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The world of parents and peers: Coercive exchanges and children's social adaptation
Abstract
The relation among child antisocial behavior, child coercive exchanges with parents and peers, and the social adaptation of middle-childhood-aged boys and girls was investigated. The 374 children were observed during laboratory tasks with their parents and during recess with peers. A covariance model was tested that hypothesized that coercive exchanges with parents and peers would contribute uniquely to a multiple-agent assessment of child antisocial behavior, supporting an ecological view of social development. A single model described both boys and girls adequately, although minor gender-specific variations in effect size did produce a better fit. Children's antisocial behavior was associated with school maladaption primarily among boys, as represented by academic engagement in the classroom and peer nominations of social preference. Children's antisocial behavior and coercive interactions, in contrast, were correlated with peer antisocial behavior in both girls and boys.
... The coercion model of development suggests that a coercive pattern of socialization begins within the family and may later generalize to relationships outside of the family (i.e., peer relationships), further supporting an antisocial pattern of socialization (Dishion et al. 1994b;Patterson 1982). The confluence model of peer influence builds upon this research and suggests that conventional peers reject children engaging in coercive socialization, limiting coercive children to socialize with other rejected children, also likely to be coercive and/or antisocial (Dishion et al. 1994a, b). Over time, deviant behavior escalates through peer reinforcement of antisocial values, attitudes, and behavior (e.g., deviancy training; Dishion et al. 1994b). ...
... Over time, deviant behavior escalates through peer reinforcement of antisocial values, attitudes, and behavior (e.g., deviancy training; Dishion et al. 1994b). Dishion et al. (1991Dishion et al. ( , 1994a applied the coercion process within families as a risk factor for increasing susceptibility to and engagement with delinquent peers and compared that to a model in which the coercion process had only a direct effect on risk for delinquency. They found that a confluence model that incorporated the ''setting the stage'' influence through peer influence as well as a continuing direct effect from family relationships and parenting as the best fit to their longitudinal data. ...
... Focusing on a sample of 246 male adolescents from high-risk inner-city communities, Henry et al. (2001) applied the same type of comparison as Dishion et al. (1994a, b) and Vitaro et al. (2000) but added a distinction of peer deviance that is violent from that which is nonviolent in order to test whether findings might be specific to peer violence or generalized to peer deviance overall. This study reported that families characterized by emotional cohesion and parenting practices of consistent discipline and monitoring were associated with a lower likelihood of interaction with delinquent peers, whereas those with low cohesion and less use of effective parenting practices had more involvement with delinquent peers. ...
The relationship between family functioning and adolescents' physical aggression has been well established, but whether these relationships might differ by ethnicity has received less attention. Ethnic variations may be important for targeting prevention programs to specific youth and families. This study examined the longitudinal relationship between family cohesion, parental monitoring, and physical aggression using data from the Multisite Violence Prevention Project sample of high-risk youth (elevated aggression). Participants were 1,232 high-risk middle school students (65 % male; 70 % African American; 15 % Hispanic). Meaningful demographic variations were identified. After controlling for intervention condition and study site, family cohesion was significantly negatively related to physical aggression, more so for Hispanic youth. Parental monitoring was negatively associated with physical aggression for African American youth only. Our findings point to the importance of developing culturally sensitive family interventions to prevent physical aggression in middle school.
... As new social arenas are entered, peers become important socializing agents for deviant and antisocial behavior (Dishion & Patterson, 2006;Moffitt, 2006;Snyder, 2002). Thus, while the SIL model holds that parenting is a causal and proximal variable for child conduct problems, it has also suggested peers to provide a unique, strong, causal and proximal contribution to the development of persistent conduct problems and delinquency (Dishion, Duncan, Eddy, Fagot & Fetrow, 1994;Dishion & Patterson, 2006;Patterson, 2008;Snyder & Stoolmiller, 2002). Correspondingly, Patterson (1993) showed that childhood antisocial behavior was predicted by discipline and monitoring, while, as the children matured, association with deviant peers became an important predictor. ...
... Even thought girls are outnumbered by boys, Moffitt and others have argued for the existence of an early onset group among girls (Hipwell et al., 2002;Lanctot & LeBlanc, 2002). Research investigating the SIL model's applicability to both genders has suggested that the same variables (parent inept discipline, family and peer coercion) predict antisocial behavior among girls and boys (Dishion et al., 1994;Eddy, Leve, & Fagot, 2001). However, others have speculated that the early childhood predictors suggested in the literature are valid for boys only, and that there is a need to develop gender specific models for girls (Keenan, 2001). ...
... In a more recent study, although child training and parent training fared better than the authors expected in the school context, they concluded that combining parent training with child -or teacher training is the most beneficial approaches for treating children with pervasive conduct problems . Correspondingly, Dishion et al. (1994) suggested that interventions should be applied across settings (home and school). They argued that, even Biglan (1995) has argued that the research on variables that influence conduct problems and antisocial behavior has generated enough knowledge to turn the energy towards research reducing the prevalence (i.e. the proportion of individuals) and incidence (i.e. the frequency) of conduct problems on a population level. ...
... (Received 11 April 2019; accepted 28 April 2019) A large, extant body of research demonstrates concurrent and longitudinal associations from parental hostility to children's peer problems during late childhood and adolescence. Emanating from a significant body of work by Dishion and colleagues in the 1980s and 1990s that examined connections between coercive family processes and children's affiliation with antisocial peers, this research has shown that coercive interactions that begin in the family can spill over to the peer context, predicting negative or deviant peer interactions (e.g., Ary, Duncan, Duncan, & Hops, 1999;Dishion, Duncan, Eddy, Fagot, & Fetrow, 1994;Dishion, Patterson, Stoolmiller, & Skinner, 1991;Patterson & Dishion, 1985;Patterson, Reid, & Dishion, 1992;Snyder, Dishion, & Patterson, 1986). We sought to extend the work of Dishion and his colleagues by examining links between parenting and peer relationships prior to adolescence, and by more fully examining the role of child characteristics, particularly those that may be genetically influenced. ...
... For example, in a community sample of children followed longitudinally from ages 5 to 9, researchers found that poor parental discipline (e.g., hostile parenting) exacerbated the association between peer delinquency and later child antisocial behavior, suggesting that hostile parenting increased the sensitivity of children to the effects of peer delinquency (Snyder et al., 2010). Another school-based sample of children ages 6-10 found that children's coercive interactions with their parents were associated with their antisocial behavior with peers (Dishion, Duncan, et al., 1994). Two rigorous intervention studies provided additional support for the association between hostile parenting and peer problems in middle childhood. ...
To advance research from Dishion and others on associations between parenting and peer problems across childhood, we used a sample of 177 sibling pairs reared apart since birth (because of adoption of one of the siblings) to examine associations between parental hostility and children's peer problems when children were ages 7 and 9.5 years ( n = 329 children). We extended conventional cross-lagged parent–peer models by incorporating child inhibitory control as an additional predictor and examining genetic contributions via birth mother psychopathology. Path models indicated a cross-lagged association from parental hostility to later peer problems. When child inhibitory control was included, birth mother internalizing symptoms were associated with poorer child inhibitory control, which was associated with more parental hostility and peer problems. The cross-lagged paths from parental hostility to peer problems were no longer significant in the full model. Multigroup analyses revealed that the path from birth mother internalizing symptoms to child inhibitory control was significantly higher for birth parent–reared children, indicating the possible contribution of passive gene–environment correlation to this association. Exploratory analyses suggested that each child's unique rearing context contributed to his or her inhibitory control and peer behavior. Implications for the development of evidence-based interventions are discussed.
... effort to combat this growing trend, an increasing number of research projects have been aimed at understanding and intervening in violent behaviors. Research over the last few decades has yielded developmental theories of the etiology of aggression that approach the problem from different perspectives (e.g., Crick & Bigbee, 1998;Crick & Dodge, 1996;Dishion, Duncan, Eddy, & Fagot, 1994;Loeber & Stouthamer-Loeber, 1998;Moffitt, 1993;Patterson, Capaldi, & Bank, 1991). An important piece of the puzzle that is only recently beginning to be adequately explored is the etiology of aggression from a behavior genetics perspective. ...
... Characteristics of the youths themselves also have been shown to be related to their chances of being criminal as adults. These include extroverted and less self-controlled behavior (Glueck & Glueck, 1968), high levels of antisocial behavior at age 18 (Farrington et al., 1975) or earlier (Loeber, 1982), academic failure and an inability to relate to ''normal'' peers (Dishion et al., 1994;Wirt & Briggs, 1959), and persistent recidivism during adolescence (Osborn & West, 1978;Robins, 1966). All of these also could be interpreted from a genetic or a gene-environment correlational perspective. ...
... Poor parenting is likely to lead to problem children and other negative child outcomes, such as antisocial behaviors (e.g., Patterson, 1997). More specifically, negative or coercive and intrusive parent-child interactions have been linked to children's aggression with peers (e.g., MacKinnon-Lewis et al., 1994;Pettit, Harrist, Bates, & Dodge, 1991), coercive child-peer interactions, and children's antisocial behaviors (Dishion, Duncan, Eddy, Fagot, & Fetrow, 1994). The social-interactional perspective suggests that parents reinforce coercive child behaviors and therefore directly influence the child to behave antisocially or immorally (e.g., Patterson, 1982). ...
... Similar to previous research suggesting a negative relationship between aggression and positive aspects of parenting (e.g., Arim et al., 2011;Dishion et al., 1994;Patterson, 1997;Pettit et al., 1991), the current study found that children displaying higher levels of aggressive behavior reported significantly more negative interactions with their parents than did children with lower levels of aggressiveness. Parental support was not significantly associated with children's aggressiveness. ...
