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The Effect of Distal Learning, Outcome, and Proximal Goals on a Moderately Complex Task
Abstract
The effects of learning versus outcome distal goals in conjunction with proximal goals were investigated in a laboratory setting using a class-scheduling task. The participants (n = 96) needed to acquire knowledge in order to perform the task correctly. A ‘do your best’ outcome goal led to higher performance than the assignment of a specific, difficult outcome goal. However, the assignment of a specific, difficult learning goal led to higher performance than urging people to ‘do their best.’ Goal commitment was higher in the learning goal than in the outcome goal condition. The correlation between task-relevant strategies discovered and performance was positive and significant. The number of task-relevant strategies implemented by participants assigned a distal learning goal in conjunction with proximal goals was higher than in any other goal condition. Setting a distal outcome or learning goal that included proximal outcome goals, however, did not lead to higher performance than the setting of a distal outcome or learning goal alone. Self-efficacy correlated significantly with performance, and this effect was mediated through strategy development. Furthermore, the discovery of task-relevant strategies affected self-efficacy through an increase in performance. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
... Research shows high performance goal setting is associated with dissatisfaction with low performance (Mento, Locke, & Klein, 1992), with expectations raising the bar as to what performance is satisfactory, thus increasing the threshold for feelings of satisfaction. By raising the standard of what performance is necessary to feel satisfied, satisfaction is translated into increased importance and commitment to subsequent goals (Seijts & Latham, 2001) (Lee, Locke, & Phan, 1997). This positive feedback loop is predicted to cause feelings of satisfaction to increase over time. ...
... Five new items focussed on the effects of self-efficacy (e.g., "I set harder goals when I'm confident about my performance of the task"). Based on Seijts and Latham (2001) we added "If I have low confidence in a task, I build successes through 'small wins' to build confidence". ...
... And twin methods could help test if these mechanisms account for heritable non-intelligence achievement (Demange et al., 2021). The research also suggests avenues for understanding management as mimicking higher levels of internal GST system activity e.g. by providing feedback (Seijts & Latham, 2001), or setting higher expectations (Latham & Locke, 2007). It would be valuable to test if internalisation of such inputs explains in part why C matures across time (Hogan & Roberts, 2016). ...
... Outcome or performance goals are associated with individuals striving to demonstrate their competence via task performance (Button, Mathieu, and Zajac 1996;Narayan and Steele-Johnson 2007) and are more associated with transfer of training (Chiaburu and Tekleab 2005). Distal goals are long-term goals, whereas proximal goals are more short-term or sub goals (Seijts and Latham 2001). Studies (Brown 2005;Weldon and Yun 2000) indicate that proximal plus distal goals lead to greater performance than distal goals alone. ...
... Studies (Brown 2005;Weldon and Yun 2000) indicate that proximal plus distal goals lead to greater performance than distal goals alone. They allow people to evaluate their ongoing goal directed behaviour and refocus their efforts if needed (Brown 2005;Seijts and Latham 2001;Weldon and Yun 2000). This creates a sense of immediacy, provides a clear mark of progress, and leads to a sense of mastery whilst allowing the distal goal to be recalibrated if needed (Weldon and Yun 2000). ...
The aim of this study is to further develop our understanding of transfer of training by introducing an additional post training transfer intervention of implementation intentions. This enhances the substantial developments made by goal setting theory but concentrates on goal achievement rather than simply goal setting. Whilst goal intentions specify what a person wants to achieve, implementation intention specifies the behaviour to be performed and the situational context it is to be performed in. This is a qualitative study based on a management development program being delivered in one UK Higher Education Institute. Data was collected from reflective learning journals and semi structured interviews with 15 participants. Findings indicate that the use of an implementation intention statement encouraged transfer in 67% of the participants. This is a higher figure than any other study not using implementation intentions, has previously recorded. This study therefore advances scholarship in the field of Human Resource Development (HRD) and especially transfer of training. It also provides practical utility for organisations looking to gain a return from their investment in HRD.
... In motivational benefits of goal setting, Latham (2004) emphasizes that goal setting is most effective in organizations that are ethical and supportive and are not punitive Achievement goal setting intervention when individuals fail to reach their intended goals. Additionally, Seijts and Latham (2001) found out, in a laboratory setting of a class task, that goal commitment was higher in setting a learning goal than in setting an outcome goal. Future directions are given to combine goal setting with diverse types of goal framing (e.g. ...
... In contrast, when the company does not prompt any goal setting or prompts performance goal orientation, it makes no difference in trainees' self-regulated learning behaviors. Additionally, different levels of goal commitment (Seijts and Latham, 2001) could also explain the more significant influence of mastery goal orientation on the training performance, where setting a learning goal promotes a higher level of commitment toward a goal that employees could hardly give up on the other two conditions. ...
Purpose
The purpose of this study is to propose and examine an integrated learning model for improving training effectiveness in workplace learning. Specifically, this study investigated the effect of achievement goal-setting intervention across three groups of new employees from a multinational medical company. During a three-day remote training program, the role of each achievement goal orientation (AGO) in goal setting intervention and their relations with trainees’ applied learning strategies were examined. This study proposed and validated an integrated training model for improving remote workplace learning effectiveness.
Design/methodology/approach
This study was based on two data sources, the pre- and posttests scores; time on task (deep learning: completing reflective practice) and time on content learning (surface learning: watching tutorials) retrieved from an adaptive learning platform. A total number of 133 participants were recruited in this study, and they were randomly assigned to three interventional groups. The intervention was grounded from the AGO theory and goal setting theory. A series of statistical analysis were conducted to examine the effect of each type of achievement goal setting as a prompt for new employees’ learning behavior and performance.
Findings
Results indicated that setting mastery goal at the beginning of the training program leads to productive learning outcomes. Compared with the groups being required to set performance goal (final rank) or not to set any goal for the training purpose, trainees’ who were assigned to set a mastery goal (final performance score) performed statistically significantly higher than the other groups. Additionally, learners who set mastery goal spent higher proportion of time on deep learning than learners from the other groups. The results proved mastery goal setting as an effective prompt for boosting workplace learning effectiveness.
