishment of local exclusion zones to other industries (e.g., fishing), thereby inadvertently creating small marine protected areas (Coates et al., 2016;Roach et al., 2018). ...
Aquaculture and marine renewable energy are two expanding sectors of the Blue Economy in Europe. Assessing the long-term environmental impacts in terms of eutrophication and noise is a priority for both the EU Water Framework Directive and the Marine Strategy Framework Directive, and cumulative impacts will be important for the Maritime Spatial Planning under the Integrated Maritime Policy. With the constant expansion of aquaculture production, it is expected that farms might be established further offshore in more remote areas, as high-energy conditions offer an opportunity to generate more power locally using Marine Renewable Energy (MRE) devices. A proposed solution is the co-location of MRE devices and aquaculture systems using Multi-Purpose Platforms (MPPs) comprising offshore wind turbines (OWTs) that will provide energy for farm operations as well as potentially shelter the farm. Disentangling the impacts, conflicts and synergies of MPP elements on the surrounding marine ecosystem is challenging. Here we created a high-resolution spatiotemporal Ecospace model of the West of Scotland, in order to assess impacts of a simple MPP configuration on the surrounding ecosystem and how these impacts can cascade through the food web. The model evaluated the following specific ecosystem responses: (i) top-down control pathways due to distribution changes among top-predators (harbor porpoise, gadoids and seabirds) driven by attraction to the farming sites and/or repulsion/killing due to OWT operations; (ii) bottom-up control pathways due to salmon farm activity providing increasing benthic enrichment predicated by a fish farm particle dispersal model, and sediment nutrient fluxes to the water column by early diagenesis of organic matter (recycled production). Weak responses of the food-web were found for top-down changes, whilst the results showed high sensitivity to increasing changes of bottom-up drivers that cascaded through the food-web from primary producers and detritus to pelagic and benthic consumers, respectively. We assessed the sensitivity of the model to each of these impacts and the cumulative effects on the ecosystem, discuss the capabilities and limitations of the Ecospace modeling approach as a potential tool for marine spatial planning and the impact that these results could have for the Blue Economy and the EU’s New Green Deal.
... Some project components can be selected or designed to avoid or reduce biodiversity impact. 371 The installation of a monopile foundation and the associated scour protection can create 2.5 times the amount of area that was lost through installation (Wilson & Elliott, 2009). ...
Achieving a climate-resilient future requires rapid, sustained and far-reaching transformations in energy, land-use, infrastructure and industrial systems. Large-scale expansion of renewable energy can play a critical role in meeting the world’s growing energy demands and in the fight against climate change. However, even ‘clean’ energy sources can have significant unintended impacts on the environment. The guidelines aim to provide practical support for solar and wind energy developments by effectively managing risks and improving overall outcomes related to biodiversity and ecosystem services. They are industry-focused and can be applied across the whole project development life cycle, from early planning through to decommissioning and repowering, using the mitigation hierarchy as a clear framework for planning and implementation. The mitigation hierarchy is applied to direct, indirect and cumulative impacts.
... • Changes in sediment transport and deposition 116 Additional changes to the surrounding habitat will also occur from the physical presence of the MRED structures in the sea and fishing restrictions within and around the MREDs 110,116,135 . Scour protection around the base of MREDs to reduce erosion acts as artificial reefs and subsequently creates up to 2.5 times more habitat than that lost by array installation, albeit it may be of a different character 136 . MREDs may; therefore, increase biodiversity through new habitat creation 135,137,138 . ...
... This has profound benefits for the local and regional environment and the potential local fisheries in the area. [125][126][127] • Impact on ship sailing: The seas area near the coast has abundant and stable wind resources, so it is an ideal location for wind turbines. However, the installation of the wind turbine will inevitably have a certain impact on the navigation of the ship. ...
Wind energy conversion system, aiming to convert mechanical energy of air flow into electrical energy has been widely concerned in recent decades. According to the installation sites, the wind energy conversion system can be divided into land‐based wind conversion system and offshore wind energy conversion (OWEC) system. Compared to land‐based wind energy technology, although OWEC started later, it has attracted more attentions due to its significant advantages in sufficient wind energy, low wind shear, high power output and low land occupancy rate. In this paper, the principle of wind energy conversion and the development status of offshore wind power in the world are briefly introduced at first. And then, the advantages and disadvantages of several offshore wind energy device (OWED), such as horizontal axis OWED, vertical axis OWED and cross axis OWED are compared. Subsequently, several major constraints, such as complex marine environment, deep‐sea power transmission and expensive cost of equipment installation faced by offshore wind conversion technology are presented and comprehensively analysed. Finally, based on the summary and analysis of some emerging technologies and the current situation of offshore wind energy utilization, the development trend of offshore wind power is envisioned. In the future, it is expected to witness multi‐energy complementary, key component optimization and intelligent control strategy for smooth energy generation of offshore wind power systems. Offshore wind energy conversion (OWEC) has attracted intensive attentions due to its significant advantages in sufficient wind energy, high power output and low land occupancy rate. This article firstly introduces the state‐of‐the‐art of the development status of the offshore wind energy technology worldwide, and then comprehensively analyzes the advantages and constraints of the OWEC technology. Finally, the future development trend of the offshore wind energy is envisioned.
