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If community conservation is the answer in Africa, what is the question?
Abstract
Proponents of community conservation present it as a means of reconciling conservation and development objectives by ensuring that the interests of local people are taken into account in making trade-offs. Conservation critics see it as a challenge to the state-led, scientific management that is necessary to guarantee the preservation of biodiversity. In this paper, we argue that community conservation is not one thing but many. It is evolving both as a concept and as a practice that must be built on. It is not a project or policy ‘choice’ that can be simply accepted or rejected. The key questions about community conservation are who should set the objectives for conservation policy on the ground and how should trade-offs between the diverse objectives of different interests be negotiated.
... Many conservationists emphasize that local actors can adopt crucial roles in conserving biodiversity (Cox et al., 2010;Dietz et al., 2003;Magni, 2017;Redmore et al., 2018), for example by acting as stewards of the landscape (Bennett et al., 2018) or conservation champions (Young et al., 2012). A spectrum of community-based conservation arrangements has evolved over the past three decades as alternatives to exclusive, non-participatory governmentor NGO-led top-down approaches (Adams and Hulme, 2001;Calfucura, 2018). These participatory strategies vary in their degree and intensity of local participation (Jager et al., 2020). ...
... These participatory strategies vary in their degree and intensity of local participation (Jager et al., 2020). They range from simply informing local actors about conservation programs, and actively engaging with local actors in collaborative (co-)management arrangements, to completely devolving decision-making authority and control over natural resources to local institutions, organizations, and actors (Adams and Hulme, 2001;Barrow and Murphree, 2001;Mannigel, 2008). ...
... Measham and Lumbasi (2013) suggest that this is the case because locally governed conservation initiatives are better accepted, more relevant, and more compatible with local lifestyles. It has been described as pivotal to PA success through empowerment, power-sharing, or devolution (Adams and Hulme, 2001;Armitage et al., 2020;Gruber, 2010;Measham and Lumbasi, 2013;Pollnac et al., 2001;Sterling et al., 2017). Thus, we hypothesize that success is more likely with a higher degree of power devolution. ...
Protected areas are considered key to conserving ecosystems and safeguarding biodiversity worldwide. Local stakeholders' involvement in decision-making in area-based conservation approaches may help to mitigate environmental inequalities and to improve social and ecological outcomes. However, sound and in-depth evidence on the relationship between participation and protected area outcomes is piecemeal. To synthesize the available knowledge, we provide evidence from a systematic literature review of 52 empirical case studies from the scientific literature examining the social and ecological outcomes of protected-area-related decision-making processes in which local stakeholders participated. In a first step, we defined factors that are linked to social and ecological protected area outcomes as success. Based on these factors, we then categorized success indicators which we quantitatively linked to features of participation. Our review provides evidence of the relationship between protected area successes and the following four features of participation: 1. Genuine devolution of power to the local level; 2. Involvement of diverse actors and multiple perspectives through fair and inclusive processes; 3. Long-term external support; 4. Devolution of rights. Even though the degree and form of participation require adjustment to specific local contexts, this overview of features provides sound evidence based on the relation between participatory decision-making and social and ecological effectiveness in protected areas. These insights can be used to design more effective participatory conservation interventions that meet both biodiversity conservation and human well-being.
... The CBC approach can include a wide range of governance arrangements that vary significantly in both conceptualization and design, and there is no universal agreement about which governance approaches should fall under the label of 'CBC' (Adams & Hulme, 2001;Bandyopadhyay et al., 2009;Child, 2009;Child & Barnes, 2010;Gruber, 2010;Measham & Lumbasi, 2013;Murphree, 2009). Therefore, we adopt the definition used by Child (2009), in which 'CBC' refers to a collection of economic, political and organizational principles that rely on the devolution of rights (see also Adams & Hulme, 2001;Child & Barnes, 2010). ...
... The CBC approach can include a wide range of governance arrangements that vary significantly in both conceptualization and design, and there is no universal agreement about which governance approaches should fall under the label of 'CBC' (Adams & Hulme, 2001;Bandyopadhyay et al., 2009;Child, 2009;Child & Barnes, 2010;Gruber, 2010;Measham & Lumbasi, 2013;Murphree, 2009). Therefore, we adopt the definition used by Child (2009), in which 'CBC' refers to a collection of economic, political and organizational principles that rely on the devolution of rights (see also Adams & Hulme, 2001;Child & Barnes, 2010). ...
... The data used for this study are archived in the Harvard Dataverse We acknowledge that (1) the assessment of any wildlife governance approach necessarily involves both efficacy and value concerns, underlying 'ethical commitments' guide the selection of criteria by which success is measured, and the protection of wildlife represents only one possible measure of CBC success (Adams & Hulme, 2001;Miller et al., 2011); and (2) a vigorous debate exists regarding whether, more broadly, conservation efforts should primarily focus on anthropocentric or ecological goals. Without choosing a side on any of these issues, this study focuses on wildlife protection outcomes because the conservation of species is one criterion by which the success of CBC programs can be evaluated by policymakers and stakeholders. ...
Community‐based conservation is a widely adopted wildlife governance approach, but questions remain about the conditions under which this form of wildlife governance achieves success. Particularly, participating communities are often marked by considerable wealth and risk heterogeneities that are driven by differences in livestock or agricultural holdings and varying exposure to wildlife depredation of those holdings.
The effect of these types of heterogeneity on successful conservation collective action is understudied, particularly in the case of risk heterogeneity. This lacuna limits policymakers' ability to effectively match the design of community‐based programs to their particular settings.
Using established behavioural experimental techniques, we model the incentive structures underlying community‐based wildlife conservation where actors differ in wealth and exposure to human–wildlife conflict. We conduct a modified binary linear voluntary contribution mechanism game, in which we vary subject endowments and risk of incurring a loss when participating in collective action and we find that the type of heterogeneity matters to collective action success.
On their own, the presence of either economic or risk heterogeneities (but not both) dampen cooperation compared with homogeneous groups, as do ‘balanced’ distributions of both heterogeneities (where individuals facing high risk levels receive high endowments and vice versa). However, groups with ‘unbalanced’ heterogeneities (where those facing high risk levels receive low endowments and vice versa) demonstrate cooperation at similar levels to that of homogeneous groups.
At the individual level, risk drives cooperative behaviour, although its impact is influenced by relative wealth levels when both forms of heterogeneity are present.
These findings suggest the need for a more in‐depth look at the role and interaction of risk and wealth heterogeneities in conservation management.
Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog.
... Transboundary fisheries management in the KAZA-TFCA was coined within the context of Southern Africa Development Community (SADC) regional integration and collaboration management of shared resources as a key to the sustainable utilization of natural resources [21]. The term 'transboundary' is defined in the context of international collaboration [31,37] and refers to the development of co-operation across boundaries to enhance the efficiency of achieving objectives of natural resource use and conservation [38,39]. Griffin [37] defined it in a similar way, but he added that transboundary management should benefit the parties involved in the initiative. ...
... Griffin [37] defined it in a similar way, but he added that transboundary management should benefit the parties involved in the initiative. Social-ecological systems are interconnected in temporal and spatial terms, where the extent of organization and decisions made in a particular place affects the environment and people elsewhere [38]. Consequently, the concept of 'bioregionalism' recognizes that ecosystems do not overlap with political boundaries [37]. ...
... Botswana does not have a fisheries policy on which management interventions are based [14], which suggests that management measures made without a policy may not adequately address the management concerns of the fisheries sector due to a lack of policy direction. The fisheries sector in Botswana falls under a Wildlife Management Authority whose management philosophy is more focused on conservation than sustainable exploitation of the fisheries for food security as prescribed by FAO Code of Conduct for responsible fisheries [38]. This system of governance appears to focus on the development of wildlife to sustain the tourism sector rather than the conservation of the fisheries resources for food security [14]. ...
Inland fisheries in the Kavango–Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation Area (KAZA-TFCA) offer food security to the riverine communities across the region. They also contribute towards the attainment of the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals 1 and 15, which aim to alleviate poverty and maintain biodiversity conservation. Despite this significant role, the fisheries have suffered severe declines in the previous decades due to multiple factors, such as overfishing and poor legislation. Furthermore, climate change is exerting pressure by altering the ecology and productivity of the river systems. The unprecedented challenges of the COVID-19 pandemic have further constrained management efforts. Attempts to address these challenges have pointed towards transboundary fisheries management as a silver bullet in moving towards sustainable fisheries management. However, the implementation of this strategy in the region has encountered numerous roadblocks, thereby subjecting the river ecosystem to a wider environmental threat, with dire consequences on livelihoods. This paper reviews existing management and governance structures together with key informant interviews to elicit primary and secondary data essential for management at the regional level. The study identifies conflicting regulations, and inadequate policies and institutions across the region as major bottlenecks affecting the successful implementation of transboundary fisheries management. Finally, the paper offers some suggestions for the improvement of fisheries management in the region.
... Many conservationists emphasize that local actors can adopt crucial roles in conserving biodiversity (Cox et al., 2010;Dietz et al., 2003;Magni, 2017;Redmore et al., 2018), for example by acting as stewards of the landscape (Bennett et al., 2018) or conservation champions (Young et al., 2012). A spectrum of community-based conservation arrangements has evolved over the past three decades as alternatives to exclusive, non-participatory governmentor NGO-led top-down approaches (Adams and Hulme, 2001;Calfucura, 2018). These participatory strategies vary in their degree and intensity of local participation (Jager et al., 2020). ...