This study examined the role of aggressiveness and parenting in the development of children's moral self-concept. Participants were 198 elementary school children and their parents (M = 8.65 years, SD = 2.44). Participants completed a structured moral self puppet interview and a questionnaire about their relationship to parents. Parents completed a questionnaire measuring their children's aggressiveness. Results indicated that children who were more aggressive scored significantly lower on the moral self than did less aggressive children. Positive parent-child relationships predicted higher scores on children's moral selves. Finally, negative parent-child interaction moderated the effect of aggression, with negative associations between aggression and children's moral self exacerbated at high levels of negative parent-child interaction, and attenuated at lower levels. This study elucidates the importance of aggression and parenting in accounting for differences in children's moral self.
... In adolescence, the influence of peer relationships on an individual's social and emotional development is and allow young individuals to meet their social needs, obtain social support, and establish a sense of security and intimacy (Allen et al., 2005;Dishion et al., 1994). Peer relationship mainly refers to a kind of interpersonal relationship established and developed in the process of communication between peers or individuals with the same level of psychological development (Fan et al., 2015). ...
As more adolescents are developing a stronger dependence on their mobile devices, smartphone addiction has become a common concern among both the public and researchers. We aimed to examine whether alienation mediated the association between peer relationships and smartphone addiction in adolescents and whether this mediating process was moderated by sex. Our study included 555 adolescent participants (261 boys and 294 girls). The results indicated that peer relationships were negatively associated with smartphone addiction and that alienation mediated this relationship. Furthermore, sex moderated both the direct and indirect associations between peer relationships and smartphone addiction in adolescents. Specifically, in the second stage of the mediation process, the association between alienation and smartphone addiction became nonsignificant for boys, and the direct association between peer relationships and smartphone addiction became nonsignificant for girls. These findings illustrate that peer relationships are a protective factor for adolescent smartphone addiction and that this dynamic has significant sex differences.
... However, research findings regarding predictors of externalizing behaviors for gender differences are not consistent. Some researches have shown that correlates of externalizing behaviors were similar for boys and girls (e.g., Dishion, Duncan, Eddy, Fagot, & Fetrow, 1994;Rowe, Vazsonyi, & Flannery, 1995). Nevertheless, there is accumulating evidence of differences in some correlates of externalizing problem behaviors between male and female adolescents (Ma et al., 2013;Rothbaum & Weisz, 1994); For instance, in a meta-analysis, Rothbaum and Weisz (1994) reported stronger correlates between parental caregiving and externalizing behaviors for boys than for girls. ...
Objectives
This study aimed to test whether there are gender differences in the prevalence of and correlates for various externalizing problem behaviors among secondary school adolescents in a southern city of China.
Method
A large cross-sectional sample survey of 12,244 adolescents from Grade 7 to Grade 12 was conducted in Shenzhen, a metropolis in southern China. The participants completed measures assessing externalizing behaviors, positive youth development (PYD), family functioning, school maladjustment and sociodemographic characteristics. Multiple liner regression analyses were performed to identify factors associated with externalizing problem behaviors among participants.
Results
The results showed that (1) 35.1% of the sample displayed at least one externalizing problem behavior (i.e. alcohol consumption, tobacco use, running away from home, truancy, gang fighting, and stealing) during the previous year. Boys were more likely than girls to engage in all the examined behaviors. (2) Grade 11 was the peak of reported problem behaviors in the secondary school years and there was no difference between scores from participants in Grade 9 and Grade 7. (3) Having siblings, male gender, lower positive youth development level, lack of an intact family, lower family functioning, and school maladjustment were statistically significantly associated with more externalizing problem behaviors. (4) Four significant interactions were found between gender and Grade 11, gender and Grade 12, gender and PYD, and gender and school maladjustment. Boys in Grades 11 and 12, and with school maladjustment, and girls with lower PYD were more likely to report externalizing behaviors.
Conclusions
The findings suggest that greater focus should be placed on late adolescent boys who have school difficulties, girls with low PYD levels, and adolescents with sibling(s), who are from non-intact families or who live in poor family environments, to prevent or intervene in the possibility of developing externalizing problem behaviors. Further Prevention and intervention work may require gender-specific design and school-home collaboration to impart positive youth qualities among adolescents.
... When approaching parenting from this microsocial perspective, positive elements are plentiful. Even in high-risk dyads, positive behaviors tend to outweigh negative behaviors when observed in laboratory settings (Dishion, Duncan, Eddy, Fagot, & Fetrow, 1994). Nese et al. (2016) found demonstrations of all core FIND skills in the interactions of mothers and children during welfare visitation sessions. ...
Parents with intellectual disability (ID) comprise a vulnerable population commonly in need of parenting support. Many parents with ID may struggle to engage in sensitive and responsive parent-child interactions due to cognitive, social, and economic challenges. Despite a large body of literature discussing parenting by people with ID, there is a concerning lack of evidence-based training programs targeting parent-child interaction skills in this population. As a growing number of parents with ID are referred for social and protective services, innovation is needed to support this group of parents. Video feedback (VF) interventions, in which parents view themselves engaging in positive, naturally-occurring interactions with their children under the guidance of a therapeutic coach, may fill this need. Here, we review challenges posed to many parents with ID, particularly those related to social information processing. We then describe key characteristics of VF interventions, explain how these characteristics accentuate the strengths and accommodate the challenges of parents with ID, and discuss population-specific adaptations of existing VF programs.
... These findings demonstrate that families serve as whole systems of coercion where aggressive behaviors are repeatedly and mutually reinforced through direct and indirect exposure to punitive interactions. This type of interpersonal socialization in the home has been linked to coercive interactions with peers on the playground (Dishion, Duncan, Eddy, Fagot, & Fetrow, 1994) and to later adverse outcomes including school failure, juvenile delinquency, and community violence in later adolescence (Dodge, Greenberg, and Malone, 2008). ...
In recent years, researchers and clinicians around the world have been taken aback by the high prevalence of relationship violence, particularly among school-age children as young as 12. Many have also documented the close relationship between prejudice and discrimination on the basis of gender identity, sexual orientation and racial identity, and young people’s experiences of dating violence. In this chapter, we begin by visiting the issue of dating violence in young people around the world and why it merits such careful study. We review scientific evidence and discuss the unique and salient role that prejudicial and discriminatory experiences of gender and sexual minorities, particularly when intersecting with minority racial and disability standings, play in the development and ongoing experiences of relationship violence in childhood and well into adulthood. We will further review existing knowledge on the risk factors which add to minority youths’ existing vulnerabilities, as well as protective factors which may facilitate resilience.
... Whether assessing general parenting styles (e.g., authoritative vs. authoritarian) or focusing on specific aspects of parenting (e.g., parental warmth vs. hostility), researchers have consistently found evidence linking negative parenting practices to disruptive and aggressive behavior. For example, negative parental behaviors (e.g., low warmth, high directiveness, and high physical and/or verbal punishment) have been linked to such child characteristics as social-cognitive immaturity (e.g., Dodge, Pettit, & Bates, 1994), communicative incompetence (e.g., Stafford & Bayer, 1993), and aggression-hostility (e.g., Dishion, Duncan, Eddy, Fagot, & Fetrow, 1994;Hart et al., 1992;Kuczynski & Kochanska, 1995;Rose-Krasnor, Rubin, Booth, & Coplan, 1996). In contrast, positive parenting behaviors (e.g., warmth, acceptance, positive control-guidance, inductive reasoning, and involvement) have been linked to socially competent behavior (e.g., Chen & Rubin, 1994;McGrath, Wilson, & Frassetto, 1995), lower levels of internalizing and externalizing difficulties (Booth, Rose-Krasnor, McKinnon, & Rubin, 1994;Russell & Russell, 1996), more mature cognitive processes (e.g., Hart et al., 1992;Pettit, Harrist, Bates, & Dodge, 1991), and peer acceptance (e.g., Black & Logan, 1995). ...
Rarely have researchers elucidated early childhood precursors of externalizing behaviors for boys and girls from a normative sample. Toddlers (N = 104; 52 girls) were observed interacting with a same-sex peer and their mothers, and indices of conflict-aggression, emotion and behavior dysregulation, parenting, and child externalizing problems were obtained. Results indicated that boys initiated more conflictual-aggressive interactions as toddlers and had more externalizing difficulties 2 years later, yet girls' (not boys') conflict-aggressive initiations at age 2 were related to subsequent externalizing problems. When such initiations were controlled for, emotional-behavioral undercontrol at age 2 also independently predicted externalizing problems at age 4. Moreover, the relation between conflict-aggressive initiations at age 2 and externalizing problems at age 4 was strongest for dysregulated toddlers. Finally, the relation between age 2 conflict-aggressive initiations and age 4 externalizing problems was strongest for those toddlers who incurred high levels of maternal negativity. These findings illustrate temperament by parenting connections in the development of externalizing problems.
... Individuals who feel alienated or rejected may be more likely to engage in violence, and in turn, this could lead them to experience further alienation and rejection. In support of this notion, multiple studies have shown that individuals who are more aggressive are more likely to be disliked and rejected by their peers (Crick & Grotpeter, 1995;Dishion, Duncan, Eddy, Fagot, & Fetrow, 1994;Dodge, 1983). ...