... ecosystems conservation/restoration, fish stocks enhancement/management ;Thierry, 1988;Bohnsack et al., 1991;Jensen et al., 2000) and (ii) those deployed for another primary purpose, such as oil rigs, breakwaters, or marine renewable energy (MRE) facilities (e.g. windfarms, tidal turbines, and wave energy converters; Wilson and Elliott, 2009;Langhamer, 2012;Lima et al., 2019). Globally, the number of MRE structures has rapidly increased to meet the growing demand for renewable energy as a mitigation strategy against global anthropogenic climate change (Copping et al., 2014;Lindeboom et al., 2015;Coolen et al., 2018). ...
Succession in epibenthic communities on artificial reefs associated with marine renewable energy facilities within a tide-swept environment. Although colonization of artificial structures by epibenthic communities is well-documented overall, our understanding of colonization processes is largely limited to low-energy environments. In this study, we monitored epibenthic colonization of different structures associated with a tidal energy test site located in a high-energy hydrodynamic environment. Using four years of image-based underwater surveys, we characterized changes through space and time in the taxonomic composition of epibenthic assemblages colonizing two kinds of artificial structures, as well as the surrounding natural habitat. Our results highlight that ecological successions followed similar trends across the two artificial habitats, but that different habitat-specific communities emerged at the end of our survey. Deployment of these artificial structures resulted in the addition of elevated and stable substrata in an environment where natural hard substrates are unstable and strongly exposed to sediment abrasion. Although epibenthic communities colonizing artificial habitats are unlikely to have reached a mature stage at the end of our survey, these supported structurally complex taxa facilitating an overall increase in local diversity. We were able to quantify how epi-benthic communities can significantly vary over time in high-energy coastal environment, and our final survey suggests that the ecological succession was still in progress five years after the deployment of artificial reefs. Thus, maintaining long-term continuous survey of coastal artificial reef habitats will be key to better discriminate between long-term ecological successions and shorter-term variability.
... Species larvae and juveniles can disperse to the surrounding areas leading to a 'spill-over effect', enhancing local production (Sale et al., 2005;Coll et al., 2016;Piroddi et al., 2017). These infrastructures can also create new substrates for benthic organisms Martin et al., 2005;Wilson and Elliott, 2009). The creation of new benthic habitats can lead to either displacement or attraction of benthic species in the local area, resulting in changes to local food-web dynamics with both positive and negative impacts on species distribution and abundances (Davis et al., 1982;Barros et al., 2001;Fabi et al., 2002;Fukunaga and Bailey-Brock, 2008). ...
“Blue Growth” and “Blue Economy” is defined by the World Bank as: “the sustainable use of ocean resources for economic growth, improved livelihoods and jobs, while preserving the health of ocean ecosystem”. Multi-purpose platforms (MPPs) can be defined as offshore platforms serving the needs of multiple offshore industries (energy and aquaculture), aim at exploiting the synergies and managing the tensions arising when closely co-locating systems from these industries.
Despite a number of previous projects aimed at assessing, from a multidisciplinary point of view, the feasibility of multipurpose platforms, it is here shown that the state-of-the-art has focused mainly on single-purpose devices, and adopting a single discipline (either economic, or social, or technological, or environmental) approaches. Therefore, the aim of the present study is to provide a multidisciplinary state of the art review on, whenever possible, multi-purpose platforms, complementing it with single-purpose and/or single discipline literature reviews when not possible. Synoptic tables are provided, giving an overview of the multi-purpose platform concepts investigated, the numerical approaches adopted, and a comprehensive snapshot classifying the references discussed by industry (offshore renewables, aquaculture, both) and by aspect (technological, environmental, socio-economic). The majority of the multi-purpose platform concepts proposed are integrating only multiple offshore renewable energy devices (e.g. hybrid wind-wave), with only few integrating also aquaculture systems. MPPs have significant potential in economizing CAPEX and operational costs for the offshore energy and aquaculture industry by means of concerted spatial planning and sharing of infrastructure.
Havsbaserad vindkraft kan påverka fisk på olika sätt under anläggnings- drifts- och avvecklingsfasen. Under anläggningsfasen är lokalt ökade ljudvolymer och spridning av sediment faktorer att beakta. Under driftsfasen tillför havsbaserade vindkraftverk en hårdbottenmiljö som kan fungera som artificiellt rev där fisk ansamlas. Viktigt med en lokal bedömning av hur fisk påverkas när vindparker ska anläggas, eftersom det råder olika förutsättningar i de havsområden som omger Sverige. Mycket talar för att vindkraftverk till havs inte utgör ett hot för fiskarter eller fiskpopulationer.
The need for alternative strategies to assist in the monitoring and sustainable management of fisheries’ resources is becoming increasingly important. In recent years, greater utilization of fishers’ knowledge has been advocated as a potentially valuable source of data that could be applied to fisheries management issues. In the current study, we addressed this by investigating the landing per unit effort (LPUE) of European lobster (Homarus gammarus) from within an offshore wind farm using a fisheries-dependent commercial fishing logbook. The logbook was provided by a single fisherman who targeted lobsters within the wind farm between 2015 and 2022 using single pots deployed in association with individual wind turbines. Generalized linear mixed modeling was used to investigate changes in LPUE over temporal scales and as the result of the presence of scour protection at turbine locations. LPUE was found to be significantly higher at turbine locations where scour protection was present compared to those turbines where it was not. Predictions from modeling suggested LPUE was nearly 1.5× greater at turbines where scour protection was present. Significant differences in mean monthly and yearly LPUE were detected with this variation likely to reflect seasonal changes in lobster activity and the effect of introducing fishing into a previously unfished area. This work highlights the potential for fishing logbooks to be applied in fisheries management. Our results also demonstrate potential fishing opportunities arising from the development of offshore wind farms and the potential for these opportunities to be enhanced.