... These participatory strategies vary in their degree and intensity of local participation (Jager et al., 2020). They range from simply informing local actors about conservation programs, and actively engaging with local actors in collaborative (co-)management arrangements, to completely devolving decision-making authority and control over natural resources to local institutions, organizations, and actors (Adams and Hulme, 2001;Barrow and Murphree, 2001;Mannigel, 2008). ...
... Measham and Lumbasi (2013) suggest that this is the case because locally governed conservation initiatives are better accepted, more relevant, and more compatible with local lifestyles. It has been described as pivotal to PA success through empowerment, power-sharing, or devolution (Adams and Hulme, 2001;Armitage et al., 2020;Gruber, 2010;Measham and Lumbasi, 2013;Pollnac et al., 2001;Sterling et al., 2017). Thus, we hypothesize that success is more likely with a higher degree of power devolution. ...
... In the interface of biodiversity conservation and socio-economic development, community-based conservation [CBC] initiatives have arisen as an innovative approach (Berkes, 2004). These strategies, by combining ecological and socioeconomic objectives, endeavor to find a balance between conservation outcomes and community development needs (Adams & Hulme, 2001). Yet, this integration brings to light complex ethical dimensions that encompass both the environmental and socio-economic domains (Brechin et al., 2002). ...
... Since the 1980s, CBC efforts in developing countries have been important, emphasizing the inclusion of the views and interests of local people (Western et al., 1994). The central philosophy behind this model, now deeply embedded in guidelines from global institutions such as the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), posits that conservation and development should coexist harmoniously, being treated with equal emphasis, and pursued concurrently to achieve mutual benefits (Adams & Hulme, 2001;Tai, 2007). NGOs, despite critiques on their roles and intentions (Srinivas, 2009), engage in CBC initiatives to align with their values and assure the longevity of their projects. ...
This study examines the participation strategies of an environmental non-governmental organization (NGO) in community-based conservation (CBC) initiatives in the developing country context of Pakistan. We use local Pakistani concepts and terms to interpret and narrate our study. Drawing on the micro-mobilization literature, our analysis embeds a situated analysis of the ‘biradari’ (kinship) structures that pervade Pakistani social and cultural milieu. We shed light on the importance of various gatekeepers in providing access and ongoing support for CBC initiatives, suggesting NGOs must navigate complex cultural and social structures to manage participation in developing country contexts. Here our findings point to the importance of local knowledge not just in articulating community needs but also in articulating participation strategies. Furthermore, even though ‘elite’ structures have the potential to jeopardize equitable participation and project long-term sustainability, our analysis suggests interacting and gaining ‘bharosa’ (trust) of communities’ via these structures is critical to participation. While previous research has called into doubt the efficacy of CBC in advancing conservation, we suggest that frequent and culturally atoned engagement is a must for environmental NGOs working in socially entrenched developing nations. Our research brings to light the complex ethical terrain navigated by environmental NGOs in CBC projects, illuminating the inherent potential for both empowering and subjugating outcomes.
... While the concept of community conservation appears ideal in theory, practical implementation often falls short due to various challenges. Adams and Hulme (2001) identify reasons for the failure of community conservation initiatives in Africa, ranging from resource limitations and project sustainability issues to unmet promises by project managers and unresolved conflicts with local communities. Moreover, conservation efforts face the additional constraint of unequal research distribution across different geographic regions in Africa, limiting our understanding of biodiversity in West African forests (Deikumah et al., 2014). ...
... …………………….………...………….… (4) where r = Pearson correlation coefficient; N = number of pairs of the stock; ∑xy = sum of products of the paired stocks; ∑x = sum of the x scores; ∑y = sum of the y scores; ∑x 2 = sum of the squared x scores; ∑y 2 = sum of the squared y score Table 1 Table 2 below strong positive correlations exist between DBH and DB (Diameter at the Base), DM (Diameter at the Middle), DT (Diameter at the Top), TH (Total Height), BA (Basal Area), and SV (Stem Volume). This indicates that as DBH increases, these variables tend to increase as well. ...
This research was carried out to determine the Conservation Status and Growth Characteristics of Tree Species in Kano Zoological Garden, Kano State Nigeria. The area was stratified in to Administrative area, Animal Pens, Garden and bush. Fourteen (14) temporary plots (30mx30m) were laid at random covering all strata. Data collection involved counting and recording individual trees, measuring total height with Haga Altimeter, DBH at 1.3m using flexible measuring tape, spiegel relascope was employed to measure diameter at the base, middle and top for each sampled tree. Trees with Diameter at Breast Height (DBH) ≥ 10cm were identified by the taxonomist. Individual trees were grouped in to species and families. The conservation status of tree species was assessed using IUCN Red List categories from www.iucnredlist.org. The results suggest that all species identified were either Least-concerned or Not-evaluated except Eucalyptus camaldulensis (Near Threatened), Khaya senegalensis (Vulnerable), and Tectona grandis (Endangered) indicating a high risk of extinction in the wild. Azadiracta indica recorded the highest frequency of 78 (23.3%) and many species have the lowest frequency of 1 of the total species inventoried. Strong positive correlations were observed among DBH, DB, DM, DT, TH, BA, and SV while strong negative correlations with SLC. Fabaceae (52.8%) dominates with the highest frequency, showcasing larger trees and wide coverage (highest BA at 10.85 m²), while Meliaceae (11.44 SLC, 1994.60 m³ SV) stands out with tall and slender forms, emphasizing diverse growth characteristics in the ecosystem, whereas Zygophyllaceae (0.3%) exhibits smaller, World Scientific News 191 (2024) 67-80-68-stockier trees and the lowest values in various parameters. The variations in growth characteristics among these families provide insights into the diversity and structural differences within the studied ecosystem. Azadiracta indica emerges as a species with substantial size and contribution to the ecosystem, while others, like Acacia mangium, represent younger or smaller counterparts.
... El segundo, la conservación "comunitaria", apareció a raíz del surgimiento del concepto de "desarrollo sostenible" y se basa en el supuesto de que es posible conciliar la conservación con el desarrollo. El último se conoce como "regreso a las barreras", observable desde finales de los años noventa, en un contexto de acelerada globalización ambiental (Adams y Hulme, 2001;Escobar, 1996;Hutton et al., 2005;Pochet, 2014). ...
... La necesidad de un enfoque "comunitario" de las AP se articuló en sucesivos Congresos Mundiales sobre Parques Nacionales y Áreas Protegidas, particularmente en el tercero (1962) y el cuarto (1992) y durante el programa El Hombre y la Biosfera (1971) (MAB, Man and the Biosphere). En contraste con la narrativa dominante en ese momento, el discurso de conservación comunitaria reconoció tanto las implicaciones morales de los costos de conservación asumidos por la población local, como el problema de la hostilidad de la población local desplazada o desfavorecida por las organizaciones conservacionistas que practicaban la política de conservación basada en el discurso de la fortaleza (Adams y Hulme, 2001). ...
Las Áreas Protegidas constituyen una de las estrategias adoptadas a nivel global ante la pérdida de biodiversidad derivada de la actividad antropogénica. En ese contexto, el discurso y la práctica de conservación se han transformado desde su origen a la fecha actual, producto de la influencia de tendencias y concepciones ambientales internacionales, así como por aspectos culturales y socioeconómicos locales. Buscando aportar elementos para la comprensión de la conservación en México se analiza el papel que juegan los discursos en la formación de políticas, las acciones de conservación y cómo el ejercicio del poder sirve para legitimar e institucionalizar la gestión ambiental. Se parte de la comprensión de la conservación como un discurso específico, pero no único, para entender las relaciones del ser humano con la naturaleza. Y concluye analizando como estos cambios de discurso han tenido profundos impactos sobre la conservación, la gestión de los recursos naturales y las estrategias de subsistencia de las poblaciones locales.
... That is, LMINs finance not only "strict" or "environment-first" but also "mixed" or "people-first" conservation initiatives (Miller 2014). The latter seek to decentralize land-use decision-making to local institutions (Adams and Hulme 2001). For example, indigenous people tend to depend on forests for fuel to heat their homes and cook their food (Sze et al. 2022). ...
Since the early 2000s, environmental-state research has focused on the unique capacity and positionality of the state to address environmental degradation and sustainability. More recently, there has been a call in the literature to consider empirically how the environmental state has impacted the environment cross-nationally. We respond to this call by testing the hypothesis that more government spending for environmental protections corresponds with less forest loss in low- and middle-income nations. We use ordinary least squares regression on a sample of 70 nations. Our results support the idea that low- and middle-income nations can address environmental issues.
... In CBCs, "community members or a community-based organization are involved in efforts to protect or conserve the lands and environment they live on or nearby through the highest levels of participation" (Horwich & Lyon, 2007, p. 376). CBC interventions are increasingly common, especially in the global South (Adams & Hulme, 2001;Galvin et al., 2018;Sachs et al., 2009). Resources for CBC are often limited, in part because of their small scale (Horwich & Lyon, 2007), but also because their effectiveness is rarely evaluated robustly (Ferrero & Pattanayak, 2006;Kleiman et al., 2000;Sutherland et al., 2004;Pullin & Knight, 2001;Stem et al., 2005), with evaluations limited in scale and scope (Brooks et al., 2013) or based on modeling predictors of success (Fariss et al., 2023). ...
