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The Effects of Pleasure and Arousal on Recall of Ads During the Super Bowl
Abstract
This study investigates whether pleasure and arousal levels of viewers watching a sports program affect advertisement recall. The results suggest that programs that evoke strong emotional reactions, such as the Super Bowl, may inhibit the recall of advertisements and brands. Specifically, these findings seem to support the Intensity (arousal) theory and may have important implications for advertisers who promote their products or services on sports-related event programming. © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
... They found that emotional arousal experienced during the event significantly reduced the ability of viewers to remember TV commercials presented during the events. However, subsequent research by Newell et al. (2001) utilized similar experimental methods (e.g. field experiment) and detected no such negative effects of game-induced arousal on advertisement recall. ...
... Second, the current study addresses several methodological issues existing in the previous studies by Newell et al. (2001) and Pavelchak et al. (1988). While emotions and their effects are known to exist quite shortly and disappear very quickly (e.g. ...
... For the emotion spillover effect, Newell et al. (2001) and Pavelchak et al. (1988) reported conflicting results. Pavelchak et al. found the negative impact of game-induced arousal on memory for ads whereas Newell et al. did not. ...
Research question: The present study aims to reinvestigate how
emotional reactions to sport programing influence cognitive
information processing of a subsequent TV commercial. The
previous studies on the subject provided mixed results regarding
the spillover effects of sport-induced emotions on memory. Thus,
the current manuscript attempts to answer the question ‘how do
emotional reactions to a sporting event influence recall for ads
broadcasted during the game?’
Research methods: : The current experiment – involving a 2 (Game
outcome: victory, defeat) × 2 (Game process: close, lopsided) × 2
(Video instantiation) repeated measure factorial design – was
conducted in a psychophysiological laboratory. A total of 51
undergraduate students from a large public university completed
this study. Real-time (e.g. facial muscle, electrodermal, and cardiac
activity) and self-assessed data (e.g. emotions, memory tests) data
were collected while watching experimental stimuli.
Results and Findings: Both real-time (e.g. heart rate) and selfassessed
(e.g. recall) data showed robust and consistent patterns
regarding the spillover effects, which firmly supported the
theoretical prediction of Limited Capacity Model for Motivated
Mediated Message Processing (LC4MP). Attention and memory
for subsequent advertising significantly vary depending on
whether the favored team won and how close the game was.
Implications: This study makes unique sport management
contributions by using a different theoretical perspective (i.e.
LC4MP) and different methodology (i.e. psychophysiological
experiment). The current study broadens our understanding of
the relationship among team performance, emotions, and
cognitions. Also, the findings imply that different advertising
strategies for brand awareness should be implemented
depending on specific game situations.
... Number of issues bought → Aided ad recall Norris et al. (2003) .08 (-.13, .30) Ad recall (2nd ad break) Newell et al. (2001) .07 (-.06, .21) ...
... (-.05, .18) Low vs. moderate involvement → Unaided ad recall Newell et al. (2001) .06 (-.08, .20) ...
... Number of issues bought →Unaided ad recall Wilson & Isaac (1995) .02 (-.08, .12) Overall recognition (1st ad break) Newell et al. (2001) .00 (-.15, .16) ...
Media professionals and scholars have examined the influence of media context on advertising effectiveness for more than 50 years, but clarity regarding media-context effects remains lacking, amid an abundance of mixed results. This study used meta-analysis to investigate the relationship between media context and advertising memory in quantitative studies up to 2013. Effect sizes were significant by media-context factors, advertising-memory measures, and study characteristics, although these were correlated weakly or moderately. The findings strongly reinforce the decision rule that media professionals should consider media context when making media decisions. © 2019, World Advertising Research Center. All rights reserved.
... Over the past decades, much research has investigated how arousal and valence influence advertising effectiveness (e.g., Gorn et al., 2001;Shapiro et al., 2002). Meanwhile, a much smaller number of studies explicitly investigate the influence of arousal and emotional valence on viewers' processing of brand messages in sports broadcasts (e.g., Carrillat et al., 2015;Lee et al., 2019;Newell et al., 2001;Pavelchak et al., 1998;Pham, 1992). For example, Newell et al. (2001) and Pavelchak et al. (1988) examine viewers' memory for advertisements shown during the Super Bowl and find that recall is more strongly related to arousal than valence. ...
... Meanwhile, a much smaller number of studies explicitly investigate the influence of arousal and emotional valence on viewers' processing of brand messages in sports broadcasts (e.g., Carrillat et al., 2015;Lee et al., 2019;Newell et al., 2001;Pavelchak et al., 1998;Pham, 1992). For example, Newell et al. (2001) and Pavelchak et al. (1988) examine viewers' memory for advertisements shown during the Super Bowl and find that recall is more strongly related to arousal than valence. Based on their analyses, greater arousal reduces viewers' recall of ads embedded in broadcasts that evoke strong emotional reactions. ...
Live sport broadcasts can evoke emotions in consumers and allow companies to reach their audience in environments that allow for automatic processing of brand messages. However, only few studies have applied psychophysiological methodologies to assess how the live nature of a competition and viewers' emotions affect the processing of sponsor messages, and prior research has mostly relied on ex-post data. Therefore, to identify the interplay of game outcome uncertainty, viewers' emotions and attention to sponsor messages, this exploratory lab study tracks continuous viewer data during live sport broadcasts. Soccer fans' (n = 11) arousal, emotional valence, and visual attention to sponsors while watching live soccer broadcasts were measured using galvanic skin response, video-based facial expressions, and infrared eye-tracking. In-play betting odds served as an indicator of outcome uncertainty. Multi-level modeling reveals that greater outcome uncertainty increases arousal and the magnitude of emotional response. Further, the data reveal that low-to-moderate arousal and valence-neutral emotional states increase viewer attention to sponsor messages. This study is the first to consider the dynamics of live sports experiences in the explanation of sponsorship effectiveness. It contributes to the literature by using continuous measurements involving psychophysiological data to investigate emotions and attention to sponsors.
... For interactive advertising directed to an active audience though, new solutions are required to increase consumers' engagement with ads while reducing their ad avoidance (Flavián, Gurrea, and Orús 2012). Previous studies indicate that arousing stimuli encourage ad acceptance, because they generate a more intense user experience (Newell, Henderson, and Wu 2001); ad acceptance is even greater when users interact with ads, as in the case of skippable advertising (Pashkevich et al. 2012). Arousing stimuli garner higher levels of attention and interest (Kensinger and Corkin 2003), whereas users who are not sufficiently aroused tend to have negative reactions to websites and companies Jeong and Biocca 2012). ...
... For viewers who are highly involved with a product, such that they are attentive to and interested in the ad , the incentive of high-arousal stimuli might not be necessary. According to the intensity principle, viewers who are highly involved with interesting content allocate less attention to commercial elements and other details (Newell, Henderson, and Wu 2001) and are more easily persuaded by less complex commercials (Tavassoli, Shultz, and Fitzsimons 1995). Highly exciting stimuli presented to highly involved viewers thus have detrimental effects on ad attitudes and memorization, because they demand processing of a large number of internal cues, focus on the arousal state, and potentially reduce overall attention capacity (Tavassoli, Shultz, and Fitzsimons 1995). ...
... For interactive advertising directed to an active audience though, new solutions are required to increase consumers' engagement with ads while reducing their ad avoidance (Flavián, Gurrea, and Orús 2012). Previous studies indicate that arousing stimuli encourage ad acceptance, because they generate a more intense user experience (Newell, Henderson, and Wu 2001); ad acceptance is even greater when users interact with ads, as in the case of skippable advertising (Pashkevich et al. 2012). Arousing stimuli garner higher levels of attention and interest (Kensinger and Corkin 2003), whereas users who are not sufficiently aroused tend to have negative reactions to websites and companies Jeong and Biocca 2012). ...
... For viewers who are highly involved with a product, such that they are attentive to and interested in the ad , the incentive of high-arousal stimuli might not be necessary. According to the intensity principle, viewers who are highly involved with interesting content allocate less attention to commercial elements and other details (Newell, Henderson, and Wu 2001) and are more easily persuaded by less complex commercials (Tavassoli, Shultz, and Fitzsimons 1995). Highly exciting stimuli presented to highly involved viewers thus have detrimental effects on ad attitudes and memorization, because they demand processing of a large number of internal cues, focus on the arousal state, and potentially reduce overall attention capacity (Tavassoli, Shultz, and Fitzsimons 1995). ...
Interactive online media are an increasingly preferred format for users and advertisers, and skippable online video advertisements are common on social media networks such as YouTube. The specific features and influences of this interactive marketing tool demand further consideration. Focusing on effective tactics, this article investigates the influence of introducing high-arousal and low-arousal stimuli on skippable ad effectiveness (i.e., ad acceptance, ad attitude, brand attitude, and ad intrusiveness), with the potential moderation of context congruency and product involvement. A pretest and three studies confirm that high-arousal ads are watched for longer time and are more effective in congruent contexts. Users' product involvement determines the intrusiveness of high- and low-arousal skippable ads. These findings, along with their practical implications for this novel setting, provide further directions for research too.
... Sin embargo, es importante tener en cuenta que diversos factores pueden influir en la cantidad y calidad de esta atención. Un elemento que impacta negativamente en la atención es la emoción asociada con el contexto en el que se encuentra el consumidor (Newell, Henderson & Wu, 2001). Esta emoción tiende a distraer y reducir la capacidad de concentración en los mensajes publicitarios, lo que, a su vez, conduce a un procesamiento menos profundo y reflexivo de la información (Cohen et al., 2018). ...