The article discusses the problems of complex impact of the fuel and en- ergy complex in the Asia-Pacific region on the structure and functioning of hydrobioceno- ses. The types of impact on the components of aquatic biota of both individual structures of the oil and gas energy industry and various facilities of the energy sector belonging to the renewable energy cluster (in particular, to the infrastructure of wind and tidal power plants) are considered. Mechanisms of implementation of the International Convention on the Pre- vention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter are discussed within the framework of the problem in question; examples are given, in particular, of transfor- mation of oil and gas production infrastructure facilities by creating artificial reefs in ac- cordance with the Protocol Governing the Issues of Decommissioning Offshore Oil Plat- forms. Recovery of the population of commercial fish and other valuable hydrobionts is also touched upon. The paper describes negative and positive effects of various energy fa- cilities located on the shelf on the components of aquatic ecosystem biodiversity.
As offshore wind energy developments increase globally in response to climate change, it is important to gain an understanding of the effects they are having on the marine environment. Whilst there is growing information on the types of organisms present within these sites, our knowledge of how species interact with these sites is limited. For the first time we examined the movements and habitat utilization of a temperate decapod, the European Lobster Homarus gammarus, using acoustic telemetry within an offshore wind farm (OWF). Innovasea V9 acoustic transmitters were externally attached to 33 individuals (carapace length = 87–113 mm) at three turbine locations within an offshore wind farm in the Irish Sea. Individuals were found to exhibit high residency to the tagging sites, with over half of tagged lobsters present at the tagging sites for 70% of the study period. Individual home ranges and core territories were calculated using 95% and 50% kernel density, respectively. Home ranges ranged from 9313.76 to 23 156.48m2 while core territories ranged from 1084.05 to 6037.38m2. Over 50% of all detections were recorded within 35 m of the scour protection. These results suggest that particular areas of habitat within fixed-turbine OWFs provide a suitable habitat for lobsters. We postulate that this is likely the result of artificial reef effects arising from the addition of artificial hard substate into previously soft sediment dominated habitats. Therefore, future fixed-turbine OWF developments across Europe may provide potential fishery opportunities as a result of artificial reef effects.
The rapid growth of renewable energy developments, particularly offshore wind, means that worldwide there are hundreds of artificial structures in the marine environment that will at some point require removal. Decommissioning activities can have a range of effects on the environment, which are assessed through an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) prior to removal. EIA provides an opportunity to explore the best environmental options for decommissioning if utilised early in the planning process during the wind farm design. EIA should be utilised as a decision-aiding tool to assess impacts and design mitigation and monitoring across the life of an asset. In this paper, potential environmental impacts, mitigation measures, and alternative actions are explored as examples of best environmental practice-based thinking at a range of scales and for multiple receptors. The removal of structures might be challenging with regards to best environmental options if countries require changes to policy. We pose alternative actions to be considered in EIA which take circular economy into account and maximise environmental benefit in the long term. To enable the best environmental outcomes, we propose that EIA should be used proactively and reflectively with a tailored approach to designing decommissioning.
Coastal environments, in particular heavily populated semi-enclosed marginal seas and coasts like the Baltic Sea region, are strongly affected by human activities. A multitude of human impacts, including climate change, affect the different compartments of the environment, and these effects interact with each other. As part of the Baltic Earth Assessment Reports (BEAR), we present an inventory and discussion of different human-induced factors and processes affecting the environment of the Baltic Sea region, and their interrelations. Some are naturally occurring and modified by human activities (i.e. climate change, coastal processes, hypoxia, acidification, submarine groundwater discharges, marine ecosystems, non-indigenous species, land use and land cover), some are completely human-induced (i.e. agriculture, aquaculture, fisheries, river regulations, offshore wind farms, shipping, chemical contamination, dumped warfare agents, marine litter and microplastics, tourism, and coastal management), and they are all interrelated to different degrees. We present a general description and analysis of the state of knowledge on these interrelations. Our main insight is that climate change has an overarching, integrating impact on all of the other factors and can be interpreted as a background effect, which has different implications for the other factors. Impacts on the environment and the human sphere can be roughly allocated to anthropogenic drivers such as food production, energy production, transport, industry and economy. The findings from this inventory of available information and analysis of the different factors and their interactions in the Baltic Sea region can largely be transferred to other comparable marginal and coastal seas in the world.