We outline a psychological model of extremism and analyze violent extremism as a special case of it. Our Significance Quest Theory identifies three general drivers of violent extremism: need, narrative, and network. The theory asserts that the need for personal significance—the desire to matter, to “be someone”, and to have meaning in one’s life—is the dominant need that underlies violent extremism. A violence-justifying ideological narrative contributes to radicalization by delineating a collective cause that can earn an individual the significance and meaning he or she desires, as well as an appropriate means with which to pursue that cause. Lastly, a network of people who subscribe to that narrative leads individuals to perceive the violence-justifying narrative as cognitively accessible and morally acceptable. We describe empirical evidence for the theory, which was tested on a wide variety of samples across different cultures and geopolitical contexts. We go on to offer a general road map to guide efforts to counter and prevent violent extremism in its various forms.
... And these negative associations have appeared across different demographic groups (e.g. ethnic, socioeconomic, race) applying both longitudinal and cross sections research [37]. A general consolidating imperative in the world of social research is that the likelihood of deviant behaviour increases when a person"s bond to society become weaken or broken [38]. ...
Behaviour development of adolescents is a complex phenomenon in all societies. With other factors, family partakes it very diversely. Antisocial behaviour of adolescents is one of the outcomes of negative influences of familial risk factors. Deviant behaviour further contributes to Juvenile delinquency which has become a serious problem in the social order. Previous literature witnesses that family structure, family’s deviant past and family reaction to adolescents’ felonious actions are risk factor in deviant behaviour development. Taking into account, family influences as risk factors in juvenile delinquency this study was conducted to juvenile delinquents who are either convicted or under trail (accepted their crimes). This study reconnoitred the juvenile delinquents to find out the main family influences leading them to commit a crime. The methodology of the study was qualitative; using phenomenological approach and total of twelve respondents were interviewed. After analysis of detailed in-depth interviews, it was revealed that in Pakistani cultural organisation, the family has limited effects on the development of antisocial behaviour of juveniles. Three research propositions, namely, Family Structure, Conflict History of Family, and Family Reaction on previous offensive acts of adolescents were tested. The results indicate that these variables do not contribute significantly or have limited effects in juvenile delinquency denoting Pakistani context.
... On the other hand, parents who engage in harsh parenting also experience positive interactions with their children. Positive and neutral behaviors are observed in the laboratory more often than negative behaviors, even in the highest-risk families (Dishion, Duncan, Eddy, Fagot, & Fetrow, 1994). Abusive parents have been observed to initiate both positive and aversive control exchanges with their children and respond to child behavior with both positive and aversive strategies (Oldershaw, Walters, & Hall, 1986;Skowron, Cipriano-Essel, Benjamin, Pincus, & Van Ryzin, 2013). ...
We examined self-reported maternal and paternal harsh parenting (HP) and its effect on the moment-to-moment dynamic coupling of maternal autonomy support and children’s positive, autonomous behavior. This positive behavior coupling was measured via hidden Markov models as the likelihood of transitions into specific positive dyadic states in real time. We also examined whether positive behavior coupling, in turn, predicted later HP and child behavior problems. Children (N = 96; age = 3.5 years at Time 1) and mothers completed structured clean-up and puzzle tasks in the laboratory. Mothers’ and fathers’ HP was associated with children’s being less likely to respond positively to maternal autonomy support; mothers’ HP was also associated with mothers’ being less likely to respond positively to children’s autonomous behavior. When mothers responded to children’s autonomous behavior with greater autonomy support, children showed fewer externalizing and internalizing problems over time and mothers showed less HP over time. These results were unique to the dynamic coupling of maternal autonomy support and children’s autonomous behavior: The overall amount of these positive behaviors did not similarly predict reduced problems. Findings suggest that HP in the family system compromises the coregulation of positive behavior between mother and child and that improving mothers’ and children’s abilities to respond optimally to one another’s autonomy-supportive behaviors may reduce HP and child behavior problems over time.
... Understanding the social development of children is critical for understanding how positive and negative behaviors develop in adolescence and adulthood. For instance, children and adolescents with poorer social skills are more at risk of being aggressive and rejected (Coie & Kupersmidt, 1983;Crick & Dodge, 1994;Dodge, 1983) and have an increased likelihood of drinking alcohol (Gaffney et al., 1998) and behaving delinquently (Dishion et al., 1994). It is equally important to consider behaviors that increase resiliency among children, such as positive social behaviors, which may lead to increased positive friendships and optimism. ...
This project sought to examine 2 competing hypotheses: first, that twins are likely to be more prosocial by virtue of growing up with another same-age peer in the home, or second, that they are less prosocial because they have become more comfortable interacting with a same-age peer who is both genetically and environmentally similar to themselves and therefore they are less comfortable with other children who are dissimilar. Two studies were conducted to compare twins to singletons on measures of prosocial and aggressive behaviors. In Study 1, 5-year-olds (N = 91 twins and N = 152 singletons) engaged in a peer play situation with an unfamiliar, same-age, same-sex peer, and they were rated on items assessing prosocial and aggressive behaviors. Results showed that twins were less prosocial but not more aggressive than were singletons. In Study 2, which was a supplemented follow-up study of twins in Study 1, 10- to 15-year-old twins (N = 98) and singletons (N = 84) were rated by their parents on prosocial and aggressive behaviors. No significant differences were found between the groups on prosocial behavior, but twins were rated as more aggressive than singletons. Thus, in early childhood twins appear to exhibit fewer prosocial behaviors with unfamiliar peers, but this prosocial deficit was not aligned with parent-reported prosocial behaviors in adolescence. In adolescence, twins were rated by parents as more aggressive. These studies suggest that twins may be at risk for poorer social interactions in early and middle childhood.
... One reason for the disruption may be that the confidants become overwhelmed by the mother's distress through stress spillover or contagion (Coyne et al., 1987 ). Another reason relates to the principle of homophily, in which people with similar personality qualities tend to associate with each other (Dishion, Duncan, Eddy, Fagot, & Fetrow, 1994; Forgatch & DeGarmo, 1995; Kandel, Davies, & Baydar, 1988). According to this perspective, women with ongoing distress will attract others who are chronically distressed. ...
Marital separation can be a time of extreme stress and can significantly disrupt support networks and support processes when they are needed most. The purpose of this investigation was to test mechanisms of support erosion in a multimethod study of 138 divorced mothers and their confidants. previous work was extended by using observational measures of confidant support in a process model including (a) maternal characteristics over time, (b) support person characteristics, and (c) relationship characteristics (intimacy and confidant relationship type). A hypothesized mechanism of erosion was supported in which ongoing maternal distress was positively associated with levels of confidant negativity, which in turn was related to lower levels of observed support. Having a partner was related to more intimacy than was having family and friends. Contrary to expectation, however having a partner was related to lower levels of support, and intimacy was not related to observed support.
... For example, studies that examine parenting practices and deviant peer influences generally find both to be significantly correlated with problem behavior in a variety of groups (Oetting & Beauvais, 1990). Peers provide a context for problem behavior from early childhood (Patterson, Littman, & Bricker, 1967; Snyder, West, Stockemer, Givens, & Almquist–Parks, 1996), middle childhood (Dishion, Duncan, Eddy, Fagot, & Fetrow, 1994 ), and adolescence (Dishion, Andrews, Kavanagh, & Soberman, 1996 ). Direct observations of parent–child interactions reveal unresponsive, harsh, coercive parenting to be associated with problem behavior from early childhood (Shaw, Keenan, & Vondra, 1994; Snyder, Edwards, McGraw, Kilgore, & Holton, 1994), middle childhood (Patterson, 1982; Patterson et al., 1992), and adolescence (Dishion & Andrews, 1995; Hops, Tildesley, Lichtenstein, Ary, & Sherman, 1990). ...
... Youth who exhibit problem behaviors at school often exhibit a combination of other issues, such as low school attendance, poor academic achievement, anxiety, depression, and substance use. In the school setting, risk for problem behaviors increases as youth aggregate into high-risk peer groups (Dishion et al., 1994). Moreover, the number of children with mental health needs has increased dramatically in the past decade, with some reports estimating as many as one in five children experiencing a mental health problem; worse yet, only 20 percent of these children receive the services they need (Biglan et al., 2003;Katoaka, Zhang, & Wells, 2002). ...
... Noncompliant and oppositional behavior is easier to remediate than are lying, stealing, and proactive aggression. Targeting behavior early is expedient because a child's ecology expands with development and moves from home into school and neighborhood settings that are less predictable and that involve relationships with teachers (Pianta, Steinberg, & Rollins, 1995) and same-age and older peers (Dishion, Duncan, Eddy, Fagot, & Fetrow, 1994;Ingoldsby & Shaw, 2002). Eventually, peers may transform reactive aggression into proactive aggression and may support other forms of negative behavior (Poulin & Boivin, 2000). ...
Seven hundred thirty-one income-eligible families in 3 geographical regions who were enrolled in a national food supplement program were screened and randomized to a brief family intervention. At child ages 2 and 3, the intervention group caregivers were offered the Family Check-Up and linked parenting support services. Latent growth models on caregiver reports at child ages 2, 3, and 4 revealed decreased behavior problems when compared with the control group. Intervention effects occurred predominantly among families reporting high levels of problem behavior at child age 2. Families in the intervention condition improved on direct observation measures of caregivers' positive behavior support at child ages 2 and 3; improvements in positive behavior support mediated improvements in children's early problem behavior.