Collaborative conservation interventions based on engagement with local communities are increasingly common, especially for large carnivores that negatively impact people's livelihoods and well‐being. However, evaluating the effectiveness of large‐scale community‐based conservation interventions is rarely done, making it problematic to assess or justify their impact. In our study focused on snow leopards (Panthera uncia) in five countries, we show that bespoke and well‐implemented community‐based and conflict management intervention efforts can lead to more sustainable conservation outcomes. Collaborative interventions, spread over about 88,000 km² of snow leopard habitat, reduced livestock depredation and disease and associated economic costs. Additionally, they generated conservation‐linked livelihoods and enhanced community decision‐making, leading to more positive behavioral intent toward snow leopards and improved communities’ cooperation, economic security, and confidence. Our results provide lessons learned and recommendations for practitioners and governments to alleviate conflicts and foster coexistence with snow leopards and large carnivores more broadly. These include prioritizing locally led tailored solutions based on the PARTNERS principles, recognizing local community rights in conservation decision‐making, and recognizing the role of social norms in ensuring accountability.
... Il y a quelques décennies, les ressources naturelles étaient considérées comme des biens contrôlés par le pouvoir étatique central au détriment des communautés locales et au profit des puissances coloniales ou postcoloniales (Borrini-Feyerabend & Sandwith, 2003). Depuis les années 1980 et 1990, et progressivement, cette perception a évolué timidement vers un modèle qui vise à inclure les communautés dans la préservation du patrimoine naturel (Adams & Hulme, 2001 ;Larson & Soto, 2008). L'Afrique ayant connu une « décolonisation en trompe-l'oeil » (Dozon, 2006), aujourd'hui encore, les processus décisionnels au niveau des aires protégées n'intègrent pas, peu ou mal les étapes de prises de décisions décrites par Mukherjee et al. (2018). ...
Introduction. La Convention du patrimoine mondial est l’unique traité international qui promeut l’exceptionnalité universelle des sites. Depuis son adoption en 1972, les conflits armés ont conduit à l’inscription de huit aires protégées d’Afrique subsaharienne sur la Liste du patrimoine mondial en péril. En 2023, l’insécurité persiste dans six sites naturels africains et menace cinq autres sites de la région sur les quarante-deux que compte la Liste du patrimoine mondial. Les conséquences pour ces sites se traduisent par la prolifération d’activités illégales, des pertes en biodiversité et en vies humaines, un changement dans les systèmes de gouvernance ainsi que de nouvelles dynamiques communautaires. Cette situation est préoccupante et nous documentons l’état de conservation et les systèmes de gouvernance de ces aires protégées affectées par l’insécurité. Littérature. Une recherche a été réalisée en exploitant Google Scholar et Scopus (sur la période 2000-2023) et les rapports officiels (depuis l’inscription des sites jusqu’en 2024) soumis par les pays sur l’état de conservation des sites naturels africains du patrimoine mondial de l’UNESCO. Les thématiques scientifiques qui abordent les déterminants des conflits armés affectant les sites naturels africains du patrimoine mondial ainsi que les liens entre la qualité de la gouvernance des aires protégées et l’apparition et/ou la résolution des conflits armés ne sont en effet pas assez abordés dans la littérature scientifique. La compréhension de l’origine et des fondements de ces conflits armés implique une analyse approfondie de plusieurs déterminants liés à l’existence de ces aires protégées ainsi qu’une évaluation de l’efficacité des systèmes de gouvernance, qui est rarement disponible. Conclusions. Des lacunes persistent en termes de connaissances scientifiques sur les sites naturels du patrimoine mondial situés en zone de conflits armés en Afrique subsaharienne. Plusieurs enjeux au sujet de ces aires protégées situées en zone de conflits armés restent à explorer, et nous suggérons pour de futures recherches que les thématiques suivantes soient prioritairement abordées : (i) l’analyse des déterminants politico-religieux à l’origine des conflits armés contemporains qui affectent des aires protégées en Afrique et (ii) les facteurs qui limitent la résolution des conflits armés qui affectent les sites naturels du patrimoine mondial en Afrique.
... Because of the segregationist and apartheid history (Carruthers, 2008;Wells et al., 1992), the reformist post-apartheid South African government, conservation agencies, private sector actors and Non-Government Organisations (NGOs) have emphasised community participation and management practices that are more attuned to socio-political factors and integrated biodiversity with socio-economic imperatives (Kepe et al., 2005;Nyambe, 2005). Part of this has been a shift towards an ecosystems-landscape approach, inclusive of local communities (Adams & Hulme, 2001), which received significant enthusiasm and some initial case-specific successes but has later been criticised for complications and failings (Kepe & Cousins, 2002;Mashinya, 2007), as has there been with initial attempts towards neoliberal biodiversity economy approaches in conservation (Nel, 2021). According to Statistics South Africa (2020), protected land in South Africa accounted for 11 280 684 ha in 2020, with protected areas covering 9.2% of the South African mainland. ...
... 174 OECMs include areas traditionally managed by Indigenous peoples and local communities and have been proposed as an instrument for meeting conservation targets in socially just and beneficial ways. [175][176][177] These OECMs may help support residents' mental health by recognizing their rights to natural resources, land, culture, and self-determined governance systems. ...
... As a response to the failure of conventional PA governance, several countries in East and Southern Africa have implemented Community Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM) programs [12,13].The consensus was that shared governance with local people was the best way to shift towards a more balanced and equitable approach that could more effectively reconcile the relationship between biodiversity protection and the wellbeing of local people [1,3,7,[14][15][16]. CBNRM aimed to create decentralized, socially inclusive institutions for sustainable utilization of natural resources through the incorporation of local institutional arrangements for natural resources management and benefit sharing mechanisms [17]. ...
Highlights
• Managing protected areas is an ongoing challenge for global biodiversity conservation while reducing inequity for indigenous and local communities.
• We investigate institutional design for Community Based Natural Resources Management (CBNRM) in the North Luangwa Ecosystem
• We examined how traditional and contemporary institutions fit and work in practice, and to what extent they produce more equitable governance processes in protected areas.
• We found that Instead of fostering community participation and empowerment, new CBNRM institutions have had the unintended consequences of increasing the customary chiefs’ power through commercialization and bureaucratization of their positions.
• We recommend that rather than simply setting up idealized institutions as a means to devolve power and enhance equity, the realisation of effective local participation and representation in CBNRM projects requires careful assessment of cultural contexts, local institutions, and power dynamics.
ABSTRACT
Community Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM) is presented as an equitable approach, particularly relative to strict types of Area-based conservation. In Zambia, traditional and formal, contemporary institutions were combined to leverage CBNRM for natural resource management. We investigate whether and how this shift in conservation approach and interaction between institutions works in practice, and to what extent it produces more equitable governance processes. We identified 30 key informants from NGOs and government departments via snowball sampling. We conducted 20 focus group discussions involving local community participants in three Game Management Areas (GMAs) adjacent to North Luangwa National Park. Focus groups were divided by age and gender to minimize any potential influence of unequal power relations. Data collection included informal discussions with individual community members and participant observation. We found that the customary roles held by chiefs gave them relative power over the Community resources board and made them gatekeepers for NGOs and government institutions. Instead of fostering community participation and empowerment, new CBNRM institutions have had the unintended consequence of increasing the customary chiefs’ power through commercialization and bureaucratization of their positions. Rather than reinforcing local and indigenous institutions CBNRM has become a vehicle through which governments and NGOs centralize power and manufacture consent while weakening traditional institutions and reproducing existing patterns of inequity. This research provides unique insights into the workings of a CBNRM institution that is a hybrid between traditional (socially embedded) and Government (bureaucratic) institutions. We recommend that rather than simply setting up idealized institutions as a means to devolve power and enhance equity, the realisation of effective local participation and representation in CBNRM projects requires careful assessment of cultural contexts, local institutions and power dynamics.
... It is estimated that 65% of wildlife live outside protected areas and reserves (KWCA 2023). Pastoral people and their livestock are typically excluded from protected areas and do not benefit directly from tourism revenues, and as an alternative, community conservation has become popular (Adams and Hulme 2001). ...
Portions of group ranches of northern Kenya communally held by pastoralists have been removed from grazing to support wildlife and encourage tourism and the resources that follow. These community-based conservancies (CBCs) were designed to benefit CBC members through regular payments, potential for wages, improved security, etc. We used a coupled-systems simulation approach to quantify potential changes in livestock numbers and pastoral well-being associated with the presence of CBC core and buffer areas, and we did so under the current frequency of droughts and increased frequency associated with climate change. The interannual precipitation coefficient of variation (CV) for our focal CBCs in Samburu County was 22% (706 mm average precipitation). We altered precipitation variability to span from 10% to 60% CV while maintaining the average. Compared to a simulation with observed precipitation and all rangelands available, when herders did not use the CBC core areas and seasonally avoided buffer areas, there was
an 11% decline in tropical livestock units supported. More predictable precipitation patterns supported more livestock and improved pastoral well-being. At CVs above 30%, dramatic declines in livestock populations were simulated. When drought was made moderately more frequent (i.e., CV from 22% to 27%) there was a 15% decline in the number of livestock. Members receive a variety of benefits as part of CBC communities, but payments are small for these CBCs, and most households do not receive payments. Our results suggest that, from an economic perspective alone, payments must be raised to make membership of residents in conservancies more tenable. Additional adaptive pathways and perhaps external supports will be needed in the future as the frequency of drought increases and
livestock populations decrease.
... So-called fortress conservation disenfranchised communities living around protected areas from their resource user rights through state-backed evictions, enclosures, policing of protected areas and stiff punishment of those breaking conservation rules (Hulme & Murphree 1999, Morris 2016. This situation arose not only because protected areas were created in areas inhabited by subsistence farming communities (Adams & Hulme 2001, Brockington 2002, but more so because most postcolonial governments prioritized the objectives of conservation over the interests of communities living within the protected areas (Benjaminsen & Bryceson 2012). Collaborative management posits that the private sector can conserve natural resources by establishing beneficial partnerships with communities. ...