Coastal environments, in particular heavily populated semi-enclosed marginal seas and coasts like the Baltic Sea region, are stongly affected by human activities. A multitude of human impacts, including climate change, affects the different compartments of the environment, and these effects interact with each other. As part of the Baltic Earth Assessment Reports (BEAR), we present an inventory and discussion of different human-induced factors and processes affecting the environment of the Baltic Sea region, and their interrelations. Some are naturally occurring and modified by human activities (i.e. climate change, coastal processes, hypoxia, acidification, submarine groundwater discharges, marine ecosystems, non-indigenous species, land use and land cover), some are completely human-induced (i.e. agriculture, aquaculture, fisheries, river regulations, offshore wind farms, shipping, chemical contamination, dumped warfare agents, marine litter and microplastics, tourism, coastal management), and they are all interrelated to different degrees. We present a general description and analysis of the state of knowledge on these interrelations. Our main insight is that climate change has an overarching, integrating impact on all of the other factors and can be interpreted as a background effect, which has different implications for the other factors. Impacts on the environment and the human sphere can be roughly allocated to anthropogenic drivers such as food production, energy production, transport, industry and economy. We conclude that a sound management and regulation of human activities must be implemented in order to use and keep the environments and ecosystems of the Baltic Sea region sustainably in a good shape. This must balance the human needs, which exert tremendous pressures on the systems, as humans are the overwhelming driving force for almost all changes we see. The findings from this inventory of available information and analysis of the different factors and their interactions in the Baltic Sea region can largely be transferred to other comparable marginal and coastal seas in the world.
United States offshore wind energy development (OWD) is poised to expand significantly in the coming decade as a result of substantial wind resources adjacent to large population and coastal load centers. A significant portion of OWD infrastructure may be sited within or adjacent to parks and protected areas, raising concerns about the potential social, situational, and ecological impacts upon coastal recreation. This novel study investigated the influence of perceived recreation impact and coping behaviors upon coastal recreationists’ general attitudes towards potential OWD at the New Hampshire seacoast. On-site surveys were used to collect data from New Hampshire coastal recreationists from June to September of 2019 (n = 553). The study sample’s perceptions towards the acceptance, support, fit, and recreation impact of OWD at the New Hampshire Seacoast was largely supportive and positive. The overall sample perceived the presence of OWD would not cause them to alter or substitute their recreation activities, behaviors, or experiences. Moreover, structural equation modeling suggests perceived recreation impact and coping behaviors are significant predictors of general attitudes towards OWD. Further, a lack of measurable effect from photo-elicitation priming suggests viewshed impacts and the spatial proximity of OWD siting did not have a significant influence upon general attitudes towards OWD. This research offers critical insights into the theories of stress-coping and landscape fit and calls into question the assumption that situational factors such as OWD act as a stressor on coastal recreation. This study found that OWD will likely have little impact on aggregate coastal recreation visitation, and in some instances, may even amplify visitation. This research demonstrates the importance of evaluating coastal recreationists’ perceptions, behaviors, and attitudes from a social-ecological approach when initiating OWD projects in the United States and abroad.
An increasing number of offshore structures are being deployed worldwide to meet the growing demand for renewable energy. Besides energy production, these structures can also provide new artificial habitats to a diversity of fish and crustacean species. This study characterises how concrete mattresses that stabilise the submarine power cable of a tidal energy test site can increase habitat capacity for benthic megafauna. A five-year monitoring, which relied on both visual counts and video-based surveys by divers, revealed that these mattresses provide a suitable habitat for 5 taxa of large crustaceans and fish. In particular, two commercially valuable species, i.e. the edible crab Cancer pagurus and the European lobster Homarus gammarus, showed a constant occupancy of these artificial habitats throughout the course of the project. The shape and the number of shelters available below individual mattresses largely determine potential for colonisation by mobile megafauna. Local physical characteristics of the implantation site (e.g. substratum type, topography, exposition to current etc.) significantly impact amount and type of shelters provided by the concrete mattresses. Thus, to characterise habitat potential of artificial structures, it is not only essential to consider (i) the design of the structures, but also to (ii) account for their interactions with local environmental conditions when deployed on the seafloor.
Les Énergies Marines Renouvelables (EMR) prennent une part de plus en plus importante au niveau français et européen pour répondre aux défis énergétiques et environnementaux actuels. Les structures immergées des EMR, notamment les matelas de béton stabilisant les câbles, présentent les caractéristiques d’un récif artificiel induisant un effet récif. L’augmentation des sites EMR nécessite de développer des méthodes peu chronophages et peu coûteuses de suivi des structures artificielles immergées et des écosystèmes benthiques naturels aux alentours. L’imagerie sous-marine est une méthode pertinente, non destructive, qui permet d'optimiser le rapport entre le temps de plongée (donc le coût) et la quantité de données obtenue. L'objectif de ce stage est d'évaluer l'apport de la vidéo sous-marine pour l'étude de la colonisation par la mégafaune benthique des structures artificielles associées aux projets d'EMR par (i) la comparaison des méthodes de recensement in situ en plongée et d'exploitation de vidéos sous-marines a posteriori pour l'acquisition et le traitement de données qui visent à décrire une communauté de mégafaune benthique associée aux matelas stabilisateurs, et (ii) la caractérisation des préférences d'habitat de certaines espèces cibles de la mégafaune mobile grâce au traitement des vidéos sous-marines. Ce travail met en évidence un biais de la vidéo qui sous-estime les espèces Homard, Tourteau et Congre. Les réponses des espèces étudiées vis à vis des différents types d'habitat potentiel sont hétérogènes et donnent l'intuition qu'une augmentation du nombre de trous fabriqués et calibrés pour chaque espèce augmenterait la capacité d'accueil des structures. Les futures études de conception des EMR devront prendre en compte cet aspect conjointement avec une gestion des activités humaines afin de répondre aux mieux aux questions environnementales actuelles et de demain, en particulier celles de préservation des stocks d'espèces exploitées.