Evaluating the effectiveness of esports sponsorship for a brand is a significant challenge. A first approach would be to quantify the visibility of ads during broadcasts, usually expressed in terms of exposure time. This study supports the existing literature on the importance of size in advertising, highlighting the positive influence of larger brands on viewers' visual attention. In addition, it was found that placement within the players' clothing resulted in longer viewing times. In contrast, no significant results were obtained in relation to the colour perception of the brands. The structural complexity of the brands also influenced visual behaviour, with less complex brands attracting more attention. In addition, the phenomenon of exposure was evident, where brands that occupied more time on stage attracted more visual fixations. In summary, these findings provide important information for marketing and advertising professionals seeking to maximise the visual impact of their brands in this thriving entertainment sector.
... When consumers are highly involved with television content, indeed, they concentrate on Frontiers in Psychology 10 frontiersin.org the source of their arousal and devote fewer resources to commercials that interrupt the program (Newell et al., 2001). The advertisement exposure could represent a sort of break from television consumption with a consequential decrease in arousal. ...
Emotional and cognitive reactions to the media context prove impactful on advertising effectiveness. However, research on the topic remains lacking and with a profusion of mixed results regarding the role of the context in enhancing or detracting communication effectiveness. This study explores the media context-advertising relationship, by investigating the influence of television content on advertisement in light of media psychophysiology and grounding on the Halo effect theory. Consumers’ responses to different television content and advertisements are assessed. Specifically, consumers’ arousal, pleasure, attention, and memorization are measured through brain analysis, heart rate, and skin conductance detection. Self-reported methods complement such analysis, by exploring the values associated with the television content and the advertised brands. Results show that television content influences consumer responses to the advertisement and the values associated with the brands, confirming the existence of a halo effect. Responses differ among television content typologies.
... However, there is a difference between an advertisement and product placement. When viewers are highly involved in the program, they allocate less attention to interrupting advertisements (Newell et al., 2001). This may have a negative impact on brand recall. ...
This chapter focuses on 360 ° video in the context of product placement. At the beginning, a description of advertising related to profitability as an important factor for organizations' success is given, and the need is exposed for effective advertising approaches. This is followed by a description of 360° video, including all relevant theoretical concepts. The latter serves for placing the modality of the medium between traditional video and virtual reality. The following section focuses on the essential aspects of product placement characteristics for studying in terms of 360° video. Finally, the topics are linked by examining the correlation between concepts and analyzing existing videos across certain platforms intended for immersive story-telling. 360° video is identified as an immersive medium with potential for the inclusion of product placement. At the end, there is a discussion including theoretical implications, future directions, and limitations are exposed, and a conclusion is reached.
... However, a higher impact on recall was demonstrated by arousal. Newell et al. (2001) suggested that strong emotional reactions discourage ad and brand recall due to programs evoking such emotions. Game Involvement: In advertising and consumer research one of the most frequently studied topics has been involvement. ...
Rupa Rathee, Pallavi Rajain “Impact of Advergames On Brand Memory and Brand Recall”, International Journal of Business, Management and Allied Sciences, Vol. 5 Issue 1, Jan-Mar 2018, pp. 300-306, (ISSN:2349-4638).
Abstract: Advergaming is the delivery of advertising messages through electronic games.
Among the various forms of advertising used nowadays, advergames are one of
the most influential methods. Advergames are different from others forms of
advertising as they involve the customers directly. They impact a person’s brand
memory and brand recall by affecting their subconscious. In the present study, the
authors attempted to find how advergames influence the brand memory and
recall of gamers. Customer’s memory is affected by gaining positive feelings
through positive gaming experiences. For studying cognitive development, it is
important to study the effects of memory. The authors also found the prominent
factors affecting the brand memory and recall while playing advergames. These
factors include brand prominence, arousal, game involvement, persuasion
knowledge and game-product congruence. Thus, it can be understood that by
manipulating these factors, advergames can be used in a better way for the best
possible outcomes for different brands. Brands have been able to successfully
position themselves using mobile gaming in western countries. Therefore, Indian
marketers also believe that it will be a success among Indian audience as well
despite it being a costly investment. This is mainly because it is believed that
increase in supply of gaming talent will eventually bring down their costs.
... To derive the new measures, trained coders first independently watched and coded ads from an archival database using established coding schemes. The specific coding schemes used were chosen based on including those executional variables that are (1) included in prior large-scale studies of executional variables (e.g., Stewart and Furse 1986;Stewart and Koslow 1989) and (2) included in prior literature on variables commonly employed in Super Bowl advertising (e.g., Kim, Cheong, and Kim 2012;Li 2009;Nail 2007;Newell, Henderson, and Wu 2001;Siefert et al. 2009;Tomkovick, Yelkur and Christians 2001). ...
Prior research on creativity and the effectiveness of executional factors in advertising has focused on the impact of uniqueness and consistency in comparison to prior and competitive advertising. Relatively little is known about the specific impact of these variables and their relationship to each other, and few existing measures of consistency and uniqueness extend beyond subjective rating scales. In this research, we develop new measures of advertising uniqueness and consistency. We use data from 10 years of Super Bowl advertisements along with panel data on word-of-mouth communication for the advertised brands (buzz) to demonstrate the validity of this methodology. Our findings suggest it is not the presence of any particular element but whether the element and what it is combined with are unique and consistent. Advertisements are likely to be more effective if they are unique from earlier ads for all brands but also consistent with ads for the same brand from prior periods.
... On the other hand, practitioners should carefully consider the context on which they display commercials. Newell et al. (2001) observed that programmes evoking strong emotional reactions (e.g. the Super Bowl) may inhibit the recall of ads or brand. ...
Until now, neuromarketing studies have usually been aimed at assessing the predictive value of psychophysiological measures gathered while watching a marketing message related to a particular product. This study is the first attempt to verify the possibility of predicting familiar and unfamiliar brand purchases based on psychophysiological reactions to a retailer television advertisement measured by EEG, EDA and eye-tracking. The number of private label products chosen later served to assess the binary dependent variable. A logistic regression model (with a prediction rate of 61.2%) was applied to determine which psychophysiological variables explained the largest part of the variance of a final purchase decision. The results show that among various measures, only the electrodermal peaks per second were significant in predicting further purchase decisions. The decision to buy was also influenced by brand familiarity. The article concludes that EDA is an unobtrusive measure of emotion-related anticipation of significant outcomes, particularly for dynamic stimuli, as related to decision-making.
... They found that the degree of perceived humor of a Super Bowl commercial is positively related to brand recall and attitude towards Super Bowl commercials. Newell, Henderson, and Wu (2001) have investigated whether arousal levels of Super Bowl viewers affect advertising recall. The results of their study suggest that programs that evoke strong emotional reactions, such as the Super Bowl, inhibit the recall of advertisements. ...
... Arousal stimuli are common attention triggers and their efficacy have been demonstrated in both traditional and online advertising (Belanche et al., 2017a;Bialkova and Van Trijp, 2010;Moorman et al., 2012;Yoo and Kim, 2005). As a basic premise, embedding a high-arousal sequence increases viewers' attention to ads, compared with spots with low levels of arousal (Belanche et al., 2017a;Newell et al., 2001), which then serves as a memory cue for the advertised product (Bialkova and Van Trijp, 2010;Maher et al., 2006). Thus, a common advertising pattern features an arousal sequence as an attention maintainer (Moorman et al., 2012 ...
Purpose—By integrating the evidence of various audience theories, a comparison is made of viewers’ information processing of new interactive video advertising formats (skippable video ads) with traditional, non-skippable formats. The central focus is how exposure to a brand name at different moments during online video advertisements influences viewers’ recall.
Design/methodology/approach—A neuroscientific pre-test supported the selection of an arousing video, and a subsequent pre-test confirmed the scenario validity. Using a broader sample, the main study applied a 3 × 2 experimental design of different ad designs and formats.
Findings—Distinctions should be made between formats and audiences that lead to different information processing methods. Users exposed to skippable ads (active audiences) exert a higher control over advertising and tend to process the information presented in the initial part of an ad. In turn, users viewing non-skippable ads (passive audiences) should be exposed to the high arousal stimulus before presentation of the key information that the advertiser wants them to remember.
Practical/Social implications—Advertising managers and content creators can use these results to improve the design of their online videos, and to achieve greater effectiveness in terms of information recall.
Originality/value—Skippable online videos have become a commonly used advertising format, but research into their effects is scarce. This study offers the first comparison of viewers’ reactions towards skippable versus non-skippable formats, in terms of brand recall and economic performance. Further research might extend this underdeveloped field of study and enhance the knowledge of video format processing in social media.
... It is defined on a continuum from a state of impassivity to one of wakefulness. It influences an individual's knowledge, attitudes, and behavior, especially when a communication is persuasive (Newell et al., 2001), evaluates a product (Noseworthy et al., 2014), or used via the Internet (Ha and Lennon, 2010). Emotional activation also influences individual performance, especially for creative tasks (Jennings et al., 2015). ...
This article presents an integrative model of creative self-efficacy and creative collective efficacy. This model investigates the influence of creative self-efficacy and its determinants (knowledge gained through experience and by observation, verbal encouragements from a third party, and emotional activation) as well as the influence of social proximity on creative collective efficacy. In addition, the predictive validity of creative collective efficacy is studied using perceived originality of teams' creative outcomes. The results confirm the proposed model, including the hypothesized hierarchy of creative self-efficacy determinants. The existence of a quadratic relationship between social proximity and creative collective efficacy, and the partially mediating role of creative self-efficacy between its determinants and creative collective efficacy are also shown.