Although wildlife management models across the world have since the early 1980s shifted from top-down fortress conservation to different labels of people-friendly community-based conservation, their outcomes remain contested. This paper explores how, and in whose interests, approaches to wildlife conservation in Malawi have been reconfigured from fortress conservation to market–community collaborative management. Based on qualitative field data, we demonstrate how varying levels of community participation in the processes of wildlife conservation transformed the identities and interests of powerful groups of people regarding wildlife conservation in the Majete Wildlife Reserve. We highlight how commodification and monetarization of wildlife conservation served the interests of the emergent powerful groups whilst marginalizing those of the weak. The work indicates how new community identities with regard to wildlife conservation mask the power hegemonies that dictate mechanisms of inclusion and exclusion regarding natural resource use.
... Researchers have studied local resident's perception and attitudes relating to their awareness towards forest resource management (Essien, 2018 Indeed, local communities' perceptions of protected forest areas influence the kinds of interactions people exhibit vis a vis conservation effectiveness (Ormsby and Kaplin, 2005;Allendorf et al., 2006;Ramakrishnan, 2007). Their perceptions of protected areas management play an important role in their attitudes (Alexander, 2000;Adams and Hulme, 2001;Holmes, 2003;Picard, 2003;McClanahan et al., 2005;Allendorf et al., 2006;Anthony, 2007). Therefore, Weladji et al., (2003) suggested that understanding residents' perceptions about conservation is crucial to improving forest protected areas and people relationship if protected areas are to achieve the goals and reference to future generation (Bauer, 2003). ...
Forests and pastures have always been considered the most important resources that play important role in livelihood sustainability within the last few decades. The presence of livestock and forest dwellers has been the main challenge causing forest destruction in many forested communities. This study examines the Mbororo’s perception and attitudes towards forestry in Santa with focus towards forest exploitation and conservation. The essence was to examine the relationship between perception and attitude of Mbororos towards forestry in Santa; it further evaluated the exploitation and conservation tendency of forest in Santa. Data for the study were obtained through primary and secondary sources using a mixed design method of inquiry. Quantitative and qualitative approaches explore data on perception and attitudes towards forestry in the study area. Purposive and systematic sampling techniques were employed for a sample population of 125. The data were analysed using descriptive and inferential statistics. The results showed varied degree of attitudes and perception of Mbororos towards forest exploitation, conservation and degradation in Santa. The pair wise correlation coefficient revealed that the attitudes of Mbororos correlate perfectly with forest degradation at 1.000. The calculated p-value was .001 for attitudes and .019 for forest degradation which is below the critical level of significance (.05) selected for testing the hypothesis. The study recommends stakeholders to create awareness programs in sensitizing the Mbororos on forest conservation and management activities while integrating them in decision making processes and policy implementation on forest related matters.
... This thinking, requiring participation of people living in and around protected, the game management areas (GMA) and linking conservation objectives with local development needs, is epitomized in Integrated Conservation and Development Projects (ICDPs), which begun in earnest in Africa in the 1980s and 1900s (Newmark & Hough, 2000). Integrated conservation and development projects have diffused quickly, especially across Sub-Saharan Africa, and have become more strongly entrenched there than in other regions, arguably due to the level of aid dependence, the influence of multilateral and bilateral agencies over domestic policies, and the weakness of states, local bureaucracies, and research capacities (Adams & Hulme, 2001). ...
In recent years, the importance of sustainable hunting and wildlife management practices has gained increased recognition. This paper examines the importance of sustainable wild life conservation and sustainable hunting in preserving ecological balance, the impact of wildlife management on biodiversity, and the ethical considerations of harvesting wildlife for conservation and sustenance. By exploring the intersection of conservation, tradition, and environmental ethics, this paper aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of sustainable hunting and wildlife management practices in contemporary society in Zambia. Government regulators may also be needed to enforce property rights arrangements like catch shares and to monitor resources that remain open access in case socioeconomic or environmental conditions change sufficiently to trigger the tragedy of the commons. Most treatments of wildlife regulation default to various iterations of the government access model and fail even to consider the costs and benefits of private and open access models. The analysis here instead shows the conditions in which each conservation access model is most appropriate: open when a resource is in high supply and low demand, private most of the time, and government when the others fail to slow resource depopulation/depletion. .
... So-called fortress conservation disenfranchised communities living around protected areas from their resource user rights through state-backed evictions, enclosures, policing of protected areas and stiff punishment of those breaking conservation rules (Hulme & Murphree 1999, Morris 2016. This situation arose not only because protected areas were created in areas inhabited by subsistence farming communities (Adams & Hulme 2001, Brockington 2002, but more so because most postcolonial governments prioritized the objectives of conservation over the interests of communities living within the protected areas (Benjaminsen & Bryceson 2012). Collaborative management posits that the private sector can conserve natural resources by establishing beneficial partnerships with communities. ...
... On the one hand, these resources were almost always systematically plundered to supply the economies of the colonial powers via various forms of commodification above and below ground: deforestation, plantation economies, logging and mineral extraction, etc. (Hufty, 2001;Mbembe, 2001;Coquery-Vidrovitch, 2017). On the other hand, the colonial administration laid the foundations for coercive nature conservation policies by creating vast protected domains often seen as fortresses off limits to local communities (Colson, 1971;Adams and Hulme, 2001). One of the main functions of these extensive conservation areas was to create and preserve game hunting grounds for settlers and their friends (Hardin and Bahuchet, 2011;Blanc, 2020). ...
... Researchers have considered the social consequences of conservation, such as the eviction and exclusion from protected areas of people with strong historical, -cultural and economic ties to them. (Neumann, 1998) (Adams & Hulme , 2001) (Brockington, 2002) (Wilshusen, Brechin, West, & Fortwangler, 2002) (Adams W. , 2004). The issue of land grabbing along with the persistent threat displacement has been a major cause of resistance across various social movements across India. ...
The question of sacredness often belies upon the power of faith. In many tribal societies the idea of conservation stems from the idea of protecting the divinity and the association of the divine forces with the forests in which they live. In the paper, we will look at the case of the ‘Dongria Kondh’ tribe and their movement against a powerful international mining giant Vedanta International. We will also look at the role of sacredness, environmental citizenship and politics of protests to understand how this movement succeeded in its objectives and turned into one of the classic textbook cases of the conflict of development and indigenous people across the world.
... The second strategy is related to the community conservation approach developed around the 1990s as an alternative to "fortress conservation" and its heavy impact on local communities, in terms of dispossessions, human rights, and induced poverty (West et al., 2006). Community conservation is characterized by a variety of interventions that focus on the link between conservation and resource management through the active inclusion of the local community and with the aim to generate positive local impacts (Adams, Hulme, 2001). ...
The book analyzes the case of Mau Forest (Kenya), exploring the deforestation process that has occurred and the controversial and changing relationships between a protected forest and the communities living within and around its borders. The volume contributes to the international debate on political ecology from a predominantly geographical perspective, enriched by contributions more closely related to the natural sciences. The study is based on a multi-year research (2017-22) that combines qualitative and quantitative methodologies: research in archives and government offices, field studies in the forest area, semi-structured interviews, participatory mapping with local community members, and satellite and drone remote sensing.
Open Access through https://libri.unimi.it/index.php/milanoup/catalog/book/89
... As Adams and Hulme (2001) once asked, however, "If community conservation is the answer in Africa, what is the question?" Di erently put, "win-win" conservation outcomes have often proved di cult to realize in many contexts, and particularly so throughout the African continent. ...
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... 'Fortress conservation', a conservation model that rests on the belief that a strict separation between local populations and conservation areas is best for biodiversity protection, excluded all consumptive use of protected areas and was for a long time the dominant conservation approach in dryland areas and elsewhere Brockington 2002). Following criticism of this approach, a shift occurred towards participatory and more communityinclusive conservation in the 1970s and 1980s (Adams and Hulme 2001;. Conservation approaches then took two different trajectories. ...
... This approach not only guarantees that the community's interests are taken into account but also promotes a relationship based on trust and collaboration between local communities, conservation managers, and researchers. Rather than relying on interventions from outsiders who may not understand the nuances of the human-wildlife dynamics at each site, may not have appropriate permissions, and/or are focused solely on the protection of wildlife, community-based interventions are centred around the needs of the people living in the area (Adams & Hulme, 2001;Shaffer, 2015). For human and primate coexistence to occur within agricultural landscapes, the ever-growing demand for agricultural products, the needs of local communities, and the successful conservation of primate populations need to occur simultaneously (Hill, 2002). ...
Across the globe and across time, primates have been used in live performances and depicted through imagery to entertain audiences and tell stories. Technological advances have led to a proliferation of ways in which we consume media and with that, audiences for primates in entertainment have flourished. Here we review some of the ways primates are used as entertainers and examine representations of primates in contemporary media. We provide an overview of the role of primates in the entertainment industry and discuss issues of animal welfare and conservation. An understanding of the history primates in media and entertainment is critical to regulating these practices and ensuring the health and welfare of both humans and animals.
... This approach not only guarantees that the community's interests are taken into account but also promotes a relationship based on trust and collaboration between local communities, conservation managers, and researchers. Rather than relying on interventions from outsiders who may not understand the nuances of the human-wildlife dynamics at each site, may not have appropriate permissions, and/or are focused solely on the protection of wildlife, community-based interventions are centred around the needs of the people living in the area (Adams & Hulme, 2001;Shaffer, 2015). For human and primate coexistence to occur within agricultural landscapes, the ever-growing demand for agricultural products, the needs of local communities, and the successful conservation of primate populations need to occur simultaneously (Hill, 2002). ...