Increasing concerns over climate change have prompted rapid growth of renewable energy over the past few decades, particularly wind energy. However, as the installation of wind farms rises, so will the need for decommissioning and analysis of the environmental impacts associated with decommissioning. This paper investigates how Environmental Impacts Assessments (EIA) identify, estimate and manage potential impacts of decommissioning. EIAs from 12 onshore and offshore windfarms consented between 2009 and 2014 in England and Scotland were analysed and compared. Attributes of these windfarms' Environmental Statements (ES) were scored under six categories: decommissioning in EIA stages, definitions of decommissioning, amount of analysis, depth of analysis, impacts identified, and proactive planning. Onshore windfarms generally tended to investigate the impacts of decommissioning less than offshore windfarms, even those which gained consent in the same year. The investigation of the impact of decommissioning improved for windfarms consented in the latter years of the study period. Across the ESs there was a lack of analysis of potential impacts from decommissioning in their own right: not simply as a reversal of the construction process. The impacts of different end of life scenarios were not analysed in any of the ESs studied. There is evidence to suggest the presence of windfarms, especially offshore, could in some cases be environmentally beneficial for certain species. However, the ecological impact of removing offshore structures at the end of life is unknown and is currently not investigated nor predicted in EIAs. Understanding the potential implications of full or partial removal of marine structures, or alternatives to decommissioning, could ensure that appropriate mitigation is considered at an early stage by both developer and consenting authority. That being said, it is also important to update the assessment of potential impacts over the life of the project as more information on the environment is gathered and end of life plans develop.
Given the increasing competition for marine resources, regulatory strategies that benefit multiple stakeholders are increasingly important. Offshore wind power generating facilities are becoming more common in the marine environment and alter the characteristics of the fisheries in the surrounding area. Floating wind turbines can act as fish aggregating devices (FAD), thereby increasing the catchability for some species. Many marine recreational fisheries are open access without effort restrictions; therefore, control of total harvest is difficult. Creating a limited entry recreational fishery and excluding commercial fishing from the area surrounding offshore wind turbines may aid in controlling total harvest and may benefit several important stakeholder groups: (1) recreational and commercial fishermen in terms of higher recreational catch rates and potentially higher overall yield, (2) fisheries managers in terms of more precise control of recreational fisheries harvest, and (3) owners of offshore wind power facilities in terms of reduced risk of damage to infrastructure due to fishing activity. We discuss the compatibility of wind power facilities and fisheries, conditions conducive to this compatibility, and provide an example from a proposed offshore wind power facility in the Adriatic Sea and its potential to affect the fisheries management there, particularly for bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus).
The areal extent of Zostera marina in the archipelago of the Swedish Skagerrak has decreased by 60% over two decades. To investigate the effects of Z. marina loss on the local fish assemblages, the fish fauna was compared between existing seagrass beds and sites where seagrass had vanished. A field study was carried out at four shallow locations in the outer archipelago of the coast in June 2004. Within each location two sites were sampled, one with an existing Z. marina bed and another where Z. marina had disappeared. Fish were sampled semi-quantitatively with a beach seine. Samples were taken during both day and night and captured fish were examined to species, enumerated and measured in the field, and released thereafter. The number of fish species was found to be significantly higher in Z. marina habitats compared to areas where seagrass was missing, and density and biomass of fish were generally lower in areas dominated by bare sediment compared to those in the seagrass habitats. Several species and groups of fishes (i.e., gadoids, labrids, syngnathids) were absent or occurred in low densities at sites where Z. marina was missing. For example, juvenile 0-group cod density was reduced by 96% at sites where Z. marina had disappeared. Such a reduction in recruitment of cod is in the same order of magnitude as the combined effect of seal predation and mortality due to by-catches in the eel fyke-net fishery estimated for the archipelago of the Swedish Skagerrak. Hence, the results clearly indicate a shift in the fish assemblage, including a loss of taxa at the family level as a result of degradation in habitat-forming vegetation.
High level environmental screening study for offshore wind farm developments – marine habitats and
species
This report provides an awareness of the environmental issues related to marine habitats and species for
developers and regulators of offshore wind farms. The information is also relevant to other offshore
renewable energy developments.
The marine habitats and species considered are those associated with the seabed, seabirds, and sea mammals.
The report concludes that the following key ecological issues should be considered in the environmental
assessment of offshore wind farms developments:
• likely changes in benthic communities within the affected area and resultant indirect impacts on fish,
populations and their predators such as seabirds and sea mammals;
• potential changes to the hydrography and wave climate over a wide area, and potential changes to coastal
processes and the ecology of the region;
• likely effects on spawning or nursery areas of commercially important fish and shellfish species;
• likely effects on mating and social behaviour in sea mammals, including migration routes;
• likely effects on feeding water birds, seal pupping sites and damage of sensitive or important intertidal
sites where cables come onshore;
• potential displacement of fish, seabird and sea mammals from preferred habitats;
• potential effects on species and habitats of marine natural heritage importance;
• potential cumulative effects on seabirds, due to displacement of flight paths, and any mortality from bird
strike, especially in sensitive rare or scarce species;
• possible effects of electromagnetic fields on feeding behaviour and migration, especially in sharks and
rays, and
• potential marine conservation and biodiversity benefits of offshore wind farm developments as artificial
reefs and 'no-take' zones.