Practical implications
Organizations and institutions can take setting mastery approach goals as a prompt at the beginning of the training to increase learning effectiveness. In this way, trainees are promoted to apply more deep learning strategies and achieve better learning outcomes while setting mastery goal for their training purpose.
Originality/value
To the best of the authors’ knowledge, this study was the first to combine the intervention of goal setting and types of AGOs into workplace learning. This study adds to previous research on goal setting theory and AGO theory for the practical application and proposes an effective model for learners’ adaptive remote learning. Findings of this study can be used to provide educational psychological insights for training and learning in both industrial and academic settings.
... Aside from providing optimal levels of challenge, seeking to do as well as one possibly could in class should go along with increased effort (as this is required to reach the respective goal), and consequently, also better performance attainment. A first indication for this theoretical argument may be positive effects that have been found for "do your best" goals in complex tasks focused on skill-development (Seijts & Latham, 2001). ...
... In particular, past-approach goals are often not associated with academic performance (Elliot et al., 2011). Here, our findings align with positive results for "do your best" goals in complex learning tasks (Seijts & Latham, 2001). Opposed to performance goals, these goals may generally be easier to attain for each student, as outperforming others is difficult given weak initial performance, however, being as good as one possibly can be is not. ...
Goals are a core aspect of motivation. Elliot et al. (2015) introduced potential‐based goals as a type of self‐based goals that are conceptualised as seeking to do as well as one possibly could (potential approach goals) or seeking to avoid doing worse than one possibly could (potential avoidance goals). We follow up on this construct by examining its factorial structure and investigating its associations with intrinsic motivation and performance. We assessed 436 Iranian university students' potential‐based goals at the beginning of an English course, intrinsic motivation during the semester and end‐of‐course performance. Results attested factional separability similar to the original work, supporting generalisability concerning more collectivistic contexts. Potential approach goals were positively associated with intrinsic motivation and performance, while potential avoidance goals were negatively associated with performance, also after controlling for demographics. Overall, this affirms the relevance of potential‐based goals for a comprehensive understanding of how goals motivate individuals.
... This interaction effect, between the task ambiguity and goal-directed behavior, has been observed in the form of "tunnel vision." This is associated with underperformance when highly focused strategies are utilized in achieving relatively straightforward tasks (Seijts & Latham, 2001). For some job seekers, highly goal-directed behavior may lead to restricting the range of labor market opportunities considered. ...
... Contrary to previous research (e.g., De Battisti et al., 2016), our findings highlight the possible detrimental effects of focused (i.e., highly goal-directed) job search in low ambiguity contexts. Supporting the resource allocation model of goal setting (Kanfer et al., 2013), this tunnel vision (Seijts & Latham, 2001) may be attributed to the absence of self-regulation such as monitoring or evaluating one's performance. In the present study, this may have applied to STEM students who often expect to enter predefined career trajectories and already have strong employer links through anticipatory socialization. ...
This article examines the role of student job search strategies that differ in goal-directedness (focused, exploratory, and haphazard) in achieving successful university-to-work transitions (i.e., employment in jobs with high skill use/development and qualification–job match). The relationship between job search and employment outcomes is considered in two labor market contexts—high or low ambiguity—which are represented by the comparison between arts, humanities, and social sciences (AHSS) and science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) graduates, respectively. Using two-wave survey data, we find that job search strategies during university do not explain, yet differentially impact, successful outcomes one year after graduation. Fully exploring opportunities was particularly beneficial for STEM graduates (low ambiguity context) and more focused job search was beneficial for AHSS graduates (high ambiguity context). Paradoxically, findings both question and reinforce the efficacy of career agency for overcoming barriers to labor market entry, depending on the job search context. The study contributes to the agency and context debates relevant for school-to-work transitions.
... Setting specific goals can be detrimental at the starting phase of automaticity acquisition (Kanfer & Ackerman, 1989). In addition, some studies suggested that for complex and novel tasks, setting learning (process) goals are more effective than performance (outcome) goals (Seijts & Latham, 2001;Winters & Latham, 1996). Bandura and Schunk (1981) suggested that setting proximal goals is more effective than distal goals or no goals when self-efficacy is low for a task. ...
... Bandura and Schunk (1981) suggested that setting proximal goals is more effective than distal goals or no goals when self-efficacy is low for a task. Furthermore, for complex tasks, distal learning goals, coupled with proximal learning goals, appear to be more effective than only distal goals or 'do your best' goals (Latham & Seijts, 1999;Seijts & Latham, 2001). Finally, closer deadlines result in higher performance up to a certain point, and after that, they reduce the performance, and this reduction is more pronounced for complex tasks (Andrews & Farris, 1972;Bluedorn & Denhardt, 1988;Fried & Slowik, 2004). ...
Training design for automatic skills has a vast domain of application, such as education, physical and cognitive rehabilitation, as well as sports, arts and professional training. Gamification concept used in technology-assisted training has the potential to increase motivation, engagement and adherence to the training programme. Currently, the general gamification models of learning, did not take into account the temporal specificity of the game elements for automaticity acquisition training. In order to address this problem, an extensive overview of the key training attributes that impact automaticity acquisition was carried out. Then, based on this review, the three steps of a proposed model were presented. The first step of this model, named Task Analytics, helps with task-specific training decisions. The second step provides descriptive and prescriptive approaches for the three phases of automaticity acquisition (fast learning, slow learning and automatization). The descriptive part characterizes each phase using psychological and performance-related qualities, while the prescriptive part recommends the appropriate training elements for each phase. Based on the prescriptive part, a game-design model is proposed in the third step, which classifies the game mechanics and maps them onto each phase of automaticity acquisition. Finally, to validate this approach, a mobile game was designed based on the proposed gamification model, and it was compared to control design. The two approaches are tested with 49 participants. The results showed that the experimental group had a significantly better engagement and higher performance. Furthermore, the experimental group showed significantly better performance in a multitasking challenge designed to evaluate the automaticity. The main contribution of this article is the proposed game design model that takes into account the temporal specificity of game elements during the acquisition of automaticity.