... Extant evidence suggests that physical and relational forms of aggression follow distinct trajectories across developmental periods, such that physical aggression peaks in early childhood and then gradually declines throughout middle childhood (Dodge et al., 2006), while relational aggression increases from middle childhood into early adolescence (Bjorkqvist, Lagerspetz, & Kaukiainen, 1992;Murray-Close, Ostrov, & Crick, 2007). Developmental theories of aggression posit that these distinct trajectories occur, in part, due to varying predictors and differential interactions between environmental and child characteristics (Bonica, Arnold, Fisher, Zeljo, & Yershova, 2003;Dionne, Tremblay, Boivin, Laplante, & Pérusse, 2003;Dishion, Duncan, Eddy, Fagot, & Fetrow, 1994;Grotpeter & Crick, 1996). Namely, developmental models of physical aggression stipulate that the decline in aggressive behaviors throughout middle childhood is credited to social modeling, such that children learn more effective methods of interacting and communicating with others in conjunction with neural development that better equips children to effectively self-regulate (Tremblay & Nagin, 2005). ...
Previous research shows that parent psychological control and child emotion dysregulation are both associated with the development of aggression in children. This longitudinal study sought to clarify these relations by examining emotion dysregulation as a moderator of the associations between psychological control and relational and physical aggression. Participants were 271 elementary school students ages 8–12 (M = 9.31 years; SD = 0.98) and their primary classroom teachers. Children completed measures of parental psychological control and emotion dysregulation at T1, while teachers rated children's relational and physical aggression at T1 and six months later at T2. Emotion dysregulation significantly moderated the association between psychological control and both forms of aggression, with no sex differences evident. Results suggest that psychologically controlling parenting strategies contribute to increased relational and decreased physical aggression among emotionally well-regulated children and the opposite pattern among emotionally dysregulated children. Implications for intervention and future research are discussed.
... conductas violentas son alarmantemente comunes en nuestra sociedad y se consideran un problema de salud pública. En un esfuerzo para combatir esta tendencia de crecimiento, se ha incrementado el número de investigaciones y proyectos dirigidos al entendimiento e intervención de este tipo de conductas, que han dado como resultado el desarrollo de teorías que soportan la etiología de la agresión desde diferentes perspectivas y aproximaciones del problema (Crick & Bigbee, 1998;Crick & Dodge, 1996;Dishion, Duncan, Eddy, & Fagot, 1994;Loeber & Stouthamer-Loeber, 1998;Moffitt, 1993;Patterson, Capaldi, & Bank, 1991). Una considerable cantidad de investigaciones teóricas y empíricas han subdivido la agresión en impulsiva y premeditada (Anderson & Bushman, 2002;Berkowitz, 2000;Coccaro, Kavossi, Berman, & Lish, 1998;Shoham, Skenasy, Rhay, Chard, & Addi, 1989;Vitiello, Behar, Hunt, Stoff, & Ricciuti, 1990). ...
El fenómeno de la violencia ha aumentado considerablemente en años recientes, así como el número de investigaciones encaminadas al estudio de sus bases neurobiológicas. Mientras que algunos estudios no clasifican a los sujetos violentos otros han propuesto diversas clasificaciones. La caracterización adecuada de esta población es necesaria para poder comprender el fenómeno de la violencia y poder desarrollar tratamientos efectivos. El objetivo de esta investigación fue evaluar psicológica y neuropsicológicamente a un grupo de internos violentos de una Penitenciaria Federal y caracterizarlos de acuerdo a dos de las caracterizaciones más utilizadas: La clasificación de impulsividad y premeditación de Barratt, Stanford, Kent, & Felthouse (1997) y Barratt, Stanford, Felthous, & Kent (1997) y la clasificación de Hare (Hare, 1991) de psicópatas y no psicópatas. La muestra se integro con 75 participantes, 50 internos y 25 controles para el estudio 1 (impulsivos vs premeditados) y 54 sujetos para el estudio 2 (no psicópatas vs psicópatas. Se administraron la Escala de Impulsividad de Plutchik (Plutchik, 1989), el Inventario de Hostilidad de Buss-Durkee (Buss & Durkee, 1957), la batería neuropsicológica NEUROPSI ATENCIÓN y MEMORIA (Ostrosky-Solís et al., 2003) y la batería de Funciones Frontales y Ejecutivas (Flores, Ostrosky-Solís, & Lozano, en este número). Los resultados indican que las poblaciones violentas independientemente de su clasificación pueden ser diferenciadas psicológica y neuropsicológicamente de la población no violenta. Sin embargo, no se encontraron diferencias significativas en las evaluaciones neuropsicológicas entre los grupos impulsivo y premeditado, mientras que al clasificarlos de acuerdo al criterio de psicopatía, se encontraron diferencias significativas en distintos dominios cognoscitivos. Los resultados se discuten en términos de la base anatómica que subyace a dichos procesos, y se plantea la necesidad de desarrollar tratamientos y/o programas de intervención específicos para cada forma de expresión de la violencia.
... Hence, it is believed that various risk factors, including parental mental illness, substance abuse, and domestic violence, can affect the development of children's behavioral regulation through the influence that those factors can have on parenting behaviors (e.g., impaired self-control, inconsistent monitoring of child behaviors) (Frick, 1994;Gottman & Katz, 1989). Children who learn behavior control strategies within the context of disruptive, chaotic, unresponsive, and generally aversive circumstances at home will undoubtedly be more susceptible to exhibiting similar problematic patterns of behavior within their relationships with peers and adults (Dishion et al., 1994). ...
The purpose of this study was to analyze the medical records of 167 children who attended an urban early intervention/partial hospitalization program in order to accomplish the following objectives: describe risk factor pervasiveness in the backgrounds of children attending the program; describe the prevalence and severity of externalizing behavior problems (non-compliance, aggression, tantrums) among the children; identify salient relationships between background risk factors and externalizing behavior problems; and test the cumulative risk premise which suggests that a significant, positive relationship exists between the number of risk factors a child is exposed to and the severity of his/her symptoms. Data was gathered from two items in the children's medical charts: 1) initial psychiatric evaluations, within which the presence or absence of the background risk factors of interest in this study are noted; and 2) monthly treatment plan progress notes, in which progress regarding presenting symptoms are noted. An analysis of medical record data painted a compelling picture regarding the pervasiveness of risk factors in the children's backgrounds, as nearly 80% of the children within the study were found to be exposed to three or more risk factors (not including poverty). An analysis of the data revealed a significantly high prevalence of children being referred for treatment due to clinically significant behavior problems, as approximately 80% of the children presented with clinically significant levels of non-compliance and/or aggression. Although clinically significant aggression and non-compliance frequently co-occurred with several background risk factors, no significant, positive correlations were discovered between background risk factors and externalizing behavior problems (when the entire sample was included within the analysis). In addition, a correlational analysis revealed no significant, positive correlations between the number of background risk factors and the severity of certain externalizing behavior problems. The absence of significant, positive correlations may reflect the need for researchers to attend to contextual details (i.e., severity of exposure, timing of exposure, individual traits) when investigating the effects of exposure to risk factors on children's development. In addition, it is likely that the correlations were partially weakened by the fact that the participants within this study represented a restricted sample (poor, clinically referred preschool-age children).
... Our results are consistent with previous findings on how mutual hostility unfolds in the family and at school (Snyder and Patterson 1995;Schwartz et al. 1997), and between the family and school (Dishion et al. 1994;Snyder et al. 1994). Although previous studies have shown that adolescents' maladaptive behaviors are transmitted from the home to other settings (Patterson 1986;Schwartz et al. 1997), most of these studies have focused solely on home-to-school adjustment. ...
Children involved in mutually hostile interactions at home are at risk of experiencing adjustment problems in other everyday life contexts. However, little is known about whether the pattern of mutual hostility at home is reproduced by high-conflict youths in other interpersonal contexts. In this study, we examined whether adolescents involved in mutually hostile interactions with their parents encounter similar mutually hostile interactions in other interpersonal contexts. We used a longitudinal design, following mid-adolescents over 1 year (N = 2,009, 51 % boys, Mage = 14.06, SD = 0.73). The adolescents were 7th and 8th grade students in a mid-sized town in Sweden. The results showed that the youths involved in mutual hostility at home were more likely to be involved in mutual hostility at school and in their free-time. A longitudinal relationship between mutual hostility at home and mutual hostility in other contexts was confirmed. Being involved in mutually hostile interactions at home at Time 1 increased adolescents' likelihood of getting involved in mutually hostile interactions with peers at school and in free-time at Time 2. Overall, the results point to the important role played by experiencing mutual hostility at home in maladaptive behaviors across everyday settings.
... Two notable risk behaviors that heighten susceptibility for downward assimilation are aggression and rule breaking behaviors. More aggressive youth often have difficulty integrating with their more normatively oriented peers, a form of social rejection that then can encourage friendships and bonding with adolescents more tolerant and encouraging of these behaviors (Dishion, Duncan, Eddy, Fagot, & Fetrow, 1994;Tremblay, Pagani-Kurtz, Mâsse, Vitaro, & Pihl, 1995). Associations with other delinquent youth are strong correlates of aggression and general deviancy, but have also been evidenced to increase the frequency, intensity, and duration of problematic behaviors that only further alienate students from mainstream groups (Copeland-Linder, Lambert, & Ialongo, 2010;Gil & Vega, 2001;Nagin & Tremblay, 2001). ...