The report provides an especially detailed assessment of likely sensitivity of seabed species and habitats in
the proposed development areas. Although sensitive to some of the factors created by wind farm
developments, they mainly have a high recovery potential.
The way in which survey data can be linked to Marine Life Information Network (MarLIN) sensitivity
assessments to produce maps of sensitivity to factors is demonstrated.
Assessing change to marine habitats and species as a result of wind farm developments has to take account
of the natural variability of marine habitats, which might be high especially in shallow sediment biotopes.
There are several reasons for such changes but physical disturbance of habitats and short-term climatic
variability are likely to be especially important.
Wind farm structures themselves will attract marine species including those that are attached to the towers
and scour protection, fish that associate with offshore structures, and sea birds (especially sea duck) that may
find food and shelter there.
Nature conservation designations especially relevant to areas where wind farm might be developed are
described and the larger areas are mapped. There are few designated sites that extend offshore to where wind
farms are likely to be developed. However, cable routes and landfalls may especially impinge on designated
sites.
The criteria that have been developed to assess the likely marine natural heritage importance of a location or
of the habitats and species that occur there can be applied to survey information to assess whether or not
there is anything of particular marine natural heritage importance in a development area.
A decision tree is presented that can be used to apply ‘duty of care’ principles to any proposed development.
The potential ‘gains’ for the local environment are explored. Wind farms will enhance the biodiversity of
areas, could act as refugia for fish, and could be developed in a way that encourages enhancement of fish
stocks including shellfish.
Through a re-colonisation field experiment three main questions were approached: (1) How do different ecological indicators react during the process of recovery? (2) What does grow first during a community succession, biomass or complexity? (3) Can the chosen ecological indicators help in recognising the three proposed forms of growth: biomass, network and information, throughout re-colonisation?The study was carried out in an intertidal rocky community dominated by the algae Corallina elongata. Experimental plots were cleared and macroalgae and fauna were removed. Multivariate analysis was performed to examine the convergence of the disturbed plots with the surrounding community during recovery. Shannon–Wiener Index, Margalef Index, Pielou evenness, Eco-Exergy and Specific Eco-Exergy were applied to characterise the state of the community during the process. Results show that the replacement of species over time happens both with the macroalgae and associated macrofauna community. Species richness increased rather rapidly and species composition was similar in disturbed and undisturbed areas. After 7 months, diversity was consistently higher in the community undertaking recovery. Eco-Exergy and Specific Eco-Exergy provided useful information about the structural development of the community but lacked discriminating power with regard to the informational status of the system. The observations appear to illustrate a case explainable by the Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis (IDH). Overall, the characteristics of a systems’ recovery after disturbance appear to be dependent on the spatial scale of the disturbance. If a disturbed area is small when compared to a contiguous non-disturbed one, complexity (information and network) will recover prior to biomass.
Habitat characteristics of a reef were examined as potential influences on fish assemblage structure, using underwater visual census to estimate numbers and biomass of all fishes visible on 42 benthic transects and making quantitative measurements of 13 variables of the corresponding physical habitat and sessile biota. Fish assemblages in the diverse set of benthic habitats were grouped by detrended correspondence analysis, and associated with six major habitat types. Statistical differences were shown between a number of these habitat types for various ensemble variables of the fish assemblages. Overall, both for complete assemblages and for component major trophic and mobility guilds, these variables tended to have higher values where reef substratum was more structurally or topographically complex, and closer to reef edges. When study sites were separately divided into five depth strata, the deeper strata tended to have statistically higher values of ensemble variables for the fish assemblages. Patterns with depth varied among the various trophic and mobility guilds. Multiple linear regression models indicated that for the complete assemblages and for most trophic and mobility guilds, a large part of the variability for most ensemble variables was explained by measures of holes in the substratum, with important contributions from measured substratum rugosity and depth. A strong linear relationship found by regression of mean fish length on mean volume of holes in the reef surface emphasized the importance of shelter for fish assemblages. Results of this study may have practical applications in designing reserve areas as well as theoretical value in helping to explain the organization of reef fish assemblages.
Marine sediments provide the largest habitat on planet earth, yet knowledge of the structure
and function of their flora and fauna continues to be poorly described in current textbooks.
This concise, readable introduction to benthic ecology builds upon the strengths of the previous
edition but has been thoroughly revised throughout to incorporate the new technologies and
methods that have allowed a rapid and ongoing development of the field. It explores the relationship
between community structure and function, and the selection of global examples
ensures
an international appeal and relevance. The economic value of marine sediments increases
daily, reflected in the text with a new emphasis on the effects of pollution and fisheries and
the management of marine sediments.
This accessible textbook is suitable for both advanced undergraduate and graduate students
who have had a general ecology course, but no further training in benthic ecology. It will also
be of relevance and use to professional researchers and consultants in marine ecology and
environmental science who seek a compact but comprehensive introduction to benthic ecology.