... The essence of a routine is its repetitive pattern of predictable actions and events (Avni-Babad & Ritov, 2003). In fact, in most occupations parts of the job are routines or become routinized over time whereas other tasks are more complex and require a continuous development of skills and procedures (Deken et al., 2016;Seijts & Latham, 2001). Especially in the realm of innovation, there are complex tasks and projects that require new methods or procedures in order to succeed (Han & Nielsen, 2018;Reid & De Brentani, 2004). ...
Mistakes at work can lead to learning and personal development or can massively harm one’s professional career. How a mistake affects a professional career often depends on how it is perceived by involved individuals (e.g. supervisors). In the present study we investigate two different types of mistakes at work: mistakes in routine and complex work tasks. In two experiments with 192 alumni of
a German university we tested whether mistakes in routine tasks are judged differently than mistakes in complex work tasks. Results revealed that mistakes are judged significantly more negative when occurring in a routine work task compared to a complex work task. The results of our study give rise to a dilemma of mistakes at work where on basis of dual process theories mistakes are more likely to
happen in routinized tasks while at the same time these mistakes are judged more negatively. We discuss an intervention to resolve the dilemma and suggest avenues for future research alongside the limitations of our study.
... When both individuals and teams have clear goals, their performance tends to improve (Anderson & Stritch, 2016;Dossett et al., 1979). As per Seijts and & Latham (2001) indicates that certain facets of goal clarity, such as an overly narrow focus, can sometimes lead to underperformance, the foundational insights from earlier studies remain pertinent. For instance, Terborg (1976) discovered that individuals with specific goals tend to exert more effort on tasks directly related to those goals. ...
This study aims to investigate the impact of spiritual leadership on project outcomes and to explore the possible mediating effect of project goal clarity, as well as the moderating role of perceived organizational support. Grounded in social exchange theory, this study contributes to the literature by investigating the mechanisms—specifically project goal clarity—that connect spiritual leadership with project success and by examining the role of employees’ perceptions within the organization, such as perceived organizational support. The quantitative analysis involved data from 258 employees in the IT sector, specifically from private software firms. Data analysis was performed using the Preacher and Hayes process method with SPSS version 21.0 and Amos. The results indicate that spiritual leadership has a positive effect on project success. Furthermore, the study shows that project goal clarity partially mediates the relationship between spiritual leadership and project success, while perceived organizational support moderates the association between project goal clarity and project success.
... Mental peace refers to a state of emotional and psychological well-being that enables individuals to function effectively in their personal and professional lives [20]. Fostering mental peace in the workplace can lead to reduced stress, increased job satisfaction, and enhanced performance [21]. ...
This research study explores the integration of the teachings of the Bhagavad Gita in modern management practices, specifically through the application of Interpretive Structural Modeling (ISM) to identify organizational factors and communication protocols for the Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT).The study delves into the timeless wisdom of the Bhagavad Gita and examines its relevance and applicability in the context of contemporary management. Through ISM, the research identifies and analyzes key organizational factors that contribute to successful implementation of IIoT, along with communication protocols that facilitate efficient operation and coordination within IIoT systems. By integrating the principles of the Bhagavad Gita and utilizing ISM, this research aims to provide valuable insights into leveraging ancient wisdom for modern management practices and enhancing the effectiveness of IIoT implementation.
... Поряд з тим, окремі дослідники, наголошують, що не завжди конкретність та націленість на результат (досягнення) робить людей щасливішими, а саму ціль доступнішою. До прикладу, Джеральд Сейотс і Гарі Летхам (Seijts & Latham, 2001) виявили, що клієнти, орієнтовані у цілепокладанні на результат, а не на процес, мають «тунельне бачення». Науковці вважають, що цілепокладання слід розглядати як процес. ...
Посібник пропонує огляд ключових елементів підходу, орієнтованого на сильні
сторони клієнтів, а також дає змогу ознайомитися із деякими практичними методиками, які використовуються у межах цього підходу під час експериментальної роботи.
Посібник може бути використано в освітньому процесі – для підготовки
здобувачів за спеціальністю 231 «Соціальна робота» та для підвищення кваліфікації фахівців соціальної роботи. Він також може бути корисний практикам при плануванні та впровадженні короткострокових структурованих інтервенцій.
... Subsequently, we expect that goal attainment can positively link to one's psychological wellbeing. Based on the goal orientation theory (Ames, 1992), goal attainment can provide a sense of accomplishment, meaningfulness, and self-actualization which can enhance one's self-esteem and psychological well-being (Seijts & Latham, 2001;Wang et al., 2023). Sheldon and Kasser (1998) indicated that when goals were achieved, individuals' psychological needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness were fulfilled, resulting in better psychological well-being. ...
Student well‐being is under renewed scrutiny due to escalating academic stress and mental health concerns among young adults. However, in addition to the measures taken by lecturers, universities, and local governments (top‐down approaches), we still know little about how students themselves can take the proactive strategy to manage their well‐being (bottom‐up approaches). The current study addressed this gap by proposing and examining the beneficial role of proactive vitality management (PVM)—a proactive action aimed at managing physical and mental energy based on personal unique needs and conditions—on student psychological well‐being. We collected data from 97 college students (36% male, age mean = 21) over four consecutive weeks (308 data observations) and tested a multilevel moderated mediation model. Results showed that weekly PVM was positively related to student weekly goal attainment, which, in turn, enhanced the current week's well‐being and the next week's well‐being as well. Further, this positive indirect (carryover) effect of PVM through goal attainment on well‐being was stronger for those who had a high learning orientation. Our results indicated that PVM can be an effective self‐customized strategy to manage college students' weekly well‐being. Theoretical and practical implications were discussed.
... It impacts the good grades they get. Personal development must adapt to existing conditions, so it cannot be conducted assuming normal conditions, so personal development is carried out normally, so adjustment is an important factor [40], [41], [42], [33]. Personal development can be done to get good grades in online learning, such as attending online training whose variations and distribution cannot be limited. ...
The objective of this study is to investigate the relationship between academic success and personal development in students, as measured by their grades. The study aims to evaluate the effectiveness of policies in higher education institutions that promote both academic achievement and personal growth. The analytical method used is confirmatory factor analysis. The result of this study shows that students' personal development has no impact on the determination of online learning policies. Hence online learning policy determination cannot affect the assessment of online learning outcomes. Nonetheless, student’s personal development undertaken can influence the assessment of online learning outcomes, and implementing online learning policies can mediate the effect of personal development on online learning outcomes assessment. Therefore, a student's future achievement should be determined only by the academic performance that does not have to depend on local government policy.