... They found that the degree of perceived humor of a Super Bowl commercial is positively related to brand recall and attitude towards Super Bowl commercials. Newell, Henderson, and Wu (2001) have investigated whether arousal levels of Super Bowl viewers affect advertising recall. The results of their study suggest that programs that evoke strong emotional reactions, such as the Super Bowl, inhibit the recall of advertisements. ...
https://www.routledge.com/Current-Research-on-Gender-Issues-in-Advertising/Zotos-Grau-Taylor/p/book/9780815380207
... This is because advertising is worthwhile only when consumers know and remember the brand. Therefore, advertisement recall has frequently been studied to understand the effectiveness of advertisements (Newell et al., 2001;Jin, 2003;Chessa and Murre, 2007;Parker and Furnham, 2007). Because recall is a necessary condition for advertising effectiveness, it is a dependent variable in this study. ...
Purpose
This study explores how different involvement levels within a single television program influence recall of cognitive vs. affective advertisements aired during that television program.
Design/methodology/approach
Two studies of 2 (program involvement: High Vs low) x 2(ad involvement: cognitive Vs affective) between subject design were conducted; one study was for cognitive program and other study was for affective program. Existing scales were used after conducting reliability and validity tests.
Findings
The influence of different level of involvement with a television program on recall of cognitive and affective ads was found. Specifically, recall of cognitive ad was found to be higher when involvement with television program is low than when involvement with program is high. Recall of affective ad was found to be lower when involvement with program is low than when involvement with program is high.
Practical implications
Results indicate that cognitive ads are recalled more at point of low involvement with program whereas affective ads are recalled at point of high involvement with program. The implications are in the field of understanding and making advertisement airing decisions.
Originality/value
When the TV program progresses, the story tends to build and hence the involvement increases. Therefore, involvement level with the program at initial point and later point can vary. This study identified the possibility of cognitive ad being recalled more at initial point of a TV program i.e. at low involvement, and affective ad being recalled more at the later point of the same TV program, i.e. at high involvement.
... Of all mega-special-events, the Super Bowl is widely recognized as "the vehicle" for the launch of new and innovative television promotions that are anticipated by many viewers. These 30-second spectacles cost over US$2 million and provide an interesting context for assessing sponsorship Newell, Henderson, & Wu, 2001). In 2004, for example, Fox television demanded US$2.4 million per 30 second spot (Feuer, 2004). ...
As large, global properties such as the Olympic Games, the World Cup of Football and the Super Bowl become central elements of an emerging culture of media-based spectating, the sponsorship ‘mega-special-events’ becomes an optimal positioning tool for corporations and other investors seeking to communicate global messages. These mega-special-event properties (sponsees) have the ability to attain significant resources through sponsorship by offering exclusive promotional opportunities that target sizeable consumer markets and attract sponsors. A longitudinal analysis of consumer opinion related to the 1998, 2000, 2002, 2004 and 2006 Super Bowls provides empirical evidence that questions the ability of Super Bowl sponsorship to influence the sales of sponsor offerings. Two noteworthy results are produced: first, that intent-to-purchase generated in consumers is very low and, second, that despite the marketing efforts of the Super Bowl and its sponsors that these levels of intent-to-purchase remain relatively unchanged over the 1998 to 2006 timeframe. It is important to note however that these results may be impacted by a number of extraneous factors including varying sponsor objectives, pre-sponsorship awareness levels, the pre-sponsorship image of sponsor and sponsee, decreasing interest in the Super Bowl, existing brand associations, changing consumption patters of Super Bowl viewers, increased clutter in the market place, the influence of ambush marketing, or poor activation by sponsors. Future research on sponsors in mega-special-events should examine these factors. It also should be recognized that even a modest achievement in intent to purchase a sponsors products or services in a markets as extensive as Super Bowl viewers could have significant financial rewards for that sponsors. Given that advertising costs and sponsorship fees for the Super Bowl were relatively stable during this time, one could infer that sponsors and advertisers were happy with their investments at this time. Conversely, one could also infer that these stable fees could have resulted from any of a number of factors including the interest of competitors in the sponsorship, the high appeal of the Super Bowl, the desire to associate with a mega-special-event of this caliber, etc. As a result of these findings, both sponsors and sponsees of mega-special-events may wish to re-consider their sponsorship investments or at least the activation of their mega-special-event sponsorships. Prioritizing exclusivity in negotiations, holding the mega-sponsee to their commitments on controlling ambush marketing and adopting strategies to reach targets through the cluttered marketplace are all potential tactics for sponsors to adopt. On the sponsee side, the very large fees currently commanded for sponsorship rights can only be maintained and increased if top value to sponsors is provided. Given the increased focus on sponsorship evaluation, mega-sponsees must focus their efforts in this regard.
... A partir de las propuestas de autores como Hetsroni y Asya (2002), Lowrey (2006), Moorman et al. (2007) o Smit et al. (2009 se puede inferir que la asociación que la audiencia hace de los contenidos de la telepromoción externa con un programa de entretenimiento, y los efectos positivos derivados de esta integración, puede ser la justificación que explica que se recuerden más que los spots. Por otra parte, parece asumido por la investigación académica (Newell et al., 2001;Scott, 2005) que los mensajes comerciales colocados en primera y última posición, dentro de un bloque publicitario, son mejor recordados que aquellos que están colocados en las posiciones intermedias. El efecto primacía también ha sido contrastado por autores como Moorman et al. (2007), Gupta y Gould (2007) o, Li (2010), que concreta el efecto posición preferencial (primacía) hacia el recuerdo en un trabajo sobre spots. ...
Advertising investment and audience figures indicate that television continues to lead as a mass advertising medium. However, its effectiveness is questioned due to problems such as zapping, saturation and audience fragmentation. This has favoured the development of non-conventional advertising formats. This study provides empirical evidence for the theoretical development. This investigation analyzes the recall generated by four non-conventional advertising formats in a real environment: short programme (branded content), television sponsorship, internal and external telepromotion versus the more conventional spot. The methodology employed has integrated secondary data with primary data from computer assisted telephone interviewing (CATI) were performed ad-hoc on a sample of 2000 individuals, aged 16 to 65, representative of the total television audience. Our findings show that non-conventional advertising formats are more effective at a cognitive level, as they generate higher levels of both unaided and aided recall, in all analyzed formats when compared to the spot.
... It is defined on a continuum from a state of impassivity to one of wakefulness. It influences an individual's knowledge, attitudes, and behavior, especially when a communication is persuasive (Newell et al., 2001), evaluates a product (Noseworthy et al., 2014), or used via the Internet (Ha and Lennon, 2010). Emotional activation also influences individual performance, especially for creative tasks (Jennings et al., 2015). ...
This article presents an integrative model of creative self-efficacy and creative collective efficacy. This model investigates the influence of creative self-efficacy and its determinants (knowledge gained through experience and by observation, verbal encouragements from a third party, and emotional activation) as well as the influence of social proximity on creative collective efficacy. In addition, the predictive validity of creative collective efficacy is studied using perceived originality of teams’ creative outcomes. The results confirm the proposed model, including the hypothesized hierarchy of creative self-efficacy determinants. The existence of a quadratic relationship between social proximity and creative collective efficacy, and the partially mediating role of creative self-efficacy between its determinants and creative collective efficacy are also shown.
... Depuis, plusieurs recherches ont été menées sur ce sujet. Même en retenant comme seul indicateur d'efficience publicitaire la mémorisation des publicités [rappelons qu'il existe des travaux mesurant l'attitude face à la marque (Ab) (Edell & Burke, 1987), l'attitude face au produit (Axelrod, 1963), l'attitude face à la publicité (Aad) (Aylesworth & Mackenzie, 1998), ou l'intention d'achat (PI) (Batra & Ray, 1986) suscitées par un contexte de programmation], les travaux sont nombreux et portent sur l'influence de l'émotion générée par le programme (Mattes & Cantor, 1982 ;Golberg & Gorn, 1987, Pavelchak, Antil & Munch, 1988Pham, 1992 ;Newell, Henderson & Wu, 2001), l'implication envers le programme (Bryant & Comisky, 1978 ;Soldow & Principe, 1981 ;Lord & Burnkrant, 1988, Norris & Colman, 1992Pham, 1992 ;Norris & Colman, 1993, Tavassoli, Shultz & Fitzsimons, 1995De Pelsmacker et alii, 2002), l'attitude générée par le programme (Clancy & Kweskin, 1971) ou la congruence entre programme et publicité (Horn & McEwen, 1977 ;Kamins, Marks & Skinner, 1991 ;Sharma, 2000 ;De Pelsmacker et alii, 2002). ...
... It is defined on a continuum from a state of impassivity to one of wakefulness. It influences an individual's knowledge, attitudes, and behavior, especially when a communication is persuasive (Newell et al., 2001), evaluates a product (Noseworthy et al., 2014), or used via the Internet (Ha and Lennon, 2010). Emotional activation also influences individual performance, especially for creative tasks (Jennings et al., 2015). ...