Adolescent aggression and delinquency impede healthy adjustment in early adulthood and may have particularly serious long-term consequences for minority youth. Therefore, prevention research should examine these behaviors within a sociocultural framework among newer immigrant samples to determine whether, and how, adaptation to life in the US affects these behaviors. This study investigated the role of two sociocultural variables–bicultural stress and negative context of reception–on changes in aggression and rule breaking behaviors over two time points among recently immigrated Hispanic adolescents residing in Los Angeles (N = 136) and Miami-Dade (N = 142) counties. Linear stepwise regression models were used to assess the associations between predictors and behavioral outcomes. Bicultural stress and negative context of reception both had independent associations, above and beyond parental involvement and delinquent peer associations, with changes in aggressive and rule-breaking behavior during the first year of high school. These findings suggest that social, cultural, and interpersonal processes all influence deviant behaviors in recent-immigrant Hispanic populations. We discuss the implications of these finding for prevention and intervention research and practice. We also recommend that future research continue to examine the role of these factors over the course of adolescence and consider sociocultural influences when designing behavioral interventions for Hispanic immigrant populations
... There is growing evidence that Patterson and colleagues' social context model of the development of antisocial behavior is applicable to problem behavior in general (Metzler et aI., 1994), as well as adolescent substance use in particular (Dishion et aI., 1988; Dishion and Ray, 1991; Dishion et aI., 1994; Duncan and Duncan, 1996). ...
... Rejection by more prosocial peers in their school and community environments also led these children to drift towards others like them. This sort of affiliation with a "deviant peer group" created a context in which oppositional and defiant behavior was often mutually reinforced (Dishion, Duncan, Eddy, Fagot, & Fetrow, 1994;Patterson et al., 1992). This, in combination with the lack of parental supervision (Snyder, Dishion, & Patterson, 1986;Patterson & Stouthamer-Loeber, 1984), placed these children at risk for a host of negative outcomes at the onset of adolescence, including school dropout, juvenile delinquency, drug and alcohol use, early initiation of sexual behavior, and related difficulties (Caspi, Elder, & Bem, 1987;Huesmann, Eron, Lefkowitz, & Walder, 1984;Patterson, DeBaryshe, & Ramsey, 1989;Robins & Ratcliff, 1979). ...
Although many psychotherapeutic approaches exist for treating troubled children and their families, not all have been evaluated to be effective through research. Moreover, among those that have been determined to be "evidence-based", few have followed as coherent and rigorous a path of rigorous scientific investigation as the interventions that have been developed at the Oregon Social Learning Center. As such, these interventions serve as a model of "research to theory to practice" that may not only be employed to support families with children in need of treatment, but may also guide other programs of treatment development. This is the story of how this work has unfolded over the past four decades.
... Specifically, we examined positive affective content as a mechanism (rather than negative content) given that mothers with depressive symptoms tend to show lower levels of positive affect with their children (Tronick & Reck, 2009). Further, we expected to see more variation in positive than negative affect given that, on average, only about 5% to 10% of observed family interactions in laboratory settings are coded as aversive (Dishion, Duncan, Eddy, & Fagot, 1994). ...
Lower levels of parent-child affective flexibility indicate risk for children's problem outcomes. This short-term longitudinal study examined whether maternal depressive symptoms were related to lower levels of dyadic affective flexibility and positive affective content in mother-child problem-solving interactions at age 3.5 years (N=100) and whether these maternal and dyadic factors predicted child emotional negativity and behaviour problems at a 4-month follow-up. Dyadic flexibility and positive affect were measured using dynamic systems-based modelling of second-by-second affective patterns during a mother-child problem-solving task. Results showed that higher levels of maternal depressive symptoms were related to lower levels of dyadic affective flexibility, which predicted children's higher levels of negativity and behaviour problems as rated by teachers. Mothers' ratings of child negativity and behaviour problems were predicted by their own depressive symptoms and individual child factors, but not by dyadic flexibility. There were no effects of dyadic positive affect. Findings highlight the importance of studying patterns in real-time dyadic parent-child interactions as potential mechanisms of risk in developmental psychopathology.
... We observed relatively low levels of negative affect (expressed by only 40% of families), perhaps because only a portion of the sample was at risk and the task, although challenging, was pleasant for most dyads. In general, researchers have struggled to obtain sufficient displays of negative affect in laboratory observations (Dishion, Duncan, Eddy, & Fagot, 1994). Thus, for the 60% of the families who did not show negative affect, flexibility was calculated from change parameters among neutral, low-positive, and high-positive affective states. ...
Parent-child dyadic rigidity and negative affect contribute to children's higher levels of externalizing problems. The present longitudinal study examined whether the opposite constructs of dyadic flexibility and positive affect predicted lower levels of externalizing behavior problems across the early childhood period. Mother-child (N = 163) and father-child (n = 94) dyads engaged in a challenging block design task at home when children were 3 years old. Dynamic systems methods were used to derive dyadic positive affect and three indicators of dyadic flexibility (range, dispersion, and transitions) from observational coding. We hypothesized that the interaction between dyadic flexibility and positive affect would predict lower levels of externalizing problems at age 5.5 years as rated by mothers and teachers, controlling for stability in externalizing problems, task time, child gender, and the child's effortful control. The hypothesis was supported in predicting teacher ratings of child externalizing from both mother-child and father-child interactions. There were also differential main effects for mothers and fathers: mother-child flexibility was detrimental and father-child flexibility was beneficial for child outcomes. Results support the inclusion of adaptive and dynamic parent-child coregulation processes in the study of children's early disruptive behavior.
From a team of leading experts comes a comprehensive, multidisciplinary examination of the most current research including the complex issue of violence and violent behavior. The handbook examines a range of theoretical, policy, and research issues and provides a comprehensive overview of aggressive and violent behavior. The breadth of coverage is impressive, ranging from research on biological factors related to violence and behavior-genetics to research on terrrorism and the impact of violence in different cultures. The authors examine violence from international cross-cultural perspectives, with chapters that examine both quantitative and qualitative research. They also look at violence at multiple levels: individual, family, neighborhood, cultural, and across multiple perspectives and systems, including treatment, justice, education, and public health.
From a team of leading experts comes a comprehensive, multidisciplinary examination of the most current research including the complex issue of violence and violent behavior. The handbook examines a range of theoretical, policy, and research issues and provides a comprehensive overview of aggressive and violent behavior. The breadth of coverage is impressive, ranging from research on biological factors related to violence and behavior-genetics to research on terrrorism and the impact of violence in different cultures. The authors examine violence from international cross-cultural perspectives, with chapters that examine both quantitative and qualitative research. They also look at violence at multiple levels: individual, family, neighborhood, cultural, and across multiple perspectives and systems, including treatment, justice, education, and public health.
From a team of leading experts comes a comprehensive, multidisciplinary examination of the most current research including the complex issue of violence and violent behavior. The handbook examines a range of theoretical, policy, and research issues and provides a comprehensive overview of aggressive and violent behavior. The breadth of coverage is impressive, ranging from research on biological factors related to violence and behavior-genetics to research on terrrorism and the impact of violence in different cultures. The authors examine violence from international cross-cultural perspectives, with chapters that examine both quantitative and qualitative research. They also look at violence at multiple levels: individual, family, neighborhood, cultural, and across multiple perspectives and systems, including treatment, justice, education, and public health.
Applying theories of emotion to understanding the regulation of aversive parenting, we used microanalytic observational methods to test whether transient changes in a mother's negative emotional reactivity predict changes over time in key parameters of her moment-to-moment aversive behavior: its intensity, variability, persistence, and connection to difficult child inputs. At multiple times over 2 years, 319 divorcing mothers and their 5- to 12-year-old children were observed as they discussed mutual disagreements. Sequences of talk-turns were recorded and coded for affect and content. Relative to days when a mother was low in negative emotional reactivity, on days when she was high she displayed more intensely aversive behavior, more variable aversiveness, more transitions from average to high or low aversiveness, tendencies to remain aversive longer following spikes in her aversiveness, and difficulty maintaining low aversiveness following drops in her aversiveness. As her negative emotional reactivity increased, she went from being relatively unaffected by children's difficult behavior to being aversively reactive; from ceasing aversive sequences increasingly quickly to ceasing aversive sequences increasingly slowly; from deviating more from her nonreactive low-aversive parenting to deviating less from her reactive high-aversive parenting. Independent of stable individual differences in mothers and children, transient variations in mothers' emotional reactivity may correspond to key moment-to-moment parameters of aversive parenting, even when interactions are relatively noncontentious. The data provide a viable account of how initially transient, context-specific reactivity could initiate moment-to-moment changes in aversive patterns that in some families influence problematic family trajectories over time. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).
Background
Schools struggle to timetable health education. Interventions integrating academic and health education to reduce substance use and violence offer promise. No current systematic reviews examine such interventions.
Objectives
To review evidence to explore the following questions: (1) what types of interventions integrating health and academic education in schools serving those aged 4–18 years have been evaluated? (2) What theories of change inform these interventions? (3) What factors facilitate or limit the successful implementation and receipt of such interventions, and what are the implications for the delivery of such implementations in the UK? (4) How effective are such interventions in reducing smoking and violence and the use of alcohol and drugs, and at increasing attainment? Does this vary by students’ sociodemographic characteristics? (5) What factors appear to influence the effectiveness of such interventions?
Data sources
In total, 19 databases were searched from 18 November to 22 December 2015, updating searches for outcome evaluations for violence on 28 February 2018 and for substance use on 14 May 2018. References were extracted from included studies and authors contacted.
Review methods
Included studies reported on theories of change, and process or outcome evaluations of interventions that integrated academic and health education to reduce substance use and/or violence. References were screened on the title/abstract and then on the full report. Data extraction and appraisal used Cochrane, Evidence for Policy and Practice Information Centre and other established tools. Theories of change and process data were qualitatively synthesised. Outcome evaluations were synthesised narratively and meta-analytically.