The increasing demand for natural resources has led to continued changes in land use, affecting the survival of many wild species, including non-human primates. One of the major challenges for primate conservation in landscapes dominated by agriculture is to find environmentally friendly alternatives that provide economic benefits to local communities while improving the health of the ecosystems that primates and humans rely on. Community-based conservation is an approach whereby researchers and conservationists work in collaboration with local people to plan, implement, and assess conservation projects. This ensures effective and sustainable management of their natural resources based on the specific needs and cultural traditions of each community. In this chapter, we present an overview of primates living in agricultural landscapes and provide some guidelines for developing community-based conservation projects based on experiences of three case studies from Colombia and Ecuador. It is important to create participatory spaces for local communities to become involved in the co-planning and co-design of conservation actions and provide training that strengthens people’s capacities to acquire the necessary skills for implementing sustainable practices that bring revenue to the communities while protecting wildlife. Due to the social nature of community-based approaches, these conservation projects must also consider the socioeconomic and political contexts that influence the relationships between people and wildlife at each intervention site.
... This approach not only guarantees that the community's interests are taken into account but also promotes a relationship based on trust and collaboration between local communities, conservation managers, and researchers. Rather than relying on interventions from outsiders who may not understand the nuances of the human-wildlife dynamics at each site, may not have appropriate permissions, and/or are focused solely on the protection of wildlife, community-based interventions are centred around the needs of the people living in the area (Adams & Hulme, 2001;Shaffer, 2015). For human and primate coexistence to occur within agricultural landscapes, the ever-growing demand for agricultural products, the needs of local communities, and the successful conservation of primate populations need to occur simultaneously (Hill, 2002). ...
Pet primates are those kept typically for companionship, enjoyment, and status, although their uses as pets may extend beyond these parameters. The trade in pet primates is historically rooted, with many primates playing important roles in human cultures and religions. Thus, it is not surprising that current sociocultural trends reveal an ongoing fascination with primates and their purchase as status pets. Recent reports from various regions are presented in this chapter, demonstrating the need for drastic interventions to avoid further losses. Capture of animals for the pet trade may be intentional or opportunistic and is often exacerbated by internet trade and social media. This situation is complicated by the difficulty of obtaining accurate numbers of primates bought and sold illegally. The health and welfare of primates captured or kept as pets is another area of great concern. Long-term solutions will require attention from governmental, professional, and public actors on local and international levels.
... Ce type de document, écrit et doté de cartes beaucoup plus proches des paramètres de véracité et du style des documents manipulés par les fonctionnaires que de la manière dont les connaissances sont transmises entre pêcheurs, est utilisé par les pêcheurs pour se faire entendre. Comme pour d'autres cas analysés dans la littérature (Adams, 2017 ;Adams et Hulme, 2001 ;Western et al., 1994), la participation n'a pas permis, malgré les promesses, la redistribution du pouvoir décisionnel, l'inclusion sociale et l'attention pour les personnes affectées par les actions de conservation. ...
Cet article propose d’étudier les principes de gestion de l’aire naturelle protégée de la péninsule Valdés (en Patagonie argentine) et s’inscrit dans la littérature critique des théories et des pratiques participatives qui caractérisent les contextes de conservation depuis quelques décennies. L’article montre comment les rapports de pouvoir entre parties prenantes – pêcheurs, administrateurs locaux et biologistes des ressources halieutiques – et l’État sont reproduits et amplifiés par des outils participatifs caractérisés par un manque de réflexivité. La hiérarchie conçue par le gouvernement provincial entre les savoirs issus des différentes activités – par exemple recherche et pêche – demeure intouchée et le pouvoir décisionnel n’est aucunement partagé entre les participants.
... • Define tenure to include customary and communal aspects, beyond individual, legal property rights • All signatory nations to CBD and authorities for any conservation programme should report on the assessment and inclusion of Indigenous Peoples and Local Communities' communal and customary tenure systems • Establishment of new PAs or restoration programmes should build upon local traditional knowledge and institutions, and legitimise and support local tenure systems • Particular attention required to include the poor and marginalised social groups for whom land and resource access can be temporary, rented and undocumented tenancy There was more support for narratives 4 and 5 on participation and secure tenure rights, respectively, especially among our interviewees, pointing to the redistribution of power towards communities as important for conservation success over improvements and compensation in material poverty on their own. Although conservation can succeed in its ecological aims through enforcement [160] and participatory arrangements are far from being a panacea [161], the ethical basis for ensuring equity in conservation is well-accepted [16]. Recent research outside our sample tends to confirm that participation by local people can help to deliver both ecological and social objectives of PAs [21,[162][163][164][165]. ...
Attempts to link human development and biodiversity conservation goals remain a constant feature of policy and practice related to protected areas (PAs). Underlying these approaches are narratives that simplify assumptions, shaping how interventions are designed and implemented. We examine evidence for five key narratives: 1) conservation is pro-poor; 2) poverty reduction benefits conservation; 3) compensation neutralises costs of conservation; 4) local participation is good for conservation; 5) secure tenure rights for local communities support effective conservation. Through a mixed-method synthesis combining a review of 100 peer-reviewed papers and 25 expert interviews, we examined if and how each narrative is supported or countered by the evidence. The first three narratives are particularly problematic. PAs can reduce material poverty, but exclusion brings substantial local costs to wellbeing, often felt by the poorest. Poverty reduction will not inevitably deliver on conservation goals and trade-offs are common. Compensation (for damage due to human wildlife conflict, or for opportunity costs), is rarely sufficient or commensurate with costs to wellbeing and experienced injustices. There is more support for narratives 4 and 5 on participation and secure tenure rights, highlighting the importance of redistributing power towards Indigenous Peoples and Local Communities in successful conservation. In light of the proposed expansion of PAs under the post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework, we outline implications of our review for the enhancement and implementation of global targets in order to proactively integrate social equity into conservation and the accountability of conservation actors.
... Therefore, in brief, it may be stated (also from Table 1) that engagement of various stakeholder groups in the decision procedure aids in the identification of key issues, strengthening legitimation, response to necessitate, the negotiation of interests, the incorporation of local knowledge, the encouragement of social learning, and the establishment of a social license for government schemes ( W. M. Adams and Hulme 2021;Brunner et al. 2008;Smith 2009). Its appeal stems from policies and laws such as constructing institutions including such associations, committees, and cooperatives through society empowerment; formulating regionally approved operational regulations on resource use and user behavior, which include sanctions (frequently embedded in constitutional provisions), and a resource management framework mutually decided upon by relevant stakeholders; decentralization to local organizations of appropriate lawful resource privileges, along with judgment powers and economic incentives (E. A. Adams and Zulu 2015;Agrawal 2001;Moraes and Perkins 2007). ...
Lack of accessibility and affordability to safe and affordable drinking water remains a major challenge in fulfilling sustainable development goals. Community-based water management emerged as a policy response to address the issues. However, the impact of producing community-based water supply institutions on the community is hardly noticed in this context. This paper tries to fill the gap through the relational understanding between the provision of safe water and communities’ socioeconomic upliftment, which remains the main reason behind the establishment of the potable water facility in Porapara village located in West Midnapur district of the state of West Bengal, India. The study findings revealed that community participation through the process of empowerment results in good governance of the potable water project and the socioeconomic well-being of the community in Porapara village. This kind of intervention study may help policymakers in evaluating the societal impact to achieve socioeconomic well-being.
... Drylands outside of protected areas in Kenya are increasingly recognized as vital for mammalian biodiversity conservation (Western, Russell, & Cuthill, 2009). Decentralization of national authority to county governments (Kanyinga, 2016), and delegation of authority over development initiatives and wildlife management to a mosaic of non-governmental organizations (NGOs; Western et al., 2015), have spurred the expansion of 'community-based conservation' (CBC) interventions to currently cover 11% of Kenyan land. 1 In a broad sense, CBC is an activity that is intended to simultaneously enhance human development and to conserve biodiversity (Galvin et al., 2018), and is seen as an alternative to 'fortress' wildlife conservation practices that have been widely criticized for dispossessing Indigenous peoples of their lands and promoting a dichotomy between nature and society (Adams & Hulme, 2001;Adams & Hutton, 2007;Brockington, 2002). However, CBC models in Kenya have come under heavy criticism, variously being described as neo-colonial (Mbaria & Ogada, 2016), and facilitating 'green grabbing' (Bersaglio & Cleaver, 2018). ...
Throughout Kenya, new governance regimes that are designed to sustain habitat connectivity for wildlife populations outside of national parks have gained increasing prominence. Though these new regimes often center a discursive emphasis on the synergies between wildlife conservation and pastoralist land use, it often remains unclear how they have interacted with colonial and post-colonial legacies that influenced pastoralists' relationships with land. As an effort to gain an improved understanding of the practices that conservation governance regimes deploy, and their underlying rationales, I present an empirically-driven account drawn from ethnographic field work in Kenyan Ilkisongo Maasai land surrounding Amboseli National Park. I argue that to understand recent configurations of land, it is essential to consider the multiple types of interlocking practices deployed by international wildlife conservation NGOs and the Kenyan state. Under a range of pressures to subdivide collectively titled land, a new territorial and governance configuration is emerging where land tenure will retain characteristics of being both private and collective. I argue that a discursive emphasis that frames conservation interventions as producing welfare for populations of wildlife and pastoralists alike has created new potentials to center the concerns of politically marginalized pastoralists, but has also raised risks of an ‘anti-politics’ that can reproduce and reinforce multiple dimensions of power asymmetries.