... Previous research focuses on factors of the effectiveness of Super Bowl ads. A majority of these studies explores their impact on short-term effectiveness measures such as recall, buzz, or, most commonly, ad likeability (e.g., Cheong and Kim, 2012;Li, 2010;Nail, 2007;Newell et al., 2001;Siefert et al., 2009;Tomkovick et al., 2001). Another group of studies examines whether Super Bowl ads have a positive impact on stock returns (a longer-term impact measure) in the days and weeks following the event (e.g., Choong et al., 2003;Eastman et al., 2010;Fehle et al., 2005;Kim and Morris, 2003;Tomkovick et al., 2011). ...
... They found that the degree of perceived humor of a Super Bowl commercial is positively related to brand recall and attitude towards Super Bowl commercials. Newell, Henderson, and Wu (2001) have investigated whether arousal levels of Super Bowl viewers affect advertising recall. The results of their study suggest that programs that evoke strong emotional reactions, such as the Super Bowl, inhibit the recall of advertisements. ...
Although the prevalence of gender stereotypes in advertising is well established, relatively little research has examined gender stereotypes in the context of Super Bowl that is arguably the most important event in U.S. television advertising. This study systematically examines gender representations across various product categories in Super Bowl commercials over a 20-year period (1990-2009). Our findings detect and discuss shifts in the cultural notions of gender constructed in advertising messages targeting the largest and the most demographically diverse audience in U.S. television. The paper concludes with a discussion of the theoretical and managerial implications of our findings.
http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02650487.2016.1162344
... Il reflète la différence de niveau d'activation d'un individu et se définit sur un continuum allant d'un état d'impassibilité à un état d'éveil. Il influence les connaissances, attitudes et comportements de l'individu, en particulier lorsque celui-ci est exposé à une communication persuasive (Newell, Henderson et Wu, 2001), qu'il évalue un produit (Noseworthy, Muro et Murray, 2014) ou qu'il navigue sur Internet (Ha et Lennon, 2010). L'activation émotionnelle influence également la performance, notamment lors de l'accomplissement de tâches créatives (Jennings et al., 2015). ...
Cet article propose un modèle intégrateur de l’efficacité créative personnelle et collective. Le modèle teste l’influence de l’efficacité créative personnelle et de ses déterminants (connaissances acquises par l’expérience et par l’observation, encouragements verbaux d’un tiers et activation émotionnelle), ainsi que celle de la proximité sociale, sur l’efficacité créative collective. De plus, la validité prédictive de l’efficacité créative collective est testée via l’originalité perçue de la production créative des équipes. Les résultats valident la conceptualisation proposée, incluant la hiérarchisation des déterminants de l’efficacité créative personnelle. Ils soulignent également l’existence d’une relation quadratique entre la proximité sociale et l’efficacité créative collective, ainsi que le rôle de médiateur partiel de l’efficacité créative personnelle entre ses déterminants et l’efficacité créative collective.
... This works to inhibit recall of peripheral stimuli, such as billboard advertisements. The processing intensity principle thus posits that higher levels of arousal generated by a broadcast program will negatively affect recall of advertisements (Newell, Henderson, and Wu 2001;Gardner 1985). Arousal was captured using the six-item scale of Mehrabian and Russell (1974). ...
Media multitasking, such as using handheld devices like smartphones and tablets while watching TV, has become prevalent, but its effect on the recall and recognition of advertising has been the subject of limited academic research. We contend that the context in which multitasking takes place affects consumer memory for advertising delivered via the primary activity (e.g., watching television). Specifically, we identify the importance of the degree of (a) congruence between the primary and second screen activity and (b) social accountability of second-screen activities. We test our typology empirically by examining the determinants of next-day recall and recognition for billboard advertisers (perimeter board advertisements) of a televised soccer match. In line with our theory, in most cases media multitasking leads to worse recall and recognition. However, in situations where there is congruence between primary- and second-screen activities, and secondary activities have a higher level of social accountability attached to them, advertising recall and recognition improves.
... Tsaur et al. (2007) found out that experiential marketing influenced consumers' emotional responses and subsequently formed their attitudes and behaviours in a positive manner. Moreover, on-site sponsorship activation also acts as a part of the sport event experience and can provide a broad range of emotions to spectators (Newell et al., 2001). Thus, understanding the role of emotions in generating sport consumer attitudes towards on-site sponsorship activation and the sponsor brand is essential. ...
On-site sponsorship activations have become more prominent in executing a mega-sport event sponsorship program. The current study investigates factors that drive consumers' attitudes towards on-site sponsorship activation and sponsor brand. In particular, this study examines the relationships among interactivity, emotions, fit between on-site sponsorship activation and event, attitude towards on-site sponsorship activation, and attitude towards the sponsor brand. Data were obtained from 205 spectators of the 2012 London Olympic Games who experienced at least one sponsorship activation on-site. The results suggested that interactivity is a significant predictor of arousal, and in turn, arousal increases pleasure. Pleasure and high sponsor-event fit influence attitude towards on-site sponsorship activation, which eventually influences attitude towards sponsor brand. The relationship between fit and attitude towards brand was mediated by attitude towards on-site sponsorship activation suggesting the value of on-site activations for brand equity. The theoretical and managerial implications are discussed along with limitations and future directions for research.
... Some research suggests that ads placed at the beginning of the game were recalled significantly more often by viewers than those placed later in the broadcast (Newell and Wu. 2003;Newell, et al., 2001). Super Bowl ads can be more effective by telling stories and by using emotional appeals (Steinberg, 2012;Kelly and SUPER BOWL ADVERTISING 6 Turley, 2004;Pavelchak, et al., 1988). ...
The Super Bowl is one of the highest profile sporting events in the USA. Each year, over 100 million American consumers watch the Super Bowl. Its popularity is driving marketing forces such as TV commercials, corporate sponsorship, publicity, social media, entertainment and economic activities at the host cities. This research paper analyzes the impressions of XLVII Super Bowl Advertising among college students to determine what characteristics of the ads were significant what implications there may be for Super Bowl advertisers. Among other things, our probit model indicates that a commercial that is perceived to be sexier, other things being equal, has a 30 % higher chance of convincing the consumer to try it regardless of whether the consumer is a male or female. Furthermore, our results show that disappointing commercials have about a 24 % less chance of persuasion. Moreover, the likelihood of trying a product whose commercial was disappointing, not perceived to be sexy, cool, or funny is about 41 % less than a product whose commercial was perceived to be otherwise.
Purpose
This study aims to examine the cross-media effect of Super Bowl ads on online search behavior. Furthermore, the authors explored the role of ad likability in the effect.
Design/methodology/approach
This study used a quasi-experiment method to test the hypotheses. The subjects of investigation are the brands advertised during the past ten years of Super Bowl from 2011 to 2020 ( n = 389). Search volume index data were collected through Google Trends. The authors used Ad Meter ratings to measure ad likability.
Findings
The findings indicate that Super Bowl advertisements stimulate consumers' likelihood to seek information about the advertised brands via search engines. The search volumes for brands hit a peak right after the Super Bowl advertising exposure. Additionally, ad likability influenced the increase in search volume. Consumers tend to search a brand online if they liked its Super Bowl ad.
Originality/value
The study contributes to the literature on Super Bowl advertising effectiveness by examining the impact of Super Bowl advertising on online search behavior and the role of ad likability in the relationship. Marketers will be able to utilize the increase in search volumes after the Super Bowl advertising exposure to further enhance brand engagement.
Purpose
In recent years, neurophysiological tools have been vastly applied in sport marketing research. Eye tracking, a pervasive sensor technology, has received a growing interest to examine the effects of advertising through sport on viewer attention. While there is a plethora of evidence in advertising that supports the positive effects of various advertising types and locations on viewer attention in various sport contexts, little is known about the role of a prosocial overlay ad on viewer attention when watching televised football matches. Therefore, this research aims to examine the differences in viewers' attention (i.e. fixation and duration) with regard to game attractiveness and colors of the prosocial message during televised football matches.
Design/methodology/approach
To identify the research gap, the authors first reviewed the relevant sport marketing and neuroscience research on advertising effectiveness. The authors selected a prosocial message displayed. Adopting an experimental research design and using eye tracking, this study examined the impacts of game attractiveness and colors of message on viewer attention to the prosocial message displayed on an overlay advertisement during a football match.
Findings
The authors found that the colors of prosocial messages and game attractiveness had significant effects on viewer attention to the prosocial message.
Originality/value
In this study, the authors sought to add advertisement color, as well as game attractiveness, to the extant knowledge in marketing literature as effective advertising factors in capturing viewers' attention. These variables can offer marketers new insights in designing effective advertisements for the context of televised sports events in a specialized field.
Purpose – This paper aims to investigate advertising effectiveness in various social media platforms in the fashion industry in Egypt. The present study uses a proposed framework to explore online advertising in Egypt. From a theoretical point of view, this study examines the relationship among three groups of factors including attitude towards online ad formats, ad intrusiveness, product involvement and social media ad effectiveness among Egyptian consumers. Design/methodology – The study examines advertising effectiveness in social media in terms of ad attitude and loyalty intentions. An online survey was conducted with 1300 social media users.