IntroductionObjectives
Methodology and scientifi c backgroundFinal comments
Shedding light on the ability of benthic artificial reef (AR) communities to resemble those of a natural reef (NR) is of great importance if we are to harness ARs as tools for rehabilitation and restoration of degraded marine habitats. Studying recruitment processes to experimental settlement plates attached to ARs and NRs reveal the factors that shape community structure at the two reef types, and determine the ability of an AR to support communities similar to those found in adjacent natural habitats. In this study, conducted in Eilat (Red Sea), we used settlement plates to test the hypothesis that differences in benthic communities between ARs and NRs are derived from differential recruitment processes. A monitoring period of 18 months revealed great differences in the recruitment of corals and other benthic communities between the studied ARs and adjacent NRs. The ARs were either made of PVC or metal and 10–17 years old when the study commenced. The recruitment of soft corals reflected the species assemblage found in the area, consisting mainly of the family Nephtheidae and Xeniidae, species, while that of stony corals was mostly determined by the life history traits of the recruited taxa, e.g., the opportunistic nature of the family Pocilloporidae. Benthic organisms, mainly filter feeders like bryozoans, bivalves, sponges and tunicates, were more abundant at the ARs than at the NRs, mainly on the underside of the plates. We suggest that this differential recruitment resulted from a synergistic effect of abiotic and biotic factors, including current regime, sedimentation load and larval settlement preferences, which subsequently differentiated the composition of the benthic communities at the ARs and NRs. Thus, in order to construct an AR for restoration purposes, it must offer similar structural features to those found in the natural surrounding, leading to recruitment of local taxa. However, if the AR and NR will differ structurally, the composition of recruits will also differ and eventually the communities at the two reef types will become distinct, hereby increasing the species diversity in the area.
The fish fauna of Thalassia testudinum (König) seagrass beds was studied at two sites in the Grand Cul-de-Sac Marin Bay (Guadeloupe, French West Indies). The first seagrass bed was located near a coral reef and the second was near coastal mangroves. Both habitats were sampled during day and night, using a purse-seine and a trap net. A total of 98 species belonging to 36 families were observed. Distance-based redundancy analyses revealed two site-specific assemblages of fishes. Diel assemblage shifts were more pronounced in the seagrass beds near coral reefs than in those near mangroves, due to the existence of nocturnal trophic incursions of coral reef fishes into seagrass beds. First-order carnivores dominated the trophic structure of the fish assemblages during both day and night. At night, Haemulidae, Holocentridae and Apogonidae took the place of Labridae, Chaetodontidae and Mullidae present by day near the reef. This switch did not occur near the coast where the exchanges between seagrass beds and mangrove appear to be less important than with the reef ecosystem. Thus, it appears that the adjacent seascape habitat setting affects the intensity in diel variability of the seagrass bed fish community.
Photovoltaics and renewable energies are growing at a much faster pace than the rest of the economy in Europe and worldwide. This and the dramatic oil price increases in 2005 have led to a remarkable re-evaluation of the renewable energy sector by politics and financing institutions. Despite the fact that there are still discrepancies between the European Union and the USA, as to how to deal with climate change, renewable energies will play an important role for the implementation of the Kyoto Protocol and the worldwide introduction of tradable Green Certificates. Apart from the electricity sector, renewable energy sources for the generation of heat and the use of environment friendly biofuels for the transport sector will become more and more important in the future.
This review presents recent concepts, understanding and experience of the restoration, recovery and human-mediated modification of estuarine, coastal and marine ecosystems. It shows that these can be divided into four categories: natural recovery from a natural or anthropogenic change (whether adverse or otherwise); anthropogenic interventions in response to a degraded or anthropogenically changed environment; anthropogenic responses to a single stressor; and habitat enhancement or creation. A conceptual framework for restoration and recovery of marine marginal and semi-enclosed areas is presented after exploring and refining the plethora of terms used in restoration science and management. Examples of management action are given including managed realignment and the restoration of docks, biogenic reefs, saltmarsh, seagrass, beaches and upper estuarine water quality. We emphasise that although recovery techniques are worthwhile if they can be carried out, they rarely (if ever) fully replace lost habitat. Moreover, while they may have some success in marginal or semi-enclosed areas such as coastal bays, estuaries and fringing habitats, they are less relevant to open coastal and marine habitats. Therefore the best option available in the latter can only be to remove the stressor, as the cause of any change, to prevent other stressors from operating and to allow the conditions suitable for natural recovery. This review emphasises that whereas some ecological concepts related to restoration are well understood, for example, the nature of ecosystem structure and functioning, others such as carrying capacity, resilience and ecosystem goods and services are still poorly quantified for the marine and estuarine environments. The linking between these ecological concepts and the management framework is also relatively recent but is required to give a holistic approach to understanding, managing and manipulating these environments.
The paper provides an overview of the historical development of wind energy technology and discusses the current world-wide status of grid-connected as well as stand-alone wind power generation. During the last decade of the twentieth century, grid-connected world-wide wind capacity has doubled approximately every three years. Due to the fast market development, wind turbine technology has experienced an important evolution over time. An overview of the different design approaches is given and issues like power grid integration, economics, environmental impact and special system applications, such as offshore wind energy, are discussed. Due to the complexity of the wind energy technology, however, this paper mainly aims at presenting a brief overview of the relevant wind turbine and wind project issues. Therefore, detailed information to further readings and related organisations is provided. This paper is an updated version of the article ‘Wind Energy Technology and Current Status: A Review’, published in Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 4/2000, pp. 315–374. This update was requested by Elsevier due to the large interest in wind power.