... For instance, over 30 years of research on goal-setting theory has shown that setting specific, difficult goals increases task-focused effort in performance contexts (Locke & Latham, 1990, contributing to higher task performance levels. However, in learning contexts, Seijts and Latham (2001) found that assigning a specific, difficult outcome goal actually led to worse outcomes than simply instructing participants to do their best. To explain this result, Locke and Latham (2006) speculated that when faced with a new task or new information, performance goals may cause a form of "tunnel vision" characterized by an overemphasis on the desired end state rather than on the process of acquiring the skills needed to reach it (Locke & Latham, 2006). ...
Learning and adaptation are essential for success. However, human effort is inherently finite, which creates a dilemma for employees. Is it better to prioritize capitalizing on existing knowledge structures to maximize immediate performance benefits (exploitation) or develop adaptive capabilities (exploration) at the expense of short-term productivity? Understanding how employees answer this question can inform the design of evidence-based interventions for optimizing and sustaining learning amidst workplace challenges. In this article, we attempt to unpack the composition of on-task effort during performance-based learning by testing the proposition that the information–knowledge gap—a regulatory discrepancy between unknown aspects of a task and a person’s perceived competence in dealing with that task—is the psychological mechanism responsible for guiding effort-allocation decisions during performance-based learning. In Study 1, we found that larger information–knowledge gaps resulted in increased subsequent investments of on-task attention within a sample of adults learning to perform a complex task (N = 121). As participants learned, information–knowledge gaps systematically shrank, resulting in a reduced emphasis on learning-oriented effort (i.e., exploration) relative to achievement-oriented effort (i.e., exploitation) over time. In Study 2 (N = 176), a task-change paradigm revealed that introducing novel demands caused information–knowledge gaps to suddenly expand, which prompted participants to increase on-task effort and shift their focus away from achievement and back toward learning as an adaptive response. Collectively, these findings support the notion that information–knowledge gaps shape how (and when) on-task effort is spent and present a framework for understanding how learners strategically structure their limited attentional resources.
... Performance goals tend to focus individual's attention on issues of personal ability (Gresham et al., 1988), and such attentional focus can actually impede performance when the task is complex or the goal is perceived as highly challenging, and the individual is not skilled or is low in self-efficacy. In such cases learning (or mastery) goals may better facilitate task performance (Seijts & Latham, 2001). Sheldon and Elliot (1998) noted that not all personal goals are personal. ...
Resistance from coachees is a problem met by executive coaches in all fields. The continued interest in executive coaching by organisations has seen coaching beginning to be used more widely. An increasing number of low and average performing managers are following theirhigh performing peers into the executive coaching room. One particular challenge facing the coaching psychologist is how to engage individuals where motivation for change is low.
This paper draws on a five-stage model for behaviour change and an approach developed in the clinical setting which can usefully be applied to executive coaching to help the coaching psychologist address some of these behavioural challenges and add to their core coachingtechniques through combining Motivational Interviewing (MI) techniques with their existing repertoire of skills.
The paper starts with a review of the development of motivational interviewing, before moving to explore the evidence for MI as an intervention, which is largely within the health sector. The paper builds on this evidence by exploring how MI may be applied within non-clinical settings, as a tool to address poor performance resulting from low motivation to change.The paper also suggests other potential uses for MI such as in health coaching around stop smoking campaigns or obesity.
... On the other hand, learning goals allow the athlete to be a bit more exploratory and creative in their approach to the task. The main focus within learning goals is to focus on task mastery and adaptability, instead of the direct result of the task (Seijts & Latham, 2001). When trying to understand synergies and their development, coaches need to be aware that performance and results are not always mutually exclusive. ...
Team invasion games (e.g., football, basketball, rugby) all rely on cohesive and synchronous efforts for successful outcomes. Without this key fundamental, teams can appear disorganised and in turn perform poorly in competition. It becomes the coach’s responsibility to create shared understanding within the team. This can be done through planning engaging and diverse training situations and the interactions between coach and athlete seen during training sessions. This research project focused on two main theories, Ecological Dynamics (ED; Bennie & O’Connor, 2010) and the Constraint Led Approach (CLA; Newcombe et al. 2019). Both tools suitably equip coaches to plan and build training environments that can challenge and progress the learning of their athletes. Methods: Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 6 team sports coaches (5 football, 1 hockey). Interviews took place online (via Zoom or Google Hangouts). All interviews were transcribed into scripts, which then were thematically analysed as per the guidelines outlined by Braun and Clarke (2021). Appropriate measures were taken to maintain the anonymity of participants. Result: The thematic analysis resulted in the development of 3 higher-order themes; a) Practice Design (Small Sided Conditioned Games, Session Intention, Representative Learning Design), Learning Environment (Goal Setting, Scaffolded Learning), and Coaching Behaviour that highlights how coaches perceived their contribution towards the development of a more synergistic team. Conclusion: In conclusion, coaches perceived themselves as environment builders that created environments promoting the problem-solving capabilities of the athletes. They reported various methods of task constraint manipulations (e.g., creating over/underloads in team numbers and changing pitch dimensions). Furthermore, coaches reported that they applied a “hand-off approach when coaching to allow the athletes to develop autonomy and discover the answers to the practice tasks, instead of simply prescribing actions. They also reported to avoid the use of instruction unless completely necessary and preferred the use of questioning as their behaviour of choice to help guide the perception of affordances in the learners.
... Skills coaches support students in setting goals and tracking progress toward their goals that directly align with the transition to high school. Students who are supported through the process of setting their own goals are more committed to achieving their goals, find and use better task strategies to attain the goals they have set, and respond more positively to constructive feedback (Locke & Latham, 2002;Seijts & Latham, 2001). Caregivers, with the help of their coach, can reinforce the goals set by creating systems and routines in the home to encourage progress towards set goals. ...