... 'Fortress conservation', a conservation model that rests on the belief that a strict separation between local populations and conservation areas is best for biodiversity protection, excluded all consumptive use of protected areas and was for a long time the dominant conservation approach in dryland areas and elsewhere (Neumann 1998;Brockington 2002). Following criticism of this approach, a shift occurred towards participatory and more communityinclusive conservation in the 1970s and 1980s (Adams and Hulme 2001;Galvin and Haller 2008;Bollig and Lesorogol 2016). Conservation approaches then took two different trajectories. ...
... 'Fortress conservation', a conservation model that rests on the belief that a strict separation between local populations and conservation areas is best for biodiversity protection, excluded all consumptive use of protected areas and was for a long time the dominant conservation approach in dryland areas and elsewhere Brockington 2002). Following criticism of this approach, a shift occurred towards participatory and more communityinclusive conservation in the 1970s and 1980s (Adams and Hulme 2001;. Conservation approaches then took two different trajectories. ...
This edited volume examines the changes that arise from the entanglement of global interests and narratives with the local struggles that have always existed in the drylands of Africa, the Middle East, and Central Asia/Inner Asia. Changes in drylands are happening in an overwhelming manner. Climate change, growing political instability, and increasing enclosures of large expanses of often common land are some of the changes with far-reaching consequences for those who make their living in the drylands. At the same time, powerful narratives about the drylands as 'wastelands' and their 'backward' inhabitants continue to hold sway, legitimizing interventions for development, security, and conservation, informing re-emerging frontiers of investment (for agriculture, extraction, infrastructure), and shaping new dryland identities. The chapters in this volume discuss the politics of change triggered by forces as diverse as the global land and resource rush, the expansion of new Information and Communication Technologies, urbanization, the COVID-19 pandemic, and the spread of violent extremism. While recognizing that changes are co-produced by differently positioned actors from within and outside the drylands, this volume presents the dryland's point of view. It therefore takes the views, experiences, and agencies of dryland dwellers as the point of departure to not only understand the changes that are transforming their lives, livelihoods, and future aspirations, but also to highlight the unexpected spaces of contestation and innovation that have hitherto remained understudied. This edited volume will be of much interest to students, researchers, and scholars of natural resource management, land and resource grabbing, political ecology, sustainable development, and drylands in general.
... 'Fortress conservation', a conservation model that rests on the belief that a strict separation between local populations and conservation areas is best for biodiversity protection, excluded all consumptive use of protected areas and was for a long time the dominant conservation approach in dryland areas and elsewhere Brockington 2002). Following criticism of this approach, a shift occurred towards participatory and more communityinclusive conservation in the 1970s and 1980s (Adams and Hulme 2001;. Conservation approaches then took two different trajectories. ...
Drylands are characterized by high rainfall variability, both in time and space. Long dry seasons, large fluctuations in annual rainfall, and intra-seasonal and localized droughts result in even more extreme fluctuations in resource availability. Typically, dryland inhabitants respond using a range of strategies, including investments in land but also extensive mobile use of natural resources such as nomadic pastoralism. This flexible use of natural resources is also reflected in the flexible set-up of natural resource governance regimes. Yet these flexible regimes increasingly run counter to formal systems of land tenure and land allocation and are affected by increasing climate variability and progressive climate change. In this chapter, an overview will be provided of the main issues at the intersection between climate variability and resource governance regimes and the linkages with present-day climate change.
... At the same time, governments have increasingly devolved rights back to communities, motivated in part by human rights concerns and instrumental perspectives (Erbaugh et al., 2020;Garnett et al., 2018;Hodgson, 2006Hodgson, , 2016. Conservation actors (e.g., funders, environmental non-governmental organizations) have in turn shown a resurging interest in community-based conservation (CBC) (Adams and Hulme, 2001;Berkes, 2009;Child and Barnes, 2010;Mahajan et al., 2020) as they seek to advance conservation goals while simultaneously supporting and empowering local communities to achieve desirable sustainable futures (Berkes, 2004;Maxwell et al., 2020;Robinson et al., 2018;Schlager and Ostrom, 1992). ...
Despite the existence of numerous research studies on community-based conservation, relatively few focus on the particularities of freshwater ecosystems. Freshwater ecosystems are distinct from terrestrial and marine ecosystems , exhibiting both greater concentrations of biodiversity and elevated threats. In addition, freshwater resources have distinct social, legal, political, and economic characteristics which limit the generalizability of community-based conservation research from other ecological domains. We examine peer-reviewed literature on community-based management of freshwater resources to understand and assess project contexts and outcomes. Our review indicates that studies of freshwater community-based management are limited in number and representativeness. While positive outcomes for both biodiversity and human well-being are commonly reported, limitations due to study design constrain the ability to infer the significance or causality of these effects. Overall, our analysis indicates that there are several gaps in the available research: across geographic regions, freshwater ecosystem types, intervention types, and environmental and human well-being outcome types. Given the importance of freshwater resources to Indigenous Peoples and local communities, our review highlights the critical need to generate evidence across more diverse contexts to achieve greater clarity on whether and how community-based projects can be most effective.
Ce papier examine l’évolution des agendas, des intérêts et des enjeux à différentes échelles (locale, nationale, régionale et internationale) autour du parc du W-Bénin. Il analyse comment la gouvernance de la zone est façonnée par la conservation des aires protégées (pour des raisons politiques, économiques ou idéologiques), la prise en compte des besoins fondamentaux des communautés, l’opportunisme des groupes armés et les efforts de sécurisation face aux attaques récurrentes contre l’État et les populations. Cet article est issu d’une recherche documentaire à partir de publications académiques et de rapport institutionnels ainsi que d’une vingtaine d’entretiens qualitatifs conduits à Cotonou et par téléphone en mars 2022 avec des acteurs clés impliqués dans la gestion du Parc et avec les communautés riveraines du Parc du W dans les communes de Karimama, Malanville et Banikoara en août 2022. Il révèle que, depuis son classement au Patrimoine mondial de l’humanité de l’UNESCO, la gestion du parc du W-Bénin concentre de nombreuses formes de gouvernance locales, nationales ou régionales. Cette gouvernance tantôt exclusivement étatique, tantôt participative, tantôt privatisée recèle des enjeux de pouvoir qui dépassent la simple question écologique. Autrefois placée au centre des préoccupations de conservation et de survie, la gestion du parc du W doit désormais prendre en compte les défis sécuritaires que fait peser sur elle la menace des groupes armés qui prolifèrent dans la région et dont la présence compromet les ambitions de gouvernance de cette aire protégée.
Dans la plupart des pays francophones d’Afrique subsaharienne, les espaces de conservation de l’environnement sont majoritairement des héritages des occupations coloniales. Pour les aires protégées plus récentes, leurs conceptualisations, implantations et programmes de gestion sont presque exclusivement réalisés par des acteurs internationaux, en collaboration plus ou moins étroite avec les autorités nationales, et avec une concertation et intégration plus ou moins importantes des communautés riveraines vivant au sein ou à proximité de ces espaces environnementaux. Présentés comme des projets internationaux de développement, ces aires protégées sont pour la plupart constituées de manière ex nihilo et ne sont que faiblement intégrées aux territoires et à leurs structures socio-environnementales, politiques et économiques. Cette introduction au numéro thématique effectue une synthèse non exhaustive de la littérature portant sur les aires protégées en Afrique francophone, les conflits environnementaux et les perspectives d’intégration et de gestion communautaire par et pour les communautés riveraines. Elle interroge en cela, d’une part, la manière dont les normes et pratiques environnementales, sociales et politiques endogènes des communautés riveraines peuvent contribuer à la conservation de la biodiversité et, d’autre part, comment leur intégration au sein des processus de gestion des aires naturelles protégées peut favoriser le renforcement des programmes de conservation de l’environnement et l’appropriation des services environnementaux qu’ils peuvent procurer.
Since the mid-1990s, important legal and policy reforms have taken place in Mozambique that have created conditions for community involvement in environmental management. This study aimed to understand the effectiveness of community participation in Natural Resource Management Committees in Mapulanguene, District of Magude, in southern Mozambique, where the creation of the local natural resources management committee in 2007 was preceded by a scenario of overuse of forest resources and poaching. The study used a qualitative approach and participant observation techniques, focus groups, semistructured interviews, and content analysis. The results suggest positive appreciation of the natural resources management model through the Natural Resources Management Committees because it brings people from different social segments to discuss issues of their lives. However, the scope of achievements resulting from community participation is still insufficient, as the communities have little control over the activities carried out by the private sector that develops ecotourism projects at the local level, and the private sector is not part of the Natural Resources Management Committees. It is recommended to review the natural resource management models through the involvement of all interested actors and define the role of each actor in the process.
Quantifying the abundance of species is essential for their management and conservation. Much effort has been invested in surveys of freshwater dolphins in the Amazon basin but river dimensions and complex logistics limit replication of such studies across the region. We evaluated the effectiveness of using unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) for surveying two Amazon dolphin species, the tucuxi Sotalia fluviatilis and pink river dolphin Inia geoffrensis, in tropical rivers. In 2016 we conducted drone and visual surveys over 80 km of the Juruá River in Brazil. The aerial surveys provided higher accuracy than human observers in counting individuals detected in groups. Compared to estimates derived from visual surveys, the use of UAVs could provide a more feasible, economical and accurate estimate of Amazon river dolphin populations. The method could potentially be replicated in other important areas for the conservation of these species, to generate an improved index of river dolphin populations in the Amazon.