Los eventos de esports (deportes electrónicos) son considerados
como una herramienta de marketing parte de las empresas que prestan patrocinio
con el objetivo de atraer a nuevos consumidores. Es por ello que la eficacia
publicitaria se torna de vital importancia teniendo como objetivo llegar a todos los
potenciales consumidores, pero la creciente saturación de los espacios destinados a
la publicidad en los medios audiovisuales hace cada vez más difícil el encontrar un
lugar o una manera donde la exhibición de la marca tenga el alcance deseado por un
anunciante. Esta situación obliga a los profesionales de la publicidad y el marketing
a mantener un continuo esfuerzo para descubrir nuevas formas de alcanzar sus
objetivos. El análisis del proceso cognitivo y emocional en los consumidores
mediante técnicas de neuromarketing, permite describir la percepción de los
impactos publicitarios en el propio contexto de consumo. Objetivo: El estudio
pretende analizar y describir la eficacia de la publicidad en eventos de esports
transmitidos por streaming, en función de las características de la marca, con la
ayuda de herramientas pertenecientes al neuromarketing. Además de generar una
base de conocimiento científico acerca del comportamiento no consciente de los
espectadores de esports, en relación a la publicidad en esports. Hipótesis: Las
variables extrínsecas de marca influyen en la eficacia publicitaria durante los
eventos de esports transmitidos por streaming. Muestra: La muestra estuvo
compuesta por un total de 48 sujetos, todos de género masculino, con una edad
media de 23,4 ± 17 años, quienes observaban streaming una media de 9,42 ± 45 horas
semanales y practican algún esports 16,4 ± 37 horas semanales. Criterio de
inclusión: 1) tener entre 18 y 35 años y 2) ser consumidores de esports de manera
asidua, ya sea jugando o visionando streams Variables independientes: Tamaño,
localización, color, complejidad y tiempo de exposición de las marcas publicitarias.
Variables dependientes: Comportamiento visual, impacto emocional, valencia y
recuerdo. Material e instrumental: Se utilizó un electroencefalograma, un medidor
de respuesta galvánica de la piel, un eye tracker y un test de recuerdo de marcas
(Top of Mind). Además se utilizó un video de 10 minutos con 32 segundos de la
final de la SuperLiga Orange (League of Legends) 2018 en España, en la fase de
picks and bans. Conclusión: la hipótesis general no se confirma cien porciento, ya
que el color no afecta el comportamiento visual y al recuerdo de los espectadores.
Por otro lado, las variables como el tamaño, la complejidad, el color y el tiempo de
exposición no afectan a la valencia experimentada por los sujetos de estudio.
As professional sports teams commonly partner with multiple charity organizations to achieve corporate social responsibility objectives, the purpose of this research was to measure charity brand awareness among sports fans via unaided recall. Further, this study proposed antecedents to awareness, including; level of fandom, overall season‐ticket holder (STH) satisfaction, perceptions of on‐field performance, live game viewership frequency, televised game viewership frequency, and digital channel interaction frequency. A survey was used to collect data from STHs across three professional sports teams (n = 8,414). Fan recall of charity partners was low with 1.3% recalling three, 3.5% recalling two, and 9.6% able to recall at least one charity partner. Of the antecedents, overall STH satisfaction and frequency of live game viewership were the most influential while, perceptions of on‐field performance returned a significant and negative result. It is advocated sports teams reduce the number of charity partners and charity managers focus communication efforts on more contented STHs who attend live games regularly.
The aim of this study was to examine the effect of brand familiarity on sponsor recall. 196 respondents in China and Singapore were exposed to video clips from the 14th FINA World Championships held in Shanghai, China in 2011, and the 28th South East Asian (SEA) Games held in Singapore in 2015. It was found that respondents were more likely to recall familiar brands. The findings provided empirical evidence that commercial organisations should first consider the level of brand familiarity in the target market before embarking on sports sponsorship. This is because sports sponsorship is more effective when the brand is familiar with the target spectators. In addition, this study suggests that it may be more effective for commercial organisations that are not established internationally to consider sponsoring events that targets spectators from regions that they are already operating in. This will allow their sponsorship to be more effective.
This research studies the effect of emotional arousal communicated in ad appeals on consumers’ memory of the ad. Isolating and studying the level of arousal – one dimension of affect communicated in the ad, as opposed to valence – we examine the moderating roles of two factors: retention time (i.e., immediate vs. delayed memory) and the fit between ad-arousal and the ad claim. The results of three experiments show that ad-arousal inhibits immediate memory but enhances delayed memory. These effects, however, occur only when the level of arousal communicated in the ad fits the ad claim; whereas when the level of arousal does not fit the claim, ad-arousal does not influence memory. Insights from this research shed light on the boundary conditions of the effect of ad emotional arousal on memory, contributing to the development of an integrative theory on such effects, which can serve as a guide to advertisers in developing effective message strategies in different circumstances.
The aim of this research is to compare and examine the effectiveness of an emotional, Shock and humour advertising strategies in terms of brand recall, image and attitudes towards the advertisement and purchase intentions towards the brand. Secondly, to determine the moderating effects of generation Y on these three types of advertisements. And lastly, to provide marketers with a better understanding of the effectiveness of three types of advertisements and emphasize the importance of alternative methods of breaking through the advertising clutter. To measure the impact of different types’s advertisement, six advertisements from each of the three categories, i.e. Shock; Humour and Emotional are shortlisted and linked together. These advertisements (18 in total) are then shown to respondents. Respondents recorded their views in the questionnaire. A total 345 respondents participated in this study. Brand recall is high in both emotional and humorous ads, but the purchase intention is high in an emotional advertisement in eastern culture. Type of product should influence the advertising approach in the promotion of a brand.
The aim of this study was to examine the effect of brand familiarity on sponsor recall. 196 respondents in China and Singapore were exposed to video clips from the 14th FINA World Championships held in Shanghai, China in 2011, and the 28th South East Asian (SEA) Games held in Singapore in 2015. It was found that respondents were more likely to recall familiar brands. The findings provided empirical evidence that commercial organisations should first consider the level of brand familiarity in the target market before embarking on sports sponsorship. This is because sports sponsorship is more effective when the brand is familiar with the target spectators. In addition, this study suggests that it may be more effective for commercial organisations that are not established internationally to consider sponsoring events that targets spectators from regions that they are already operating in. This will allow their sponsorship to be more effective.
The purpose of this investigation is to analyze the explanatory power of brand awareness in effectiveness of television advertising measured in terms of unaided recall. This study uses a hierarchical regression analysis in which (1) the dependent variable was advertising recall, measured in a real environment with a representative sample of television audience in Spain and (2) one of the independent variables was the results of the previous awareness of the advertised brands. The variables of control included: duration of the advertisement, position and number of insertions.
Thus we have provided empirical evidence to justify the potential of brand awareness in advertising practice. These evidences show that the degree of brand awareness affects the recall of advertising, and in turn, the advertising sector on television also has a positive influence on the percentages of memory of it.
Consumer exposure to scent stimuli is difficult to avoid. Affective reaction to scent is immediate and instinctive (Vlahos, 2007; Wilkie, 1995), and it precedes thinking (Vlahos, 2007). Yet, practical applications of olfactory cues in advertising are rare (Kelly, 2012), in part due to the scarcity of research in this field (Ellen and Bone, 1998; Lwin and Morrin, 2012). Another reason may be the complexity of this effect.
The majority of sponsorship studies were conducted on sports events of a long duration.
Given that sponsor recall is affected by duration of exposure, this study aims to examine
whether sponsorship of an event of a shorter duration can be equally effective in terms of
brand recall. The findings suggest that brand prominence affects the recall rate. In addition,
longer duration of exposure led to a significantly higher number of brands recalled. Lastly,
when spectators were more involved in the event, there was a significant decrease in the
number of brands recalled. The findings suggest that sponsorship of sports events with a
short duration can be as effective as longer events although this is dependent on the
prominence of the sponsor, duration of the event and spectator involvement. Given that
many sports events are now broadcasted on YouTube and other social media where the
duration is typically short, it suggests that sponsors may also benefit from sports events
that are broadcasted on these platforms.
Purpose
The purpose of this study is to enhance the knowledge about advertising effects of brand placements in games on players’ brand recall and attitude. More specifically, this study examines the varying effects of brand prominence on gamers’ brand recall and brand attitude under varied game-involvement and need for cognition (NFC) conditions from attention and elaboration perspectives in the context of in-game advertising (IGA).
Design/methodology/approach
A 2 (brand prominence: prominent or subtle) × 2 (game-involvement: high or low) × 2 (NFC: high or low) between-subject measures design was used. Moreover, 240 student gamers participated in the study. A between-subjects measure multivariate analysis of variance was used to test the hypotheses.
Findings
The results revealed that for a game with prominent brand placement, low game-involvement resulted in greater brand recall than high game-involvement condition. Furthermore, for a game with prominent brand placement, high game-involvement condition resulted in more favorable brand attitude than low game-involvement condition. For a game with subtle brand placement, no differences in brand recall rates as well as brand attitudes were found between the high and the low game-involvement conditions. Likewise, for a game with prominent brand placement under low game-involvement condition, high NFC players reported higher brand recall rates and less favorable brand attitudes than the low NFC players. On the other hand, for a game with subtle brand placement under high-game-involvement condition, no differences in brand recall rates as well as brand attitudes were found between the high and the low NFC players.
Research limitations/implications
The process of experimentation used in this study to collect responses was susceptible to some limitations. However, this research adds to advertising literature from a non-traditional advertising viewpoint, predominantly in the context of IGA. This study enlightens the role of brand prominence and its boundary conditions to create customers’ brand memory and brand attitude. Likewise, this investigation adds to the marketing knowledge on how to embed and position the brands effectively in digital games taking into account the specific physiognomies of each game and individual traits of gamers.
Practical implications
This study provides a clear understanding of how marketers can design and develop effective games with a purpose to increase and improve customers’ awareness and attitudes toward the advertised brands by embedding brands in games. The experimental findings suggest the advertising practitioners and game designers to think for a right mix of game-specific factors, that is brand prominence, and individual and situational factors, that is game-involvement and NFC, while creating games to have a stoutest positive advergaming effect on players’ brand recall and brand attitude.