Results
In total, 78,451 unique references were originally identified and 62 reports included. Search updates on 28 February and 14 May 2018 retrieved a further 2355 and 1945 references, respectively, resulting in the inclusion of six additional reports. Thirty-nine reports described theories, 16 reports (15 studies) evaluated process and 41 reports (16 studies) evaluated outcomes. Multicomponent interventions are theorised to erode ‘boundaries’ (strengthen relationships) between academic and health education, teachers and students, behaviour in classrooms and in the wider school, and schools and families. Teachers, pro-social peers and parents are theorised to act as role models and reinforcers of healthy behaviours learnt in lessons. There was clear evidence that interventions are facilitated by supportive senior management and alignment with the schools’ ethos, collaborative and supportive teaching environments, and positive pre-existing student, teacher and parent attitudes towards interventions. The barriers were overburdened teachers who had little time to both learn and implement integrated curricula. The strongest evidence for effectiveness was found for the reduction of substance use in school key stages (KSs) 2 and 3. For example, a meta-analysis for substance use at KS3 reported a mean difference of –0.09 (95% confidence interval –0.17 to –0.01). A meta-analysis for effectiveness in reducing violence victimisation in KS2 found no effect. There was mixed evidence for effects on academic outcomes, with meta-analysis precluded by methodological heterogeneity.
Limitations
Study quality was variable. Integration was sometimes not emphasised in theories of change.
Conclusions
These interventions are undertheorised but involve multiple forms of boundary erosion. There is clear evidence of characteristics affecting implementation. Interventions are likely to have the greatest impact on substance use. These programmes may be effective in reducing substance use but do not appear to reduce violence and findings on educational impacts are mixed.
Future work
Future evaluations should assess interventions with clearer theories of change and examine academic outcomes alongside violence and substance use outcomes.
Study registration
This study is registered as PROSPERO CRD42015026464.
Funding
The National Institute for Health Research Public Health Research programme.
Adolescent association with deviant and delinquent friends was examined for its roots in coercive parent–teen interactions and its links to functional difficulties extending beyond delinquent behavior and into adulthood. A community sample of 184 adolescents was followed from age 13 to age 27, with collateral data obtained from close friends, classmates, and parents. Even after accounting for adolescent levels of delinquent and deviant behavior, association with deviant friends was predicted by coercive parent–teen interactions and then linked to declining functioning with peers during adolescence and greater internalizing and externalizing symptoms and poorer overall adjustment in adulthood. Results are interpreted as suggesting that association with deviant friends may disrupt a core developmental task—establishing positive relationships with peers—with implications that extend well beyond deviancy-training effects.
L'être humain doit s'adapter quotidiennement aux changements de son environnement et aux situations qui lui sont inconnues. Pour cela, il va développer des stratégies d'adaptation lui permettant d'éviter le stress et ses conséquences néfastes pour sa santé physique et mentale. Mais dans la société actuelle, les causes de stress sont fréquentes. Si ses stratégies d'adaptation au stress sont insuffisantes ou inefficaces, l'homme va développer un Trouble de l'Adaptation. Cette pathologie peut donc être retrouvée à tous les âges de la vie. Nous réalisons dans ce travail une revue bibliographique accompagnée de la présentation de quelques observations cliniques. Les différents aspects cliniques, biologiques, cognitifs et sociaux de ce diagnostic ainsi que ses modalités thérapeutiques y sont développés. D'autres travaux de recherche sur ce sujet semblent souhaitables pour mieux en définir les particularités et permettre d'énoncer des recommandations concernant les modalités thérapeutiques les plus adaptées à cette pathologie.
This chapter provides an overview of findings about the development of antisocial behavior from early childhood through young adulthood. Consistent with a developmental psychopathology framework, linkages are made between biology, relationship dynamics with parents and peers, and progressions from deficits in self-regulation in early childhood, to antisocial behavior in childhood, and to various forms of adolescent problem behavior, including serious violence. Parent–child coercion and peer contagion continue to play out as key relationship dynamics that are linked to escalating problem behavior throughout development. Self-regulation, parent–child coercion, and peer contagion are core targets of evidence-based interventions shown to prevent and treat antisocial behavior from early childhood to adolescence. The scientific study of the development of antisocial behavior provides a model for the advantages of translational research to the design of effective interventions. Important future directions include a better understanding of unique developmental pathways relevant to adapting and tailoring interventions for antisocial behavior at various stages of development.
The effect of nonresidential father relationship characteristics on delinquency trajectories among low-income youth (N = 799) was examined using data from the Three Cities Study, a longitudinal study of mothers and their children eligible for Temporary Assistance for Needy Families in Boston, Chicago, and San Antonio. Growth curve models were employed to track delinquency trajectories and their rate of growth. Characteristics of father–child relationships (anger–alienation, trust–communication) were specified as predictors of delinquency while controlling for father involvement and family structure. Trust–communication influenced delinquency growth, but the rate of growth slowed as youth aged. Implications for programs, interventions, and policy are explored.
This chapter discusses the possible role of self-regulation in the development of antisocial behavior. Consistent with a social interaction perspective, the authors assume that self-regulation is highly embedded in relationship dynamics, consisting of a set of behaviors such as turn taking and listening to others. Self-regulation is the most promising candidate for linking individual characteristics to the ecology in a way that will be helpful in understanding the development of antisocial behavior. The chapter describes the complementary hypothesis that the social interactions within a gang, replete with mutual identification, account for the influence of gangs on problem behavior. A repeating theme in the chapter, and in developmental psychopathology in general, is the synergistic relationship between intervention research and developmental research. The chapter uses a mesosystem model that incorporates both parenting practices and peer influences to explain the persistence and continuance of antisocial behavior into adulthood.
In this chapter an ecological framework is proposed for understanding the development of individual differences in aggression and violence from childhood to adulthood. The model is based on three organizing hypotheses. The first hypothesis is that aversive social behaviors and threats can function to “coerce” the immediate social environment (i.e., microdynamics) such that aggressive behavior is strengthened over time (Patterson, 1982). The second hypothesis is that some aggressive individuals join within social networks; as such, aggression amplifies in lethality and frequency through social contagion dynamics (i.e., macrodynamics) and then culminates in violence (Dishion & Tipsord, 2011). The third hypothesis is that aggression and violence are predictable and preventable and that interventions that target the key micro- and macrodynamic social processes relevant to each developmental period can reduce individual levels of aggression and prevalence of aggression and violence in the community (Biglan, 2003). In this chapter, each hypothesis is discussed in the context of developmental patterns of aggression and violence.
EcoFIT in Public SchoolsOutcomesSummaryNoteReferences
http://www.socio.mta.hu/uploads/files/2015/albert_borton.pdf
Az Életkeretek a börtönön innen és túl. Szubjektív reszocializációs esélyek című, OTKA 101325 számú, 2012-2015 között zajló kutatás első eredményeit bemutató tanulmánykötetben Laki Ildikó tanulmányában olvashatunk a magyarországi börtönhelyzetről, illetve a vizsgálatba bevont börtönökről is. Gál Levente tanulmánya a börtönviselt emberek munkaerőpiaci lehetőségeiről, a szabadulás utáni munkavégzéssel kapcsolatos terveikről és azok megvalósulásáról, a munkaügyi, illetve a büntetés-végrehajtási szervezet munkerő-piaci reintegrációt elősegítő tevékenységéről szól. Tóth Olga a deviancia-kutatások kontextusába helyezve elemzi az interjúkat. Biró Emese tanulmánya a börtönbe kerülés, a börtönlét, illetve a visszailleszkedés metszeteiben elemzi a családi kapcsolatok jelentőségét, Albert Fruzsina tanulmánya hasonló szerkezetben a baráti kapcsolatok szerepét mutatja be. Albert Fruzsina és Biró Emese közös írása pedig az interjúalanyok reintegrációjának sikeréről szól, amennyire azt a rendelkezésünkre álló adatok alapján megbecsülhetjük
Determining the interdependence of family and peer influences on the development of delinquency is critical to defining and implementing effective interventions. This study explored the longitudinal relationship among harsh punishment, positive parenting, peer delinquency, and adolescent delinquency using data from a sub-sample of the Pittsburgh Girls Study. Participants were 622 adolescent girls (42% European American, 53% African American); families living in low-income neighborhoods were oversampled. After controlling for the effects of race, living in a single parent household, and receipt of public assistance, harsh punishment and peer delinquency in early adolescence were positively related to delinquency in mid-adolescence. No significant main effects of positive parenting or interaction effects between parenting and peer delinquency were observed. Thus, the effects of harsh parenting and peer delinquency are independent and perhaps additive, rather than interdependent. Results indicate the continued importance of targeting both parenting and peer relationships to prevent delinquency in adolescent girls.
We investigated the effects of maternal parenting behaviors, children's emotional regulation, and stress coping strategies on gender-specific children's behavioral problems. The participants were 191, and graders and their mothers from four elementary schools in Seoul and Kyung-gi province. Collected data were analyzed by descriptive statistics and hierarchical regressions. The major findings were summarized as follows: (1) Active coping strategies explained boys' aggressive behaviors, (2) mother's warm-encouragement parenting behaviors and active coping strategies explained boys' delinquent behaviors, (3) mother's warm-encouragement parenting behaviors explained boys' withdrawn behaviors, and (4) mother's mediation-supervision parenting behaviors and negative emotionality explained girls' aggressive behaviors. In conclusion, maternal parenting behaviors, children's emotional regulation and stress coping strategies have gender-specific influence on children's behavioral problems.
The purpose of this study was to identify developmental trajectories of externalizing problems in preschoolers and to investigate dimensions of temperament and parental behaviors associated with trajectory groups. Subjects were 180 3- to 5-year-old preschoolers (96 males, 84 females) in the metropolitan area of Seoul. They were assessed three times at 5 month intervals over a one year period. Teachers reported on children's behavior problems, and parents reported on children's temperaments. Latent Growth Curve Modeling Analysis with cohort sequential design revealed externalizing behaviors gradually decreased between 3 and 6. At the 6-year-old level externalizing behaviors were associated with high novelty seeking temperament. The results were discussed in terms of the importance of longitudinal research in developmental psychopathology.