To date, the natural substratum preferences of early benthic phase (EBP) European lobsters (Homarus gammarus) remain largely unknown. This study utilised a large scale mesocosm experiment to determine if the animal favours cobble ground, similar to its American counterpart (Homarus americanus), or has other substratum preferences. Postlarvae were provided with the choice of settling on four natural substrata: sand, coralline algae, mussel shell and cobble. Over a nine month period, the number and size of juveniles on each substratum was recorded, with loss of chelipeds used as an indication of social interaction. After a 30 day period, a non-random distribution of lobsters was observed on the four substrata. Juveniles were more abundant in substrata which provided pre-existing shelter in the form of interstitial spaces, i.e. cobble and mussel shell, than in sand or coralline algae. The survival of individuals from postlarvae to 30 day old juveniles ranged from 5 to 14% with surviving benthic recruits showing a clear mode at 6-8 mm carapace length (CL) in size distribution. The density of lobsters per m(2) of cobble remained relatively constant (18/m(2)) throughout the study period while the density of juveniles on mussel shell decreased significantly (35 to 5/m(2)). The size distribution of lobsters on each substratum also varied with time. By the conclusion of the trial, lobsters found in mussel shell had a mode of 8-10 mm CL within a range of 6-14 mm CL while those in cobble had a mode of 10-12 mm CL within a range of 8-24 mm CL. Overall, the results underline the importance of shelter-providing habitat such as cobble or crevice-type substrata to EBP European lobsters. They also confirm that for a shelter-dwelling animal such as a lobster, the physical structure of the habitat is a key factor in determining both the size and number of its inhabitants.
The European Union has adopted several environmental directives, strategies, recommendations, and agreements that require a shift from local- or regional-based regulations to more ecosystem-based, holistic environmental management. Over the next decade, environmental management in Europe is likely to focus more on biological and ecological conditions rather than physical and chemical conditions, with ecosystem health at the center of regulation and management decision making. Successful implementation of this new ecosystem management and strategic assessment process in Europe will require the integration of regulatory and technical information and extensive collaboration from among European Union member countries, between agencies, and across disciplines to an unprecedented degree. It will also require extensive efforts to adapt current systems of environmental assessment and management to the basin and ecosystem level, across media and habitats, and considering a much broader set of impacts on ecosystem status than is currently addressed in most risk assessments. This will require the understanding, integration, and communication of economic, ecological, hydrological, and other processes across many spatial and temporal scales. This article discusses these challenges and describes some of the research initiatives that will help achieve integrated ecosystem management in Europe.
The adoption of the proposed European Marine Strategy Directive is an opportunity for a comprehensive policy for protecting, improving and sustainably using Europe's environmentally degraded seas. It calls for an ecosystem-based approach to management where humans are regarded as a key system component. Although the proposed wording has been the subject of fierce debate, the central policy goal remains achieving "Good Environmental Status". The interpretation of "good" is key to implementation and relates to human values and worldviews. We demonstrate how these vary widely across Europe. Solution of fundamental considerations such as the assignation of reference states, the balance between precautionary and evidence-based action, the degree of subsidiarity, and conservation strategies including marine protected areas, will ultimately depend upon public understanding, involvement in and support for the Directive. The social element, critical to effective adaptive management, requires greater attention within the context of a regional seas geographical framework.
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Ecological performance of OCS platforms as fi sh habitat off California. Marine Science Institute, University of California
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Love MS, Schroeder DM. Ecological performance of OCS platforms as fi sh habitat off California. Marine Science
Institute, University of California. MMS Study 2004-005. MMS Co-operative Agreement Number 1435-01-03-CA72694, 2006.
Invasion of the parchment worm
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The potential effects of offshore wind power facilities on fi sh and fi sh habitat. Algonquin Fisheries Assessment Unit, Ontario Ministry of Fisheries Resources
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http://www.centrica.co.uk/renewables. (Accessed 30 August 2007)
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Wind Energ 2009; 12:203–212
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Report from the Marine Biological Association to the Department for Trade and Industry New and Renewable Energy Programme
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Industry New and Renewable Energy Programme, 2002.
Ecological performance of OCS platforms as fish habitat off California
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Love MS, Schroeder DM. Ecological performance of OCS platforms as fi sh habitat off California. Marine Science
Institute, University of California. MMS Study 2004-005. MMS Co-operative Agreement Number 1435-01-03-CA-72694, 2006.
European Environmental Management: Moving to an Ecosystem Approach
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The potential effects of offshore wind power facilities on fish and fish habitat
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- Elliott
Report from the Marine Biological Association to the Department for Trade and Industry New and Renewable Energy Programme
- Hiscockk Tyler-Waltersh
Ecological performance of OCS platforms as fish habitat off California. Marine Science Institute University of California. MMS Study 2004-005. MMS Co-operative Agreement
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Review of the reef effects of offshore wind farm structures and potential for enhancement and mitigation
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