Originality/value
This study adds to the literature of non-traditional advertising media, specifically to the context of IGA, by investigating the impact of brand prominence, game-involvement and gamers’ NFC on their brand recall and attitude. From the attention and elaboration perspectives, this study is the first attempt to understand how brand prominence and its boundary conditions, that is game-involvement and NFC, impact players’ brand recall and brand attitude.
In order to thrill saturated and fragmented advertising markets, firms are increasingly challenged to create innovative advertising strategies and campaigns that allow them to meaningfully connect with their target audiences (Gupta and Lord, 1998). One recent trend in advertising indicates firms’ efforts in tackling this problem. Firms to an increasing degree focus on brand placement to reach target customers.
Prior research on the impact of marketing activities such as Super Bowl advertising on firm value has produced mixed results. Drawing on the marketing productivity chain, this study introduces hitherto neglected customer-based brand equity effects as indicator for investors’ expectations about future customer equity effects (i.e., expected future cash flow deviations) and find that customer-based brand equity mediates the relationship between Super Bowl advertising and abnormal stock returns. Using event study methodology, the authors analyze a sample of 62 ads for which data is available on both measures that represent brand equity and stock price from the Super Bowls from 2008 to 2012. This study finds that Super Bowl ads can be worth the large investment, but only if they enhance customer-based brand equity. The reverse also holds in that a negative impact on stock return is expected when a Super Bowl ad reduces customer-based brand equity. Furthermore, empirical evidence suggests a ceiling effect, that is, for brands with high pre-Super Bowl brand equity the relationship between change in customer-based brand equity and stock return is significantly smaller.
This paper examines the role advertising cues play in inducing subjective perceptions of product novelty and how they can evoke consumer interest toward an advertisement. Specifically, it uses behavioral and psychophysiological measures to: (1) investigate the effect of novelty cues on consumers' subjective appraisal of novelty; (2) demonstrate that novelty cues may evoke the emotion of interest; and (3) differentiate the effect of the emotion of interest on liking and arousal. Across two experimental studies, we demonstrated that simply adding the word "new" in an advertisement increases behavioral (i.e., viewing duration) and psychophysiological responses (i.e., cardiac activity) of interest. However, the word "new" did not evoke liking and arousal. This suggests that novelty cues in an advertisement will make the consumers perceive the product to be novel and further evoke consumer interest.
Die empirische Forschung der Kommunikationswissenschaft und Psychologie zur Wirkung von Werbung im Kontext befasst sich mit den zwei Zielgrößen der Werbewirkung: Erinnerung und Einstellung. Im ersten Teil dieses Beitrags werden Studien vorgestellt, die einen Überblick über Methoden und Ergebnisse der Forschung geben, gegliedert nach diesen Zielgrößen. Der Abschnitt Erinnerung wird nach den Medien Fernsehen, Print und Internet unterteilt, der zweite Abschnitt, Einstellung, nur nach Fernsehen und Print, weil es zur Wirkung der Internetgestaltung auf die Einstellung zu Internetwerbung kaum Studien gibt. Das Gleiche gilt für das Medium Hörfunk. Die Ergebnisse der empirischen Studien zur Wirkung der Aktivierung durch Fernsehprogramme auf das Erinnern der darin gezeigten Werbespots sowie die Wirkung der inhaltlichen und affektiven Ähnlichkeit von Zeitschriftenartikeln und Anzeigen sind relativ eindeutig. In Bezug auf die Wirkung von programmerzeugtem Involvement auf die Erinnerung an Werbung sind die Ergebnisse heterogen. Ebenso zeigen die Studien zur Wirkung von programmerzeugten Gefühlen auf die Erinnerung an und die Einstellung gegenüber Fernsehwerbespots uneinheitliche Ergebnisse. Der zweite Teil des Beitrags diskutiert die uneinheitlichen Ergebnisse und schlägt Ziele für die künftige Forschung vor.
This study examines the impact of sport-induced emotions on spectators' purchase intentions towards event sponsors. Spectators who experience positive emotions evoked by a home team victory are found to exhibit stronger purchase intentions towards sponsors regardless of the sponsor's ability to improve spectator emotions. Those who experience negative emotions following home team defeat show heightened purchase intentions towards sponsors perceived capable of improving their negative feelings. Purchase intention decreases when sponsors cannot assist in upwardly managing the negative feelings of spectators. Theoretical and managerial implications for sponsors of spectator sports are provided.
This study employs creative strategies to contentanalyse Super Bowl commercials from 2001 to 2009, focusing specifically on message strategies. The findings aim to answer four research questions. What are the message strategies commonly employed in Super Bowl commercials? What are the trends of the message strategies employed in Super Bowl commercials over time? What are the relationships between the message strategies and the commercial likeability? What are the specific roles played by the high-vs. low-involvement product categories?.
This study examined the influence of psychobiological motivational traits related to individual approach and avoidance tendencies on cognitive processing of in-game advertising. Participants played a custom-built video game containing billboard advertisements. After playing the game, participants’ approach, positivity offset (PO), and avoidance, negativity bias (NB), traits were measured using the motivation activation measure (MAM). Recognition and recall memory were greater for high PO and low NB trait individuals. The findings of this study imply that advertising in first-person-shooter (FPS) video games may be most effective when targeting individuals with simultaneously high PO and low NB, risk takers, but least effective for those with low PO and high NB, risk avoiders.
Describes experiments in which happy or sad moods were induced in Ss by hypnotic suggestion to investigate the influence of emotions on memory and thinking. Results show that (a) Ss exhibited mood-state-dependent memory in recall of word lists, personal experiences recorded in a daily diary, and childhood experiences; (b) Ss recalled a greater percentage of those experiences that were affectively congruent with the mood they were in during recall; (c) emotion powerfully influenced such cognitive processes as free associations, imaginative fantasies, social perceptions, and snap judgments about others' personalities; (d) when the feeling-tone of a narrative agreed with the reader's emotion, the salience and memorability of events in that narrative were increased. An associative network theory is proposed to account for these results. In this theory, an emotion serves as a memory unit that can enter into associations with coincident events. Activation of this emotion unit aids retrieval of events associated with it; it also primes emotional themata for use in free association, fantasies, and perceptual categorization. (54 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Television viewing motivations and viewing patterns were examined for a sample of 340 aging and aged persons. Correlational relations between viewing motivations and viewing patterns were evident. Viewing motivations were found to be intercorrelated and canonical analysis located associations among viewing motivations and patterns. Companionship, habit, relaxation, arousal, escape, pass time, and product advertising motivations were interrelated and associated with increased television affinity, viewing levels, and game show and daytime serial watching. Information and entertainment motivations were interrelated and associated with news, documentary-magazine, and talk-interview program viewing. Multiple regression analysis determined that the salience of habit, pass time, and entertainment viewing motivations contributed to increased viewing levels; the salience of habit, companionship, product advertising, and entertainment viewing motivations contributed to increased television affinity. Implications of the findings for aging and mass communication research were discussed.
In this study, we investigate (1) the effect that “Super Bowl XX” had on the emotions (defined by arousal and pleasure) of viewers in three cities and (2) how these emotional reactions influenced recall for ads broadcast during the game. City differences in overall emotional reactions to the program were observed, differences that had theoretical relevance to the effect of emotion on ad recall. Recall was found to be negatively related to emotional intensity (defined by arousal and pleasure polarization) but unrelated to emotional pleasure. Overall, arousal related to recall much more strongly than it did to pleasure.
Consumers' emotions have a significant influence on purchase and consumption decisions for a wide variety of products. A good example of this phenomenon can be found in the candy and snack market, where consumer responses are a product of a sizable number of emotion-laden situations that may be exploited in advertising strategy. Candy is often used as a reward for appropriate behavior in childhood, as well as a gift or positive “message” among adults for events such as Valentine's Day, anniversaries, and birthdays. On the other hand, many consumers believe that candy and snacks have negative consequences if they are used excessively. By capitalizing on these and similar past experiences through the firm's advertising efforts, the marketer of confections can either attempt to alleviate negative, or accentuate positive emotional feelings directed toward the brand or product class. Emotions appear to play a similar role in other consumer products such as tobacco, liquor, automobiles as well as many food products. Emotional, experiential, and aesthetic behaviors that normally lie beyond the scope of traditional marketing are currently receiving extraordinary attention. Although some have argued that these aspects of consumption activity are deserving of study in their own right, practitioners have realized that understanding the dynamics of activities such as emotional experience can assist in developing marketing strategy. Although our present knowledge of buyer and consumer emotional experience is relatively limited, this article will provide some structure to what we do know, in an effort to apply it to the advertising area.
The variable nature of audience activity was examined with a sample of 329 local television news viewers. Instrumental news viewing was expected to be related to audience intentionality, selectivity, and involvement with local news. Hierarchical regression found that affinity, selectivity, and involvement predicted intentionality; pass time motives, perceived realism, and reduced intentionality predicted nonselectivity; pass time motives and reduced affinity predicted distractions; and information and nonentertainment motives, perceived realism, and intentionality predicted involvement. Canonical correlation found two news viewing orientations. Instrumental use, or seeking exciting and entertaining information gratifications, was related positively to perceived news realism, affinity, intentionality, and involvement. Ritualized use, or more habitual and time-consuming viewing, was related negatively to news affinity, selectivity, and intentionality, and positively to coviewing distractions. Implications of the links between instrumental media use and audience activity for uses and effects research are discussed.