In this practice brief, we describe several current examples of approaches that are aimed at improving outcomes for students entering high school. Additionally, we present strategies to disrupt the negative trajectory for students with EBD, who seldom receive coordinated, individualized supports during the critical transition from middle to high school.
... Our article makes several key contributions to the goal-setting literature. First, previous work examining the benefits of subgoals has largely examined one-time decisions studied in the laboratory (Amir & Ariely, 2008;Fishbach et al., 2006;Latham & Seijts, 1999;Seijts & Latham, 2001;Stock & Cervone, 1990), and the few existing field studies have included 70 or fewer participants per condition, raising concerns about statistical power (Bandura & Schunk, 1981;Bandura & Simon, 1977;Huang et al., 2017;Latham & Brown, 2006). Here, we present a well-powered (over 3,000 participants per condition) and ecologically valid examination of the value of subgoals in a field context where we measure objective levels of goal progress over time. ...
Research suggests that breaking overarching goals into more granular subgoals is beneficial for goal progress. However, making goals more granular often involves reducing the flexibility provided to complete them, and recent work shows that flexibility can also be beneficial for goal pursuit. We examine this trade-off between granularity and flexibility in subgoals in a preregistered, large-scale field experiment (N = 9,108) conducted over several months with volunteers at a national crisis counseling organization. A preregistered vignette pilot study (N = 900) suggests that the subgoal framing tested in the field could benefit goal seekers by bolstering their self-efficacy and goal commitment, and by discouraging procrastination. Our field experiment finds that reframing an overarching goal of 200 hr of volunteering into more granular subgoals (either 4 hr of volunteering every week or 8 hr every 2 weeks) increased hours volunteered by 8% over a 12-week period. Further, increasing subgoal flexibility by breaking an annual 200-hr volunteering goal into a subgoal of volunteering 8 hr every 2 weeks, rather than 4 hr every week, led to more durable benefits. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).
... 5) Coaches utilize relationship-building strategies to increase competency and confidence. Self-efficacy plays a key role in implementation success; individuals with strong self-efficacy set and commit to higher goals (Locke & Latham, 1990;Seijts & Latham, 2001). Research indicates self-efficacy can be increased through training, role models, and positive, persuasive communications (Bandura, 1997;Locke & Latham, 2002;White & Locke, 2000). ...
In 2013, the National Institute of Food and Agriculture supported the creation of a professional development and technical assistance center to promote strong implementation and evaluation of University-led, community-based projects serving low-resource populations. Within this center, a coaching cadre was established to provide proactive and responsive technical assistance. Formative evaluation involving coaches and their primary contacts was used for refinement of coaching practices. Initially, coaches were encouraged to build strong interpersonal rapport. This set the stage for trusting, reciprocal interactions, but coaches recognized a need for targeted support and more tools for quality programming, evaluation, and sustainability. Greater emphasis was placed on goal-focused collaboration. Coaches received training and resources on topics such as goal setting, program quality, reduction of barriers (e.g., participant recruitment), and sustainability strategies. To assess coaching model enhancements, a survey of projects was expanded to gauge logic model usage, goal setting, strength of coaching relationships, and project implementation and sustainability progress. Overall, coaching was rated more favorably and effective when contact was consistent, inclusive of face-to-face interaction, met technical needs, and involved collaborative brainstorming and planning. Findings indicate coaching relationships strengthen over time and demand a collaborative, action-orientation to set goals, reduce barriers, and drive stronger outcomes.
... Similarly, individuals who had already exercised activities with anagrams (46%) had a performance 19% higher than those who had never had experience with this kind of task, and this variation is significant (p-value = 0.000), showing that the knowledge about the work has influence on the outcome. This result is consistent with studies such as Seijts and Latham (2001). The average value of the numbers of words formed by employees have been, on average, 18% lower compared to the average number of words formed by students, also deserves further studies because this difference was highly significant (p-value = 0.000). ...
Este trabalho teve como objetivo analisar os efeitos dos valores pessoais, o tipo de remuneração e metas sobre o desempenho dos indivíduos, por meio de um experimento em laboratório utilizando a metodologia de anagramas. Para a pesquisa, foi realizado um experimento com alunos e funcionários de uma instituição de ensino superior de Minas Gerais. A análise dos dados foi realizada usando um modelo log-linear marginal de Liang e Zeger (1986) com o auxílio do software R. Os resultados sinalizaram que o tipo de remuneração e o uso de metas não afetaram o desempenho dos indivíduos, mas os indivíduos que optaram pela remuneração variável tiveram uma renda 29% maior do que os indivíduos que optaram pela remuneração fixa. Indivíduos com maior grau de benevolência apresentaram desempenho 14% pior. Os indivíduos do sexo masculino tiveram desempenho 26% superior ao das mulheres. Os alunos tiveram 18% mais desempenho do que os funcionários. Indivíduos que já haviam realizado atividades com anagramas tiveram desempenho 19% superior e a experiência adquirida pelos indivíduos durante o experimento foi fundamental para aquela parte deles que mudou sua preferência pelo tipo de remuneração.
... Interventions that highlight a task's value represent a central theme of selfregulated learning approaches (Schraw, 1998), an effective strategy for improving student success (Harackiewicz & Priniski, 2018), and a common practice for improving motivation in educational (Soicher & Becker-Blease, 2020) and organizational (Latham & Locke, 1979) settings. Emphasis on a task's value has also been shown to moderate the efficacy of performance feedback (Erez, 1977), even under conditions of generic and automated goal information (Earley et al., 1990;Seijts & Latham, 2001). But emphasis on a task's value toward a future goal is not always beneficial. ...
Positive feedback has known benefits for improving task performance, but it is not clear why. On the one hand, positive feedback may direct attention to the task and one's motivations for having performed the task. On the other hand, positive feedback may direct attention to the task's value for achieving a future goal. This ambiguity presents a challenge for the design of automated feedback interventions. Specifically, it is unclear whether positive feedback will more effectively influence behavior when it praises the recipient for having performed an action, or when it highlights the action's value toward a goal. In the present study, we test these competing approaches in a large-scale field experiment (n = 1,766). Using a mobile app, we assigned college students to receive occasional notifications immediately upon submitting online assignments that either praised them for having submitted their coursework, or that highlighted the value of submitting coursework for academic success, or to a no-treatment control group. We find that only praise messages improved submission rates and course performance, suggesting that drawing attention to the feedback-eliciting task is necessary and sufficient for influencing behavior at scale.