Successfully analyzing and managing trade-offs between community welfare and wildlife conservation are complex tasks that require a multidisciplinary approach and consideration of various factors. Bioeconomic modeling provides a structured quantitative framework for understanding and evaluating the complex interactions between biological systems and economic activities, aiding in the crafting of more effective and sustainable conservation and rural development strategies. Combined with results from other methods such as economic valuation, institutional analysis, impact evaluation, and framed-field experiments, they can provide guidance on reaching the social planner's optimum. The literature suggests significant roles for comanagement, benefit-sharing, and sustainable financing of conservation as the key ingredients for managing the trade-offs between communities’ welfare and nature conservation in Africa. However, comprehensive research tackling multiple problems simultaneously is required to fully understand and manage the trade-offs. Further, mainstreaming gender and climate change in studies of the trade-offs is increasingly becoming an obligation.
Conservation and Development Interventions (CDIs) aim to promote sustainable natural resource use and contribute to both biodiversity conservation (or restoration) and human well-being. Their long-term impact on social-ecological interactions hinges on their transformative potential to achieve sustainability. In this perspective paper, we categorize CDIs based on their strategies for achieving transformative change, empowering decision-makers to guide social-ecological systems towards sustainability. We classify CDIs by their specific dependencies between values, rules, and knowledge systems in decision-making, power relations, and environmental justice in creating transformations. Based on this classification, we identify three ‘realms’ of CDI: (1) the realm of “management”, i.e., interventions for a just and sustainable natural resource use happen at a broad but shallow level through management design and content. Here, formal rules and visible power structures dominate to achieve distributive justice; (2) the realm of “understanding”, i.e., interventions that offer a better understanding of knowledge diversity and shedding light on invisible power structures by addressing procedural justice; (3) the realm of “engagement”, i.e., interventions that elucidate the underlying human value system and uncover hidden power structures, e.g., by analysing social discourses and thereby deeply engaging with recognitional justice in sustainable natural resource use. This work suggests that CDIs can enhance their capacity to drive transformative change towards promoting sustainable natural resource use by strategically addressing and actively involving all three realms.
Community involvement in protection of Sarus crane breeding sites in Kota, Bundi and Baran districts of Rajasthan, India
Understanding the habitat preferences of Sarus Crane can assist ecologists in identifying high-priority habitats and improving conservation strategies. The habitat utilization and preference of Sarus Crane were studied in and around Important Bird areas of the Gurugram district from November 2019 to October 2020. In total, 171 flocks were observed in agricultural land followed by marshland (147) and grassland (11). Our analysis showed that the Sarus Crane strongly preferred agricultural areas (s = +0.18) and avoided grassland habitats (s =-0.22 and-0.53 respectively). There was a significant difference in the utilization of agriculture and marshland (P<0.05) habitats in different seasons. However, the Sarus Crane utilized the grassland habitat randomly (P>0.05). The Sarus Cranes experienced several serious threats, including predation, habitat destruction, and the agricultural use of pesticides. This study on habitat preference and current threats will provide a scientific baseline for future research to better understand the ecology of the Sarus Cranes and will be helpful in their conservation. These IBA's are the only suitable sites in Haryana because it is surrounded by a large area of agricultural land and exposed to the pressure of human activities. It is, therefore, necessary to protect such habitats, to provide a healthy ecosystem for Sarus Cranes.
The term integrated conservation and development project (ICDP) has been applied to a diverse range of initiatives with a common goal: linking biodiversity conservation in protected areas (PAs) with local social and economic development. In practice, ICDPs refer not just to a general concept but to a specific set of activities targeting a PA and, usually, the inhabited zone around it. ICDPs aim to provide incentives that increase the net local benefits - and therefore attractiveness - of conservation and sustainable resource use in and around PAs. Most ICDPs strongly emphasize local participation in design and implementation. ICDPs have become Indonesia's main approach to biodiversity conservation. The first ICDPs were launched in the 1980s, although similar ideas had been proposed a decade earlier. In addition to two official, government-sponsored ICDPs at Kerinci- Seblat and Siberut-Ruteng (which form a single project covering two locations), more than a dozen unofficial ICDPs were at various stages of implementation in 1997. These projects have targeted PAs with a total area of 8.5 million hectares, 40 percent of the country's conservation estate. Substantial GOI inputs to ICDPs are being supplemented by US7 million dollars being provided by conservation NGOs. Several more ICDPs in preparation are expected to attract at least US$200 million in new international loans and grants. This shows a serious commitment to ICDPs on their part. The objectives of this study were, first, to consider the ICDP's overall contribution to conserving Indonesia's biodiversity; second, to assess their cost-effectiveness, sustainability, and replicability; and third, to identify lessons for future conservation efforts. The study was based on a limited number of site visits supplemented by case studies, interviews, and an extensive review of project documentation (mainly plans, progress reports, and evaluations).
Theory dictates that conservation areas should be as large as possible. When money for their protection is inadequate, different considerations come into play.
This paper estimates the opportunity costs of biodiversity conservation in Kenya from the potential net returns of agricultural and livestock production, and compares them with the net returns from tourism, forestry and other conservation activities. At the national level, agricultural and livestock production in the parks, reserves and forests of Kenya could support 4.2 million Kenyans and generate gross annual revenues of 203m. These forgone net returns of 42m from wildlife tourism and forestry are quite inadequate to cover these opportunity costs to land.
What are the challenges involved in protecting biodiversity in tropical terrestrial and coastal ecosystems? What practical lessons can be learned from conservation projects? And what are the procedures and attitudes of governments, NGOs, donor agencies, development banks and consulting firms? These key questions are all answered, drawing on the author's extensive experience of conservation projects in Malaysia, Nigeria, China, Indonesia, the Philippines and Costa Rica. Project descriptions illustrate two important themes in conservation: increasing the awareness of the economic value of biodiversity among decision makers and enabling and encouraging local people to participate in designing and implementing projects. The book sets out guidelines to help others design projects that are practical and effective, yet more complete and more robust than some of those designed in the recent past.
This book provides a new inter-disciplinary look at the practice and policies of conservation in Africa. Bringing together social scientists, anthropologists and historians with biologists for the first time, the book sheds some light on the previously neglected but critically important social aspects of conservation thinking. To date conservation has been very much the domain of the biologist, but the current ecological crisis in Africa and the failure of orthodox conservation policies demand a radical new appraisal of conventional practices. This new approach to conservation, the book argues, cannot deal simply with the survival of species and habitats, for the future of African wildlife is intimately tied to the future of African rural communities. Conservation must form an integral part of future policies for human development. The book emphasises this urgent need for a complementary rather than a competitive approach. It covers a wide range of topics important to this new approach, from wildlife management to soil conservation and from the Cape in the nineteenth century to Ethiopia in the 1980s. It is essential reading for all those concerned about people and conservation in Africa.
In the Amboseli area of southern Kenya, efforts to resolve conflicts between Maasai pastoralists and wildlife have been made by conservationists and government authorities since the 1950s. In 1977, a new programme was initiated to involve the Maasai in direct benefits from a National Park which was created in their critical grazing lands. This article analyses the problems encountered in Amboseli with a brief summary of their historical background and a more detailed description of the recent developments. The discussion centres on the specific circumstances of Amboseli, but should apply more generally to the problem of reconciling nature conservation with indigenous peoples' land tenure and use. -from Author
In sub-Saharan Africa conservation of biodiversity is increasingly predicated on finding ways to ensure that the economic value of maintaining a landscape in its 'natural' state meets or exceeds the expected returns from converting the area to an alternative land use, such as agriculture. 'Wildlands' in Africa must generate, directly or from donor contributions, funds sufficient to cover both the operating costs of conservation, and the opportunity costs of forgoing other forms of resource use. Government and donor investments currently meet less than 30 per cent of the estimated recurring costs required to manage the protected-area network within central African countries effectively, and cover none of the growing opportunity costs incurred to maintain protected areas. Unfortunately, few additional sources of funding are available. Tourism is only economically viable where charismatic species exist in 'safe' areas that are not more than a few hours drive in a 4 x 4 vehicle from an international airport - ostensibly excluding tourism from most of central Africa. In contrast, a review of available information suggests that safari hunting could offer a significant and sustainable source of financing to offset some of the costs of maintaining protected areas in central Africa. However, better quantitative data are needed to assess whether trophy hunting is both ecologically sustainable and economically competitive over the long term relative to other land uses.
In the debt-ridden, high-population-growth, resource-mining states of the Congo Basin, conservation of biodiversity is seldom the primary concern of national policy makers or of local resource users. Moreover, the recurring costs of managing protected areas and the opportunity costs of forgoing logging and farming to maintain protected areas are a substantial net drain on national and local economies. Consequently, it is becoming increasingly important that protected areas generate, from user fees or donor contributions, sufficient funds to offset the costs of maintaining them. Government and donor investment currently meet less than 30 per cent of the estimated recurring costs required to manage the protected-area network within central African countries effectively, and cover none of the growing opportunity costs. Nature tourism, the fastest growing sector of the $US3 trillion (3 million million) a year global tourism, industry, may offer a source of revenue to help fill this gap in funds. Congo Basin national parks and reserves harbour many charismatic animals (okapi, lowland gorilla, mandrills, bongo, forest elephant) that are likely to attract tourists, and as a result many protected-area managers are sinking capital into the development of tourist infrastructure. This paper reviews the evidence for ecotourism's capacity to generate revenue for protected-area management and appraises the financial viability of nature tourism in the Congo Basin.