Recent research has identified attitude toward the ad (AAd) as an important construct mediating the effects of advertising on brand attitude and purchase intention. To date, however, little attention has been directed toward explaining the origins of AAd. The authors present the latest version of a theory of AAd formation, report the results of an empirical test of a portion of that theory, and offer further refinements to the theory based on the observed results. Implications of the findings for advertising practice are discussed.
Investigated, in 2 experiments, whether judgments of happiness and satisfaction with one's life are influenced by mood at the time of judgment. In Exp I, moods were induced by asking 61 undergraduates for vivid descriptions of a recent happy or sad event in their lives. In Exp II, moods were induced by interviewing 84 participants on sunny or rainy days. In both experiments, Ss reported more happiness and satisfaction with their life as a whole when in a good mood than when in a bad mood. However, the negative impact of bad moods was eliminated when Ss were induced to attribute their present feelings to transient external sources irrelevant to the evaluation of their lives; but Ss who were in a good mood were not affected by misattribution manipulations. The data suggest that (a) people use their momentary affective states in making judgments of how happy and satisfied they are with their lives in general and (b) people in unpleasant affective states are more likely to search for and use information to explain their state than are people in pleasant affective states. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Examined the effect of an experimentally induced mood state on recall of target words embedded in sentences. 160 undergraduates were assigned to 8 conditions in a factorial combination of 2 mood, 2 sentence-type, and 2 retention-interval conditions. The objective was to determine if the induction of a depressed mood would affect output or retrieval from episodic memory. Ss studied a list of either elaborated or base sentences and rated them for complexity in an incidental retention paradigm; this was followed by the induction of a depressed or neutral (control) mood, using a standard and a short form of E. Velten's (1968) mood-induction procedure. Ss were then given an unanticipated cued recall test of the target adjectives. In all tests, Ss showed a reduction in recall owing to the depressed mood, which provided evidence for retrieval effects of the mood state. Elaboration led to superior recall of target items, and there was no effect of delayed recall. Results are discussed within the framework of a resource allocation theory. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Describes experiments in which happy or sad moods were induced in Ss by hypnotic suggestion to investigate the influence of emotions on memory and thinking. Results show that (a) Ss exhibited mood-state-dependent memory in recall of word lists, personal experiences recorded in a daily diary, and childhood experiences; (b) Ss recalled a greater percentage of those experiences that were affectively congruent with the mood they were in during recall; (c) emotion powerfully influenced such cognitive processes as free associations, imaginative fantasies, social perceptions, and snap judgments about others' personalities; (d) when the feeling-tone of a narrative agreed with the reader's emotion, the salience and memorability of events in that narrative were increased. An associative network theory is proposed to account for these results. In this theory, an emotion serves as a memory unit that can enter into associations with coincident events. Activation of this emotion unit aids retrieval of events associated with it; it also primes emotional themata for use in free association, fantasies, and perceptual categorization.
Research on consumer satisfaction with products has typically ignored influences other than the confirmation of expectations relative to product outcomes. This paper examines the impact of broader, intrapersonal affective variables on satisfaction, and presents empirical results on the relative effects of both types of influence.
Despite some limitations, Cronbach's coefficient alpha remains the most widely used measure of scale reliability. The purpose of this article was to empirically document the magnitudes of alpha coefficients obtained in behavioral research, compare these obtained values with guidelines and recommendations set forth by individuals such as Nunnally (1967, 1978), and provide insights into research design characteristics that may influence the size of coefficient alpha. Average reported alpha coefficients ranged from .70 for values and beliefs to .82 for job satisfaction. With few exceptions, there were no substantive relationships between the magnitude of coefficient alpha and the research design characteristics investigated. Copyright 1994 by the University of Chicago.
Because of the transient nature of some emotions stimulated during TV commercials, measurement of emotional reactions at various points during an ad requires process tracing. This research discusses the analysis of process-tracing data using the Warmth Monitor as an illustration. We show that the establishment of the reliability and validity of process-tracing measures hinges on a suitable choice of the relevant domain of (co)variance in the data. The Warmth Monitor is shown to provide a reliable measure of warmth, but questions remain regarding the construct's meaning and valid measurement. Copyright 1994 by the University of Chicago.
A conceptual framework is presented that depicts both the mediating role of mood states and their potential importance in consumer behavior. Reviewing findings from the psychological literature indicates that mood states have direct and indirect effects on behavior, evaluation, and recall. The scope and limitations of these effects are addressed, and the implications for consumer behavior in three areas—service encounters, point-of-purchase stimuli, and communications (context and content)—are examined. Finally, the potential feasibility and viability of mood-related approaches to marketing research and practice are discussed.
Undergraduates expressed their attitudes about a product after being exposed to a magazme ad under conditions of either high or low product involvement. The ad contained either strong or weak arguments for the product and featured either prominent sports celebrities or average citizens as endorsers. The manipulation of argument quality had a greater impact on attitudes under high than low involve- ment, but the manipulation of product endorser had a greater impact under low than high involvement. These results are consistent with the view that there are two relatively distinct routes to persuasion.
Divided 60 undergraduate Ss into 5 groups; each S received an emotional arousal manipulation and judged a series of facial expression slides. It was found that an S's own emotional state exerted a strong influence on his judgments of another's emotional state. An aroused S was more likely to attribute the emotion he was feeling and other similarly valenced emotion than was a nonaroused or differently aroused S. An S's own emotional state had an influence on the intensity of emotion he attributed to the slides. This effect was independent of the affect expressed in the slide. Both of the observed effects held for positive as well as negative emotional states of the judge.
Tested the hypothesis, based on the D. Byrne and G. Clore classically conditioned model of evaluative responses, that as the internal affective state of ss is made more positive or more negative, the attraction responses toward a stranger would vary accordingly. The effect of induced affect on interpersonal attraction was investigated in an experiment with 110 female undergraduates, given the today form of the multiple affect adjective check list. The experiment used a 3 * 2 factorial design, with 3 levels of attitude similarity and 2 induced affective states, elation and depression. As hypothesized, in an analysis of variance, both main effects were found to have a significant (p < .001) influence on attraction scores. With attraction as the dependent variable and attitudinal similarity and depression scores as independent variables, a multiple correlation coefficient of .8 was obtained (p < .0001). (16 ref.)
Emotion reduces utilization of cues. In some tasks this can be an advantage (elimination of irrelevant cues); more often, however, such reduction inhibits performance. Attentive behavior fits into the framework of this theory. It can also be easily translated into terms of information theory allowing a qualitative evaluation of task difficulty.
Examined the effect of an experimentally induced mood state on recall of target words embedded in sentences. 160 undergraduates were assigned to 8 conditions in a factorial combination of 2 mood, 2 sentence-type, and 2 retention-interval conditions. The objective was to determine if the induction of a depressed mood would affect output or retrieval from episodic memory. Ss studied a list of either elaborated or base sentences and rated them for complexity in an incidental retention paradigm; this was followed by the induction of a depressed or neutral (control) mood, using a standard and a short form of E. Velten's (1968) mood-induction procedure. Ss were then given an unanticipated cued recall test of the target adjectives. In all tests, Ss showed a reduction in recall owing to the depressed mood, which provided evidence for retrieval effects of the mood state. Elaboration led to superior recall of target items, and there was no effect of delayed recall. Results are discussed within the framework of a resource allocation theory. (15 ref)
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Two field studies are reported which investigated a previously reported positive relationship between receiving a non-contingent reward and subsequent helping behavior. For both studies there was no apparent relationship between the person requesting aid and the reward giver; furthermore, possible modeling effects of other participants were controlled. Study A used a help—no help dichotomy for the dependent variable, while Study B included 3 degrees of helping behavior varying primarily in terms of time delay. The results did not support a relationship between receiving the reward and subsequent helping. Several possible explanations of the relation of these results to previous research are suggested.
Research findings in the experimental social psychology area indicate the phenomenon of the experimenter effect. Major research findings are reviewed, and implications for laboratory experiments in marketing are considered. Some measures are also suggested to reduce experimenter bias.
Test marketing involves a number of assumptions. The most inherent assumption is projectability, i.e., the ability of the test areas to accurately represent the larger geographic region to which the test results will be applied. An experimental method is described which tests statistically the degree of confidence that may be placed on projected test market results. Marketers with access to the geographic pattern of their national sales can readily apply this technique for measuring the validity of test marketing for their own products.
The authors report the findings of an experiment that investigated the influence of television programs on viewers' perceptions of television commercials. Specifically, program arousal and program pleasantness were examined as potentially important determinants of viewers' emotional responses to advertising. The experiment used a two (levels of program arousal) by two (levels of program pleasantness) design to assess the effects of the independent variables on viewers'perceptions of commercial pleasantness for a pod of four commercials. As hypothesized, an assimilation effect occurred in the high arousal condition and a contrast effect occurred in the low arousal condition. Implications of these results for researchers and practitioners are discussed.
Associations to a contextual cue were contrasted with those of an advertised object when the cognitive resources devoted to message processing were substantial and when the categories to which the contextual cue and the advertised object belonged displayed low overlap. The absence of either of these factors prompted assimilation. A two-factor theory is offered to explain these outcomes.