... Goal setting theory also indicates that the motivation to attain goals is maximized when a person sets both short-term and long-term goals [27,28]. A long-term goal should be broken down into several short-term goals that function as more achievable steps in pursuit of the longer-term goal [28,29]. In addition, to maximize one's chances of goal achievement, the goal should be specific, beneficial to the person, challenging and difficult, yet attainable [30,31]. ...
Experiential learning can facilitate the development of transferrable skills necessary for success in attaining tenure and promotion in academia. In this article, we discuss the benefits of designing and implementing an individualized professional development experience or practicum. By doing this, we describe the experiential learning component of the Accomplishing Career Transitions (ACT) Program of the American Society for Cell Biology. The ACT program aims to assist postdoctoral trainees and junior faculty from backgrounds underrepresented in STEM as they strive to transition into tenure-track positions and ultimately attain tenure at research-intensive or teaching-intensive academic institutions.
... Goal setting theory also indicates that the motivation to attain goals is maximized when a person sets both short-term and long-term goals [27][28]. A long-term goal should be broken down into several short-term goals that function as more achievable steps in pursuit of the longer-term goal [28][29]. In addition, to maximize one's chances of goal achievement, the goal should be specific, beneficial to the person, challenging and difficult, yet attainable [30][31]. ...
Experiential learning can facilitate the development of transferrable skills necessary for success in attaining tenure and promotion in academia. In this article, we discuss the benefits of designing and implementing an individualized professional development experience or practicum. By doing this, we describe the experiential learning component of the Accomplishing Career Transitions (ACT) Program of the American Society for Cell Biology. The ACT program aims to assist postdoctoral trainees and junior faculty from backgrounds underrepresented in STEM as they strive to transition into tenure-track positions and ultimately attain tenure at research-intensive or teaching-intensive academic institutions.
... Il raggiungimento di un obiettivo può rendere gli individui così ansiosi da gettarli in uno sforzo disordinato e non sistematico, tale da non renderli consapevoli di cosa sia efficace. L'antidoto è stabilire degli obiettivi di apprendimento specifici e sfidanti (Seijts & Latham, 2001;Winters & Latham, 1996). ...
Obiettivi. Il presente studio si propone di esplorare ed approfondire un diverso metodo di selezione delle Risorse Umane, basato sul principio di consonanza, che possa ridurre il conflitto ed avere un impatto positivo sulla performance. Metodologia. Dopo aver avviato una review della letteratura esistente sui pilastri già consolidati della gestione strategica delle Risorse Umane (motivazione e composizione di team di lavoro in particolare), l'indagine, tramite la lente interpretativa dell'Approccio Sistemico Vitale, si è indirizzata verso le categorie valoriali, caratterizzanti ogni sistema in modo distintivo e punto di partenza per la generazione di risonanza. Risultati. Il lavoro perviene all'esposizione di una diversa prospettiva d'indagine nell'analisi dei gruppi basata sulla consonanza e volta a realizzare un Person - Organization fit in grado di restituire maggior valore di quello assorbito. Limiti della ricerca. Il principale limite della ricerca risiede nella mancanza di una verifica empirica circa l'effettiva risonanza generata. Implicazioni pratiche. Lo studio fornisce al management una diversa chiave di lettura per la creazione di team composti da individui il cui legame, basato su compatibilità valoriali, risulta essere più profondo, conducendo, così, ad una maggiore creazione di valore. Originalità del lavoro. Il lavoro integra l'approccio manageriale con una prospettiva di indagine di tipo psicologico, consentendo di isolare dinamiche del processo di selezione delle Risorse Umane normalmente "sommerse".
The collection of chapters in this volume all explore how career development experiences during education are relevant for our wellbeing in youth career transitions. This chapter theoretically synthesizes the approaches and findings of all contributions in this edited collection. Overall, the contributions in this book show that career development experiences while in education matter, not only for employment outcomes but also for our subjective wellbeing in early careers. Our conclusion points toward a need for theoretically integrating (i) the sensemaking role of time, (ii) resource-based approaches to careers, as well as (iii) acknowledging systematic barriers in the labor market. Methodologically, the collection of chapters in this book shows the value of nationally representative longitudinal datasets that focus on young people’s educational and labor market experiences. We call for more interdisciplinary and rigorous approaches to career development in order to capture the complexities of young people’s early career experiences and implications for subjective wellbeing.
This study aimed to identify and evaluate major processes college students engage in as they begin their active engagement in learning. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 23 college students. Then, a grounded theory approach was used to identify the forethought processes students described. These processes included identifying goals, ordering and prioritizing tasks, scheduling, storing goals and plans, and regulating goals and plans. Additionally, findings indicated that students perceived their engagement in these forethought processes as connected to their beliefs about the subject domain, prior experiences, and subject domain and context. These results highlight processes that have not been thoroughly captured previously by self-regulated learning frameworks. Thus, articulating these processes provides a deeper understanding of students’ active engagement in self-regulated learning.
So there is a plan. Someone—perhaps with your help or at your request—has identified an issue they need to address or a behavior they need to change. And with your help, they have worked out what they ought to do instead, the new behavior they now need to display. Goals have been set, development plans written, and dates for a review of progress agreed. Now what?
A goal-setting technique could be considered as one of the modern tools of client-centered social work. Such techniques are designed to motivate and direct the client to achieve a specific goal and result. The paper systematizes academic approaches to understanding the theory of goal setting, defines the specifics of its practical use in social work, and presents specific goal setting techniques that have been tested as part of structured interventions for clients who are in difficult life circumstances and are motivated to change them.The elaboration of social work interventions must be based on the understanding that goals, by their very nature, are more attainable and accessible than wishes, intentions or dreams. Their formulation by social work clients who are in difficult life circumstances and may have a reduced social perspective cannot be considered a simple process, since it requires the use of specific techniques such as setting goals and tasks («Wheel of life balance», various visualizations and discussions; «Map achievement of goals», «Suitcase of goals»), as well as the implementation of steps to achieve them (diaries, weekly goal achievement maps, skill trackers, coaching, etc.).As evidenced by the literature review, the authors’ own experience, as well as the results of other applied studies, the goal-setting theory contains ideas and concepts that are consistent with the basic principles of professional social work. It suggests that the client and the social worker work together to find differences in the client's current state of life and the outcome he or she is striving for. The paper reveals that goal setting stimulates activity, initiative and motivation of clients, encourages choice and forms a sense of responsibility for this choice, and thus strengthens the client-centeredness of social work.