Les préoccupations occidentals en matière de conservation ou de gestion des forêts tropicales africaines ont conduit à la formation de nombreux programmes de protection de l'environnement. La participation des communautés en matière de conservation forestière est devenue la norme dans ces programmes. Cependant, les propositions de participation des populations locales sous-entendent que la détermination de l'avenir de la forêt se résume purement et simplement à un conflit entre les différentes formes de conservation et la déforestation. De telles propositions sous-éntendent egalement que la présence de ces communautés ne pose pas de problèmes. Par contraste, cet article montre qu'un débat important s'est déjà instauré au sein de ces communautés concernant l'utilisation des forêts et leur conservation, principalement parmi les exclus de l'arène politique officielle et des prises de décision. Les préoccupations en matière d'environnement incluent une inquiétude sur la perpétuation de la société et représentent un prolongement clair des cosmologies des villages d'Afrique occidentale concentrées sur la sociétalisation de l'espace. Dans le même temps, l'objectif de conservation consistant à préserver la forêt en l'état éveille peu de résonances, les populations forestières considérant la société comme une construction ingénieuse, mais souvent problématique, dans laquelle la conservation des forêts joue un rôle central. Cet article suggère en conclusion que la clé d'une bonne gestion de l'environnement doit résider dans la prise en compte par les organismes extérieurs des intérêts et des valeurs de ceux qui ont des intérêts légitimes dans les ressources forestières africaines.
Government agencies responsible for biodiversity conservation face increasing costs and limited revenues. A business-oriented
approach to management could help them to rationalize their assets and balance their books. Devolving authority and enhancing
income through user-pays mechanisms are two routes towards financial sustainability.
Community-based natural resource management (CBNRM) is a rural development paradigm that combines biological conservation
and sustainable use of natural resources. In southern Africa, CBNRM has contributed to the wellbeing of human communities
and to the conservation of elephants and other threatened species. Success in this arena requires the establishment of a respectful
partnership between villagers and scientists that draws upon their complementary knowledge and skills.
Concomitant with the increasing denouncement of African game legislation as inappropriate law imposed by a former colonial authority, is the attack upon traditional, i.e. total protection, practice of conservation. It is increasingly argued by a school of neo-populist thinkers, that local people should be allowed to exploit protected areas in accordance with their own traditions and beliefs. Examples of alleged injustice or practice are consistently misrepresented with a view to replacing traditional conservation practice with left-wing political dogma, proponents claiming a mandate from the Caracas 1992 IVth World Congress on National Parks and Protected Areas.
The Okomu Forest Reserve in south-west Nigeria contains a 114-sq-km wildlife sanctuary that is an important refuge for several threatened species, including the white-throated guenon Cercopithecus erythrogaster. A conservation project that started in Okomu in 1987 focused initially on protection, but the emphasis recently shifted to a programme of agricultural development assistance to migrant farmers in the reserve. This approach, which appears to follow the philosophy espoused in IUCN/UNEP/WWF's Caring for the Earth, may hasten rather than prevent the destruction of this remnant tropical forest and its wildlife.
Conservation philosophy is swinging away from the traditional approach of setting up reserves to give absolute protection to wildlife and is replacing it with more realistic strategies. To succeed today, conservationists should take into account the needs of the people who share their land with wild species. The author examines some of the ways in which wildlife can be valuable to local people and made to pay for its own conservation – game viewing, sport hunting, game cropping and ranching. The advantages and pitfalls are discussed and it is concluded that while these uses are possible for some some wildlife species, others will never have a direct economic value. Someone will have to pay for their conservation – and it should not be those who can least afford it.
National Parks have become the most widely-used category of protected areas in developing countries, including sub-Saharan Africa. Several studies have shown that local-community support for National Parks is based mainly on perceptions of benefits and costs against the background of social, cultural, political and economic considerations. This paper examines the experience in the Cross River National Park (CRNP) in southeast Nigeria using data collected through rapid rural appraisal techniques, household questionnaire surveys, focus group discussions and guided interviews. The results show that in spite of a high level of community awareness of the need to conserve the forests of the study area, there is a low level of local support for the CRNP forest conservation initiative. Four main factors are identified as the main influences on the support extended to the project, namely: reality and expectations of socio-economic development, the pace of project implementation, the relationship between park staff and communities, and the historical rights of local people to the forest of the study area. The implications of the findings relate to the long-term sustainability of the CRNP as a protected forest area.
Based on field research in the Central African Republic, this article discusses several social and economic challenges to conservation programmes that include community development components. These interrelated challenges include immigration as people elsewhere are attracted to economic opportunities, the lack of tenure of land and natural resources, diversification of economic and subsistence strategies, ethnic diversity and the lack of a conservation ethic. Addressing these challenges requires fundamental socio-economic change.
This article critically evaluates participatory, integrated conservation and development programmes in Africa, focusing on protected area buffer zones. I argue that, despite the emphasis on participation and benefit-sharing, many of the new projects replicate more coercive forms of conservation practice and often constitute an expansion of state authority into remote rural areas. I suggest that the reasons for this state of affairs can be traced in part to the persistence in conservation interventions of Western ideas and images of the Other. These stereotypes result in misguided assumptions in conservation programmes which have important implications for the politics of land in buffer zone communities.
Initiatives to link rural development and species conservation, known as integrated conservation-development projects (ICDPs), have been launched with considerable fanfare and funding around the world. Although ICDPs hold appeal as broader ecological efforts than the conservation and development strategies that preceded them, they also suffer conceptual flaws that may limit their appropriateness and potential sustainability, at least when applied to the protection of large African mammals.
The electronic version of this book has been prepared by scanning TIFF 600 dpi bitonal images of the pages of the text. Original source: Conservation and the gospel of efficiency; the progressive conservation movement, 1890-1920.; Hays, Samuel P.; 297 p. 21 cm.; Cambridge,; This electronic text file was created by Optical Character Recognition (OCR). No corrections have been made to the OCR-ed text and no editing has been done to the content of the original document. Encoding has been done through an automated process using the recommendations for Level 2 of the TEI in Libraries Guidelines. Digital page images are linked to the text file.
The relevance and importance of Samuel P. Hay's book, Conservation and the Gospel of Efficiency, has only increased over time. Written almost half a century ago, it offers an invaluable history of the conservation movement's origins, and provides an excellent context for understanding contemporary enviromental problems and possible solutions. Against a background of rivers, forests, ranges, and public lands, this book defines two conflicting political processes: the demand for an integrated, controlled development guided by an elite group of scientists and technicians and the demand for a looser system allowing grassroots impulses to have a voice through elected government representatives.
Mgahinga Gorilla National Park is established to conserve gorillas and their habitats. This is a difficult task given the pressures on natural resources in Uganda and the poverty of the people in its vicinity. Since 1991 a community conservation programme has operated in attempts to foster conservation while contributing to rural development. This paper examines this strategy and makes an assessment of its achievements. Despite its initial success in bolstering support for the Park from neighbouring communities, both the community conservation programme and the Park itself remain fragile institutions. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Zimbabwe's CAMPFIRE programme is widely regarded as one of Africa's most successful contemporary conservation initiatives. It permits the residents of communal lands-basically poor, black people-to share in the benefits generated by wildlife utilization on those lands. Despite its achievements the programme still faces fundamental challenges. In particular the development strategies of households in CAMPFIRE areas are focusing on land uses that are incompatible with wildlife-population in-migration, the extension of cropping and increased livestock numbers. To a significant degree these problems arise because CAMPFIRE has only been able to devolve authority over natural resources from the central government to rural district councils. If the programme is to be effective then a further devolution of authority is required so that producer communities, those who live directly beside wildlife, are given full control of the natural resources on their lands. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Over the last decade the concepts, policies and practices of conservation in Africa have begun to shift towards what has been viewed as a community-based approach. This introductory paper to the Policy Arena argues that the ideas underpinning this shift-a greater interest in local level and community-based natural resource management, the treatment of conservation as simply one of many forms of natural resource use and a belief in the contribution that markets can make to the achievement of conservation goals-are better understood as a 'new conservation'. This new conservation is presently diffusing through Africa both challenging 'fortress conservation' and working alongside it. It is no panacea for the problems that conservation faces but it does provide a basis from which more effective policies and institutions can evolve. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
The lambda repressor is an activator as well as a repressor of transcription. The activation function is blocked by interaction with another lambda repressor molecule bound upstream on the same DNA molecule. This example of negative control at a distance involves formation of a DNA loop.
Despite many approaches of neoclassical and endogenous growth theory, economists still face problems in explaining the reasons for income differences between countries. Institutional economics and the deep determinants of growth literature try to depart from pure economic facts to examine economic development. Therefore, this article analyzes the impact of institutions, geography, and integration on per capita income. Concerning theoretical reasoning, emphasis is on the emergence of institutions and their effect on economic growth. However, institutions can appear in different shapes since political, legal, and economic restrictions are not the only constraints on human behaviour. Norms and values also limit possible actions. Therefore, a differentiation between formal and informal institutions is made. Informal institutions are defined as beliefs, attitudes, moral, conventions, and codes of conduct. Property rights are assumed to be the basic formal institutional feature for economic success. Despite their direct impact on growth through individual utility maximization, property rights also make a statement concerning the political and legal environment of a country. Regarding the regression analysis, different religious affiliations are used as instrumental variables for formal and informal institutions. The regression results affirm a crucial role of informal and formal institutions concerning economic development. However, a high proportion of Protestant citizens encourage informal institutions that support economic growth, while a high Muslim proportion of the population is negatively correlated with growth-supporting formal institutions. --
The Empire of Nature: Hunting, Conser-vation and British Imperialism Devolution and stewardship in Zim-babwe's CAMPFIRE Programme
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