Male and female respondents were exposed to a television news program containing commercials. Immediately following exposure to either an emotionally disturbing or an innocuous, affectively neutral news story, respondents watched a sequence of standard news items mixed with commercials. The placement of 30-second commercials was systematically varied through three time slots: immediately following the experimental pretreatment (0.0–0.5 min); delayed by two minutes (2.0–2.5 min); or delayed by four minutes (4.0–4.5 min). A surprise recognition/recall test, measuring information acquisition of the content of the commercials, was administered. Compared with the control condition, the acquisition of information from the commercials following the emotionally charged, disturbing story was significantly poorer for a period of two and one-half minutes. No appreciable difference in information acquisition was observed thereafter. The apparent impairment of information acquisition, processing, and retrieval is discussed in terms of emotion theory. Implications for the placement of commercials in news and entertainment programs are also considered.
This study examines the effect of the mood induced by television program content on subjects' evaluations of commercials. Specifically, happy or sad commercials are viewed in the context of a television program designed to induce these respective moods. The competing predictions of Mood Congruence Theory versus the Consistency Effect are examined to interpret the results. For all dependent measures considered, findings were in accordance with a Consistency Effect interpretation of the results. For two such measures (i.e., liking for the commercial and purchase intention) the Consistency Effect was statistically supported. Hence for these measures, it was found that a happy commercial viewed in the context of a happy program was evaluated more favorably than the same commercial viewed after exposure to a sad program. For the sad commercial, the reverse effects for these measures were evident as this commercial performed more favorably in the context of a sad program relative to a happy one. The dominance of a Consistency Effect interpretation of the results over that of Mood Congruence are interpreted in the context of advertising strategy.
Two experiments examined affect-dependent memory with preschool/kindergarten and third-grade children. A two-list intentional learning procedure was used to assess the effects of the congruent versus incongruent relationship between affect (happy vs sad) during initial list learning and affect (happy vs sad) during a delayed recall test. When induction of emotional mood was preceded by relaxation exercises in Experiment 1, no evidence of affect dependence was observed. When the relaxation procedure was omitted in Experiment 2, the affect-dependent pattern was obtained in both free recall and cued recall for both age groups. The results of Experiment 2 show that affect-dependent memory is a reasonably robust phenomenon in children and that hypnosis is not necessary for its appearance. However, the phenomenon is apparently absent under conditions of relaxation, a result consistent with two-factor theories of emotion.
A study of viewer responses to film clips containing scenes of graphic horror was designed to evaluate the effect of empathy upon emotional reactions. Prior to viewing, subjects completed questionnaires measuring dimensions of empathy, including wandering imagination, fictional involvement, humanistic orientation, and emotional contagion. Several weeks later, subjects were exposed to movie clips containing graphic scenes of horror. During exposure, measures of skin temperature were obtained as an indicator of physiological response. Immediately following exposure, subjects filled out a questionnaire measuring emotional and behavioral responses. The data were subjected to path analysis in order to test a model relating dimensions of empathy to emotional and behavioral responses. The results indicate that empathy is a critical variable for consideration in research on emotional reactions to graphic horror.
217 undergraduates served as Ss in an experiment in which TV commercials and programs were used to examine the effect of controversial sexual content on the communication effectiveness of advertising messages. Three measures of communication effectiveness were employed: interest in commercial, affect toward product, and purchase intent. Results of the experiment suggest that controversial sexual content affects the communication effectiveness of advertising in a complex manner. Controversial sexual content in the commercial failed to improve effectiveness, apart from merely making the commercial more interesting, while controversial sexual program content influenced the processing of advertising messages for males but not for females. However, the presence of a significant commercial-by-program interaction for males suggests that the actual effect of controversial content in the program environment depends on the level of controversy present in the commercial. (28 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Investigated the role of viewer involvement (INV) in commercial effectiveness (measured by recall of brand name and message, attitude toward commercial, and intention to buy). It was hypohesized that program environments that are higher in INV will cause commercials embedded in them to be less effective than those embedded in environments that are lower in INV. INV was operationalized by analyzing a small sample of TV viewers' rank orderings of 15 shows from most to least suspenseful, and by choosing the 2 shows determined to be the most and least involving. Data were collected by questionnaire from 87 Ss in a random sample of employees in a medium-size organization. Results support the hypothesis. Implications for research on differences in degree of INV and their impact on commercial effectiveness are noted. (12 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Examined the impact of context on advertising effectiveness. 86 university students viewed a televised soccer game where the timing of commercials varied according to 2 experimental conditions. Half of the Ss viewed the game without commercial interruptions (commercials were shown at half time and before the post-game show), and the other 43 Ss were assigned to an intrusive condition where the commercials interrupted the game. Results show an inverted-U relationship between involvement with the television program and ad memory and attitude toward the ad. An increase in involvement from low to moderate levels of program involvement resulted in higher advertising effectiveness. However, further increases in program involvement beyond moderate to high levels lead to decreases in ad memory and attitude toward the ad. Results are interpreted in terms of arousal theory, and implications for the slotting and design of commercials are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Previous research on the dimensionality of arousal indicates tension arousal is associated with negative feelings and energy arousal is associated with positive feelings. Women were found to generate more tension and negative feelings towards explicit female nudity in print ads than men. Men were more energized and positive in their feelings about such ads. The results have substantial strategic implications.
The impact of television-program-generated moods on the processing of embedded advertisements was examined within an experimental setting. Results show that program-induced moods affected the amount of message recall and cognitive responses toward the advertisement. In addition, the results show that the affective bias in the cognitive responses toward the advertisement is affected by program-induced moods. The implications of the results and directions for a program of research are discussed.
Prior research has shown that the context in which a commercial message is presented can have important effects on how the message is processed and its success in the marketplace. The authors examine the impact of context-induced moods on the processing of embedded television advertisements. Mood was manipulated naturally by varying the program context in which the stimulus ads were embedded, and its effects on ad processing were observed. The results indicate that ads placed in programs that induce negative moods are processed less systematically than ones placed in programs that put viewers in positive moods. Moreover, mood was found to influence attitudes toward the advertisements both by affecting the number of cognitions the audience generates about the ads and by modifying the effect of those cognitions on Aad
This classic text surveys a number of different theoretical approaches to the related phenomena of attitude and belief change. These theories are grouped into seven major approaches, each presented and evaluated in a separate chapter. Each contributes in an important way to a complete understanding of the persuasion process. Appropriate for both upper level undergraduates and graduates in the social sciences.
Evidence is presented that (1) arousal acts as a cue for arousal related material in memory, and (2) this effect may partially underlie mood cuing mood-related material from memory. Specifically, two studies are presented showing that material people learn when in a high arousal state and material they learn when in a normal arousal state is subsequently best recalled when they are in a similar arousal state. Then a brief review of literature and a third study are presented supporting the claim that arousal acting as a cue for arousal-related material in memory may provide a partial explanation for why moods cue similarly toned material from memory. The literature review reveals that positive mood inducers elicit elevated autonomic arousal and the third study shows that elevated arousal in combination with a positive mood enhances the effect the positive mood has on subsequent judgments, whereas arousal by itself has no impact on judgments. Finally, it is suggested that arousal acting as a cue for arousal-related material in memory may account for such previously observed phenomena as state-dependent memory effects produced by alcohol and drugs, “misattribution” of arousal, “excitation transfer,” and effects that arousal has been shown to have on self-focus and humor.
Activation is a psychobiological concept that plays an important role in explaining consumer behavior. Following an introduction to the theory and measurement of activation, results of experimental research in advertising effectiveness are presented. The stronger the activation elicited by a stimulus, the better was the level of cognitive performance—a relationship that poses new questions for consumer research.
Relative to a sad TV program, a happy program induced: (1) a happier mood as viewers watched both program and commercials, (2) greater perceived commercial effectiveness, (3) more affectively positive cognitive responses, and (4) to some extent, better recall. A main effect for commercial type was also noted, with emotional commercials leading to generally more positive reactions than informational commercials. A significant program-by-commercial interaction was obtained for the viewer's mood during the commercial, with the program effect greater for those viewing emotional commercials than for those viewing informational commercials.
Self-regulation is a complex process that involves consumers’ persistence, strength, motivation, and commitment in order to be able to override short-term impulses. In order to be able to pursue their long-term goals, consumers typically need to forgo immediate pleasurable experiences that are detrimental to reach their overarching goals. Although this sometimes involves resisting to simple and small temptations, it is not always easy, since the lure of momentary temptations is pervasive. In addition, consumers’ beliefs play an important role determining strategies and behaviors that consumers consider acceptable to engage in, affecting how they act and plan actions to attain their goals. This dissertation investigates adequacy of some beliefs typically shared by consumers about the appropriate behaviors to exert self-regulation, analyzing to what extent these indeed contribute to the enhancement of consumers’ ability to exert self-regulation.
This study tests predictions derived from a theoretical model of affect and decision making that identifies the effects of affect's two primary dimensions, Pleasantness and Arousal, on decision strategy selection. The model hypothesizes (i) a congruency between pleasantness and selected decision strategy and (ii) an arousal-induced restriction in attentional capacity. It was predicted that people under distress (evoked by an imminent in-class presentation) will employ simpler decision strategies and will form more polarized judgments. In Experiments 1 and 2, when forming person impressions, presenting subjects provided lower evaluations, employed simpler decision rules, and were more polarized in their evaluations. In both experiments, presenting subjects did not make lower retrieval-based evaluations of public and personal products. In Experiment 2, presenting subjects were willing to pay more for lottery tickets than nonpresenting subjects; they were also more likely than control subjects to choose a “sure” thing over a gamble of equal or lower expected value.