Behavioral observation systems allow for a relatively objective way to record important academic, behavioral, and/or interactional processes. Not sur- prisingly, the majority of school-based observational methods have been designed for and evaluated within the classroom setting. Although this is understandable, the playground context during recess provides an important unstructured school context in which to understand young children's peer relationships, play behav- iors, and aggressive actions. This article provides a critical review of six play- ground-based observation systems and discusses implications for use by practitio- ners and researchers.
This research examined relations between parenting styles and children’s social status. Seventy-eight families and their children from Boston, Massachusetts and Tallahassee, Florida constituted the sample for this study. To determine parenting style, parents completed the Parenting Styles and Dimensions Questionnaire, whereas children completed a peer-rating measure. This research also examined sex of parent, sex of child, socioeconomic status, and race as mediating variables. It was found that parenting styles did not relate to children’s social status. The only variable that mediated this relationship was racial identity. Implications of these findings are discussed in relation to future research.
This study examined qualitative aspects of the peer relationships of children with conduct problems in a laboratory assessment procedure. The sample consisted of 101 children aged 4 to 7 years identified by parents as having oppositional behavior problems. Positive social skills and negative conflict tactics were coded. Additionally, two categories assessing the reciprocal nature of the relationship were also coded, including behavioral “escalation” and “failure” to use social skills successfully with peers. Relations between observed peer interactions, child self-reports of peer relationships, observed and parent reports of home behavior interactions, and teacher reports of school behaviors were examined. Positive skills and failure to use skills with peers were related to loneliness and teacher reports of social competence, whereas negative behavior and escalation with peers were associated with school problems and home problems, respectively. Results are discussed in a developmental framework that highlights the potential importance of social behaviors within the peer context to later adjustment.
This study examined genetic and environmental influences on associations among marital conflict about the child, parental monitoring, sibling relationship negativity, and peer delinquency during adolescence and initiation of illegal drug use by young adulthood. The sample comprised data collected longitudinally from same-sex sibling pairs and parents when the siblings were 10-18 years old (M = 14.5 and 12.9 years for Child 1 and Child 2, respectively) and 20-35 years old (M = 26.8 and 25.5 years for Child 1 and Child 2, respectively). Findings indicate four factors that explain the initiation of illegal drug use: two shaped by genetic influences and two shaped by environments shared by siblings. The two genetically shaped factors probably have distinct mechanisms: one a child-initiated coercive process in the family and the other parent and peer processes shaped by the child's disclosure. The environmentally influenced factors seem distinctively shaped by poor parental monitoring of both sibs and the effects of siblings on each other's deviancy.
A developmental model of antisocial behavior is outlined. Recent findings are reviewed that concern the etiology and course of antisocial behavior from early childhood through adolescence. Evidence is presented in support of the hypothesis that the route to chronic delinquency is marked by a reliable developmental sequence of experiences. As a first step, ineffective parenting practices are viewed as determinants for childhood conduct disorders. The general model also takes into account the contextual variables that influence the family interaction process. As a second step, the conduct-disordered behaviors lead to academic failure and peer rejection. These dual failures lead, in turn, to increased risk for depressed mood and involvement in a deviant peer group. This third step usually occurs during later childhood and early adolescence. It is assumed that children following this developmental sequence are at high risk for engaging in chronic delinquent behavior. Finally, implications for prevention and intervention are discussed.
Children's traits, such as antisocial behavior, are embedded in a matrix that is changing over time. Although the trait score is stable, there are changes in the form of antisocial acts. There can also be subgroups of boys who show systematic increases in mean level of antisocial behavior. Latent growth models were used to demonstrate both changes in form and systematic changes in mean level for a subgroup of boys. The analyses included measures of covariates that were thought necessary to cause these changes. There are also qualitative changes brought about by the presence of the antisocial trait itself (e.g., academic failure, peer rejection, and depressed mood). Factor analyses carried out at three ages showed that, over time, both the changes in form and the addition of new problems are quantifiable and thus represent orderly change.
In Exp I, peer perceptual correlates of social preference (SP) and social impact (SI) were investigated with 311 3rd, 5th, and 8th graders. SP was highly positively related to cooperativeness, supportiveness, and physical attractiveness and negatively related to disruptiveness and aggression. SI was related to active, salient behaviors of both positive and negative valence. Whereas the correlates were found to be similar at each grade level, greater proportions of the variance in these dimensions could be predicted at younger than older ages. In Exp II, these dimensions were used to assign 531 Ss to 5 sociometric status groups: popular, rejected, neglected, controversial, and average. Peer perceptions of the behavioral correlates of these groups were solicited and found to reveal distinct profiles. A previously unidentified group of controversial children was perceived as disruptive and aggressive (like the rejected group), but also as social leaders (like popular Ss). It is suggested that researchers consider controversial children as a distinct group in future behavioral and epidemiological studies. (32 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This study focuses on the prediction of early adolescent involvement with antisocial peers from boys' experiences in school, family, and behavior at age 10 yrs. 206 boys and their families were assessed at school, interviewed, observed in the home, and then followed up at age 12 yrs. Poor parental discipline and monitoring practices, peer rejection, and academic failure at age 10 yrs were prognostic of involvement with antisocial peers at age 12 yrs. Considerable continuity was also found between the boys' antisocial behavior and contact with antisocial peers at age 10 yrs. After controlling for such continuity, only academic failure and peer rejection remained as significant predictors. These data indicate a need to study the ecological context of deviant peer networks in middle childhood. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Distinction is drawn between research on learning processes among children in schools and the impact of schooling on students' academic and socioemotional development. Schooling and the learning environment are considered within an ecological/transactional framework. The research on school effectiveness and teacher effects is summarized. Interventions directed at the social regularities of the schooling environment are proposed as strategies to improve the learning environment of the school and optimize student outcomes.
Traditional interview studies of inconsistent parental discipline show a strong link with young children's conduct problems. Observational studies of inconsistency show weaker links with problem behavior and suffer from methodological problems. This study proposed a new observational definition of parental inconsistency, which analyzed whether mothers follow through their demands during sequences of mother-child conflict. A home observational study showed that mothers of conduct-problem preschoolers acted inconsistently during a greater proportion of conflict episodes than did their normal counterparts. There was a strong correlation between inconsistency and amount of family conflict. Inconsistency varied as a function of the context from which conflict arose. Results are discussed in terms of both coercion (Patterson, 1979) and predictability theories of problem behavior (Wahler & Dumas, 1986).
In this review, we examine the oft-made claim that peer-relationship difficulties in childhood predict serious adjustment problems in later life. The article begins with a framework for conceptualizing and assessing children’s peer difficulties and with a discussion of conceptual and methodological issues in longitudinal risk research. Following this, three indexes of problematic peer relationships (acceptance, aggressiveness, and shyness/withdrawal) are evaluated as predictors of three later outcomes (dropping out of school, criminality, and psychopathology). The relation between peer difficulties and later maladjustment is examined in terms of both the consistency and strength of prediction. A review and analysis of the literature indicates general support for the hypothesis that children with poor peer adjustment are at risk for later life difficulties. Support is clearest for the outcomes of dropping out and criminality. It is also clearest for low acceptance and aggressiveness as predictors, whereas a link between shyness/withdrawal and later maladjustment has not yet been adequately tested. The article concludes with a critical discussion of the implicit models that have guided past research in this area and a set of recommendations for the next generation of research on the risk hypothesis.
Reviews prediction studies on delinquency in order to identify etiological variables. The principal predictors of delinquency were the parents' family management and techniques (supervision and discipline), the child's conduct problems, parental criminality, and the child's poor academic performance. The best predictors of recidivism were reports of the child's stealing or lying, followed by the child's own problem behavior or prior delinquency. Data are presented to show the earliest age of the child at which these predictors have been measured. Results of the prediction data are used to demonstrate utility functions in which false positive and false negative errors are minimized. (89 ref)
The research literature on juvenile delinquency shows that antisocial adolescents are often lacking in academic, interpersonal, and work skills. Past research on antisocial adolescents has focused primarily on the relationship between single skill deficits and official delinquency. The present report extends this body of literature by investigating the relationship between seven measures of skill and official and self-reported delinquency in a nonclinical sample of 70 white male adolescents. Youths classified as delinquent on the basis of prior police contact had a lower multivariate profile on seven measures of academic, interpersonal, and work skills. Five of the seven measures correlated significantly with both the official and self-reported criteria of delinquency. Academic skill deficits may be the strongest covariates of antisocial behavior.
The objective of the present study was to evaluate the reliability and validity of observers' subjective impressions of family behavior. Independent observers who recorded family interactions of 70 families referred for child management difficulties using a complex coding system also completed a 25-item Observer Impressions Inventory after each observation session. A hierarchical cluster analysis was performed on the inventory scores, and four clusters of adequate internal consistency emerged: hostility, disorganization, child aggression, and parental reactivity. Cluster scores were moderately correlated with observed deviant behavior rates obtained from the complex coding system. Subjective impressions were also reasonably good predictors of observed deviant behavior and mother's ratings of improvement at discharge. The addition of subjective impressions to recorded behavior rates during baseline yielded a more accurate prediction of child deviance at discharge than could be obtained from either alone. Finally, three of the four inventory scales reliably discriminated clinic-referred families from their nonreferred counterparts. The satisfactory psychometric performance of the inventory suggests that it would be a useful and cost-effective supplement to naturalistic observation procedures.