There is a considerable body of literature on goals and goal setting in the psychological literature, but little of this has found its way into the scholarly coaching literature. This article draws on the goal-setting literature from the behavioural sciences. It discusses a range of approaches to understanding the goal construct, presents a definition of goals relevant to coaching, and details a new and comprehensive model of goal-focused coaching that can be helpful both in teaching and in applied coaching practice. It also outlines new empirical research that highlights the vital role that coaches’ goal-focused coaching skills play in determining successful coaching outcomes. This preliminary research suggests that the use of a goal-focused coaching style is more effective than a ‘common factors’ or person-centred coaching style in facilitating goal attainment in coaching. It is argued that, by understanding the different types of goals and their relationship to the process of change, professional coaches can work more efficiently with their clients, helping them to achieve insight and behavioural change that enhances their workplace performance, their professional working lives and, most importantly, their personal well-being and sense of self.
Celem artykułu było zweryfikowanie występowania gmin turystycznych w Polsce. W pracy wykorzystano dane wtórne pochodzące z Banku Danych Lokalnych Głównego Urzędu Statystycznego. Zakres czasowy badania obejmował lata 2017-2019. Do oszacowania wartości funkcji turystycznej wykorzystano wskaźnik Baretje’a-Deferta, natomiast do zweryfikowania związku wielkości gminy z wymiarem cechującej jej funkcji turystycznej wykorzystano metodę najmniejszych kwadratów. Przeprowadzona analiza wykazała, że w Polsce wśród gmin, na których terenie występuje ruch turystyczny, jest mniej niż 5% gmin turystycznych. Ponadto wykazano, iż najsilniej uzależnionymi od turystyki były gminy nadmorskie, w których występował względnie najwyższy poziom sezonowości funkcji turystycznej. Badanie potwierdziło też, że im mniejsza jest gmina, tym rośnie rola turystyki w jej lokalnej gospodarce. Artykuł podkreślił problem sezonowości polskiej turystyki, który szczególnie niebezpieczny może być dla nadmorskich gmin turystycznych.
Context Introducing Computer Science (CS) into formal education can be challenging, notably when considering the numerous stakeholders involved which include the students, teachers, schools, and policy makers. We believe these perspectives should be considered conjointly, which is possible within Research Practice Partnerships (RPPs). RPPs look to bridge research-practice gaps and have seen an increase in the field of education and CS-education. Unfortunately, RPPs are considered to be under-researched, in addition to presenting their own challenges.
Objectives To the purpose of assessing how RPPs may support the successful introduction of CS into formal education, we investigate three perspectives (students, teachers, and RPP stakeholders) and their interplay within the context of a multi-institution RPP conducting a pilot program to introduce CS to secondary school students.
Methods A mixed methods analysis was employed to triangulate data in a concurrent triangulation design. The data included i) 3 surveys distributed over the semester to 106 grade 9 students (ages 12-14), ii) four teacher-journals, iii) 2 interviews and 4 focus groups with the teachers and representatives of the partner institutions.
Findings From the students’ perspective , while their self-efficacy increased, their motivation decreased throughout the semester due to a miss-match between their expectations and the course. The findings also indicate that gender biases and heterogeneity are already present in grade 9. From the teachers’ perspective , co-constructing the study plan, having access to regular support and collaborating within a community of practice when starting to teach CS all facilitated the teachers’ experience. Finally, from the RPP’s perspective the collaboration between stakeholders and having researchers evaluate the program were considered to be key elements in the pilot program. However, there appears to be a research-practice gap, in big part due to limited interactions between researchers and curriculum designers, and researchers and the teachers in the field.
Conclusions From the students’ perspective it appears relevant to introduce CS i) prior to secondary school to address motivation and bias-related issues early on, and ii) to all students to avoid participation being motivation-, stereotype-, or belief-driven, and risk broadening the gap between students, iii) all the while being attentive to course format and content to ensure that the course meets students’ expectations and fosters autonomous motivation. From the teachers’ perspective , while the provided support met the teachers’ needs, it is essential to find means of scaling such approaches when looking to deploy CS-curricular reforms to entire administrative regions. Finally, from the RPP’s perspective i) teachers’ should be given a voice in the RPP to better align with the field, and ii) researchers’ roles should be reconsidered to move beyond being only evaluators, and towards having a more co-constructive role in setting up the curricular reform. Recommendations are provided for researchers and practitioners involved in CS curricular reforms.
Coaching focuses both on facilitating goal attainment and enhancing well-being. Yet there has been little work on developing models that integrate mental health/illness issues with goalstriving. This is important because many distinctions between coaching and therapy have been based on the supposed differing levels of psychopathology in clinical, counselling and coaching populations. However, research suggests that some coaching clients have high levels of depression, anxiety or stress, and there is recent evidence that coaching clients who voluntarily seek life coaching tend to have higher levels of psychopathology than individuals who undertake coaching as part of a workplace coaching program. These findings underscore the importance of coaches having a sophisticated understanding of the issues related to coaching and mental health. Drawing on recent languishing-flourishing work in the area of positive psychology this paper presents a new provisional model of goal striving and mental health/mental illness with two key dimensions: (i) mental health-illness; and (ii) intentional goal striving (high or low). The languishing section of the model represents individuals who are have low levels of psychological or subjective well-being but do not have elevated levels of depression, anxiety or stress. The acquiescent section is where individuals have good levels of mental health and but have low levels of intentional goal striving. The flourishing section is where individuals have high levels of mental health and are actively engaging in high levels of intentional goal striving. The model also delineates a distressed but functional client group who have high levels of intentional goal striving, but significant levels of psychopathology, and distinguishes those from clients with major psychopathology but very low levels of intentional goal striving, Recommendations are made for future coaching research and practice.