In this chapter, I will present a body of work that I call “multiaxial empirically based assessment.” In explaining this notion, I will first summarize previous work that has posed new challenges that were not so evident before. Thereafter, I will present recent innovations designed to meet these challenges. For brevity, I will use the term “children” to include adolescents.
4 fourth-grade boys, each different social status types-rejected, popular, neglected, and average-met in play groups once a week for 6 weeks. 5 groups were of boys from the same classroom, and 5 of the boys were from 4 different schools. Within 3 sessions, social status in the groups was highly correlated with school-based status for boys from both familiar and unfamiliar groups. Observations of behavior coded from videotapes revealed significant distinctive patterns of social interaction for the social status types. Rejected boys were extremely active and aversive, but no more physically aversive than average boys, although group members perceived rejected boys as starting fights. Popular boys engaged in more norm setting and were more prosocial in the unfamiliar groups. Although neglected boys were the least interactive and aversive, they were more visible and active in the unfamiliar group and seemed most affected by the new social context. The findings underscore the importance of distinguishing between behaviors associated with the emergence of social status in contrast to those associated with the maintenance of social status.
Research on the determinants of children's sociometric status has generally ignored the role of parental behavior. In this study, the relation between maternal behavior observed during the play sessions of mother-child pairs and the children's social behavior and sociometric status were examined. In addition, the relation between the children's sociometric status and maternal behavior exhibited when interacting with another mother, as well as child dyadic behavior, was assessed. Results indicated that behaviors exhibited in all 3 contexts (i. e., mother-child, mother-mother, child-child interaction) were related to one another and to sociometric status. Finally, the relation between maternal social knowledge and the social knowledge, behavior, and sociometric status of the children was investigated. Again, analyses revealed significant relations. Implications of these findings in terms of the determinants of social status and preventive intervention programs are discussed.
The Assessment for Integration into Mainstream Settings (AIMS) system for use in mainstreaming handicapped children into less restrictive settings is described. AIMS is an ecological assessment system, consisting of five instruments, that makes it possible to (a) identify the minimal behavioral demands of less restrictive settings, (b) make use of this in formation in the systematic preparation of handicapped children for the behavioral demands that exist within them, and (6) directly assess the handicapped child's adjustment to academic and free-play settings following social integration. Following a brief review of the knowledge base on mainstreaming, three sections of the paper describe respectively (a) the AIMS assessment instruments and their uses; (b) validation studies, psychometric characteristics, and normative data; and (c) school applications of the AIMS system.
describe the general methodological approach that we [the authors] have developed for assessing factors involved in the development of antisocial behavior in children / present two theoretical/empirical examples from our research / particular attention will be given to comparing the relative utilities for different levels (micro- and macro-) of data in making long-term predictions about child adjustment / structural equation modeling (SEM) is a statistical tool that we have found most useful in testing our hypotheses (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
A longitudinal study of 73 families was extended to examine links between early parent–child relationships measured at 1 (in the Strange Situation) and 3 (in a laboratory observation) yrs of age and the target child's relationship with a close friend at 5 yrs of age (in a lab observation). Path analysis was used to test developmental models of parent–child antecedents of dyadic positive and negative friendship behavior. Results indicated that more positive and secure parent–child relationships are associated with more positive friendships and more negative family relationships with more negative friendships. However, several counterintuitive findings also emerged suggestive of compensatory processes. Specific findings illuminate the role of early attachment relationships and differential maternal and paternal effects. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
An iterative, bootstrapping strategy is described in which assessment devices are evaluated on the basis of their reliabilities and validities, usefulness in the formation of nomological networks, and eventual adequacy as part of a hypothesized process mode. A study was conducted to replicate and extend previous research by the present authors and T. J. Dishion (see record
1985-25219-001) and the 1st author and Dishion (in press), which was aimed at defining the process through which young boys learn to use antisocial behaviors at home and at school. The parents of 103 4th-grade boys completed a structured interview, 6 brief telephone interviews, and the Child Behavior Checklist. The boys also completed the structured interview and the phone interviews and were observed at home during 3 1-hr periods. The children's teachers rated them on the Checklist. 14 indicators that defined the 4 latent dimensions (discipline, monitoring, coercive child, and antisocial) in the model were analyzed. According to the model, inadequate parental discipline leads to coercive child behaviors, which in turn produce antisocial acts at home and at school and further difficulties in disciplining. Parents who lack good discipline skills appear to be less aware than other parents of their children's whereabouts and activities; these poor monitoring skills lead, in turn, to further antisocial acts. (3 p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
In this paper, both longitudinal and treatment studies relevant to conduct disorder (CD) are reviewed, and a developmental approach to its prevention is presented. Outcome studies for the treatment of CD and antisocial behavior are first reviewed to demonstrate that, although none have been entirely successful, many interventions have powerful effects on various symptoms that comprise the disorder, highly predictive antecedents, and risk factors. Second, the development of CD and the potency and interrelationship among antecedent and mediating variables is traced through the preschool and early elementary school years. Third, an attempt is made to synthesize the developmental and treatment research findings to suggest possible integrations of interventions that are promising for future preventive trials in the preschool and elementary school periods. It is concluded that, whereas before the entry to school preventive interventions targeted entirely in the family setting may prove successful, after the transition to school multisetting interventions will be essential. Finally, three examples of new and multisetting prevention trials are briefly described.
The association between boys' peer relations, their antisocial behavior, academic skill deficit, and family ecology was examined with 2 cohorts of boys and their families (N = 206) who were interviewed, observed in the home, and assessed in school. Group comparisons revealed that rejected boys experienced poorer family management practices (i.e., monitoring and discipline practices), showed more family stress, were of lower socioeconomic status, and displayed more behavioral and academic problems than did their average peers. Correlational analyses provided similar results and showed good replication across the 2 cohorts. The hypothesis was tested that the effect of poor parent discipline on peer rejection was mediated by the boys' antisocial behavior and academic skill deficits. Structural equation analyses indicated that the mediated effect model provided a better fit to the data than did the direct effect model. The findings were discussed in relation to the need for longitudinally examining the role of parenting processes and child behavior in peer rejection at different points in development.
A developmental model of antisocial behavior is outlined. Recent findings are reviewed that concern the etiology and course of antisocial behavior from early childhood through adolescence. Evidence is presented in support of the hypothesis that the route to chronic delinquency is marked by a reliable developmental sequence of experiences. As a first step, ineffective parenting practices are viewed as determinants for childhood conduct disorders. The general model also takes into account the contextual variables that influence the family interaction process. As a second step, the conduct-disordered behaviors lead to academic failure and peer rejection. These dual failures lead, in turn, to increased risk for depressed mood and involvement in a deviant peer group. This third step usually occurs during later childhood and early adolescence. It is assumed that children following this developmental sequence are at high risk for engaging in chronic delinquent behavior. Finally, implications for prevention and intervention are discussed.
Behavioral data relating to peer social status were collected from peers, teachers, and observers on both first- and third-grade boys (ages 6-7 and 8-9 years, respectively). Peer and teacher ratings had greater intermethod agreement than observer data, although all 3 sources provided evidence that rejected and controversial boys were more aggressive than other boys. However, relatively little aggression was observed among the older boys, indicating that peers and teachers may be better sources of information about aggression in this group. Observational data differentiated among status groups on measures of activity (on task vs. off-task, and prosocial play vs. solitary activity) for both age groups. Rejected boys displayed little prosocial behavior according to peers and teachers, but were not less often engaged in prosocial play, according to observers. Neglected boys were the most solitary group during play; however, teachers rated rejected boys as the most solitary, contrary to observations. Controversial boys were seen as highly aggressive by all sources but as highly prosocial only by peers and observers.
The study was designed (a) to provide prevalence data on behavioral problems and competencies, (b) to identify differences related to demographic variables, and (c) to compare clinically referred and demographically similar nonreferred children. Data were obtained with the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL), consisting of 20 social competence items and 118 behavior problems. Parents of 1,300 referred children completed the CBCL at intake into outpatient mental health services, while parents of 1,300 randomly selected nonreferred children completed the CBCL in a home interview survey. Intraclass correlations were in the .90s for interparent agreement, 1-week test-retest reliability, and inter-interviewer reliability. Indices of the reported prevalence of each item are graphically portrayed for children grouped by age, gender, and clinical status. Multiple regressions and ANCOVAs showed minimal racial differences but significant tendencies for lower SES children to have higher behavior problem and lower competence scores than upper SES children. There were numerous gender differences on specific items but no significant gender difference in total behavior problem or competence score. Age showed more and larger differences than the other demographic variables, but these differences were dwarfed by differences related to referral status. Across all demographic groups, referal status accounted for more variance in total behavior problem and social competence scores than in the scores for any single item. However, some behavior problems that have traditionally received little attention were much more strongly associated with referral status than problems that have received much attention. Cutoff points on the distributions of total behavior problem and social competence scores yield good separation between referred and nonreferred samples.
Children's traits, such as antisocial behavior, are embedded in a matrix that is changing over time. Although the trait score is stable, there are changes in the form of antisocial acts. There can also be subgroups of boys who show systematic increases in mean level of antisocial behavior. Latent growth models were used to demonstrate both changes in form and systematic changes in mean level for a subgroup of boys. The analyses included measures of covariates that were thought necessary to cause these changes. There are also qualitative changes brought about by the presence of the antisocial trait itself (e.g., academic failure, peer rejection, and depressed mood). Factor analyses carried out at three ages showed that, over time, both the changes in form and the addition of new problems are quantifiable and thus represent orderly change.
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