Dyslexia is the most prevalent learning disability and the lack of automaticity in word recognition is one of its main characteristics. This thesis is dedicated to the gamification of in-home dyslexia remediation by focusing on the development of automaticity for children aged from five to nine years old. An extensive research on the effective principles of automaticity training, led to the creation of a novel training model for automaticity acquisition. Training for automaticity requires countless repetitions, and adherence is crucial. Gamification concept was proposed to increase motivation, engagement, and adherence. Based on the automaticity-training model, a gamification model was developed for placing each game element at its appropriate phase of automaticity acquisition. The effectiveness of this gamification model was validated by a randomized controlled trial. Furthermore, an optimization model was developed to provide individualized training sessions based on the level of the learner. For estimating the difficulty level of the content, four lexical skills were modelled using artificial neural networks and linear regression. For each lexical skill, the top 10 lexical variables were identified through forward stepwise analysis. The accuracy of the models based on mean absolute error reached 90.58% for auditory word recognition, 92.08% for visual word recognition, 84.83% for spelling, and 86.98% for word decoding. Finally, based on these developments, four games were created and provided on multiple platforms. The evaluation of the usability study confirmed the viability of the intelligent system and the games scored 80% on the system usability scale.
Gamified challenges, one of the most popular features of online weight-loss communities, enable users to set weight-loss goals and compete with other challenge participants via leaderboards. Using the data from a leading online weight-loss community, we study the effect of gamified challenges on the weight-loss outcome. Our findings indicate that participation in gamified challenges has a positive and significant effect on weight loss. We found that, on average, the participants achieved a weight loss of 0.742 kg by participating in at least one challenge a month. We found that effective challenges do not include a numeric weight goal (e.g., lose 5 kg), focus on exercise-only behavioral goals, and have a large active group size. Further, the results show that the absence (presence) of a numeric weight goal benefits users in exercise (diet) challenges. Moreover, a small active group size can help (hurt) users in exercise (diet) challenges. Our results suggest that gamification elements that induce competition should be used with caution in goal-setting environments, especially when gamifying dietary goals. Online weight-loss communities can recommend a useful combination of numeric weight goals, behavioral goals, and an optimal number of participants in each challenge to induce an encouraging level of social comparison.
Celem artykułu jest omówienie elementu wdrożenia stworzonego na podstawie analizy danych zastanych oraz badań własnych: cyklu webinariów Eksperci KMO, zrealizowanego w ramach pracy doktorskiej w roku szkolnym 2020/2021. Eksperci KMO to jedno z pięciu narzędzi transferu praktyk rozwijających kompetencje przyszłości z edukacji pozaformalnej do formalnej wykorzystywanych w sieci społeczności uczącej się programu KMO, koordynowanego przez Centrum Nauki Kopernik. Sieć, w której zaangażowani nauczyciele i uczniowie mogą rozwijać refleksyjność oraz kompetencje przyszłości zrzesza edukatorów, rodziców, instytucje działające na rzecz nauczycieli oraz samorządowe. Zgodnie z teorią społeczną Margaret Archer zaangażowana i refleksyjna
społeczność KMO może oddolnie wpływać na zmianę przestarzałego i nieefektywnego systemu edukacji
This chapter introduces the third, fundamental purpose for coaching in community and organisational settings—to effect behavioural change. It explores how traditional psychology research identified the ways in which behaviour is shaped by reward and punishment. Goals are the ‘rewards’ that clients work towards, away from the ‘pain’ in their life. Coaching focuses on ‘toward’ goals, that is, moving the client towards a more positive future and away from ‘learned helplessness’. Behaviour is shaped not only by the internal cognitions of the client but also in response to the social situations in which they find themself, and the social norms that apply in certain circumstances. Developmental psychology revealed that clients who are ready for change, motivated to change, and have self-efficacy, behave in ways which acknowledge that their behaviour is not fixed but can be moulded and reinforced to achieve a better outcome. Positive psychology research focuses on finding solutions rather than dwelling on problems. Coaches use goal-oriented and solution-focused techniques aligned with the client’s core values and beliefs to motivate and support self-efficacy to achieve their behavioural goals.
Work Health and Safety Inspectors are at the forefront of efforts to protect workers from harm from psychosocial hazards, yet the application of regulatory theory to their practice has been limited. Drawing on models of responsive regulation and strategic enforcement, we analyze extensive (N = 46,348) complaint and incident notification data from an Australian Work Health and Safety Inspectorate, to compare Inspectors' responses to psychosocial versus non‐psychosocial hazards. We found psychosocial hazards were less likely to be actioned than non‐psychosocial hazards. When they were actioned, psychosocial hazards saw more Inspector activity, but fewer enforcement notices than non‐psychosocial hazards. These findings are inconsistent with the version of responsive regulation espoused by the regulator. Our theoretical conclusion is that Weil's strategic enforcement approach is likely to offer greater possibilities for guiding future resource allocation.
Effects of motivation on cognition and performance have been found empirically in different fields. However, the relationship between motivation and performance seems complex and multi-faceted. While seemingly inconsistent or incompatible studies and theories of different disciplinary origins exist in this regard, we show that many of them can potentially be synthesized. Simulations within a unifying computational cognitive architecture account for empirical phenomena from different studies, which demonstrate that a mechanistic (computational) account can potentially unify the interpretations of these studies, largely based on utility calculation from intrinsic motives, and allow for further, more detailed explorations.
Zusammenfassung
Für die Kategorie „Personenbezogene Merkmale von SE, Einstellungen und Motive“ lassen sich folgende Unterkategorien herausarbeiten, die in dieser Reihenfolge dargestellt und diskutiert werden: motivationale Aspekte sozialunternehmerischen Handelns; Motive und Phasen des Motivationsprozesses; Stellenwert von Bedürfnissen und Werten im Motivationsprozess; Positionierung gegenüber dem Geldverdienen; persönliche finanzielle Absicherung; begriffliche Determinanten zur SE(O)-Zugehörigkeit; Anspruchsniveau Problemlösung;Anspruchsniveau Skalierung; Anspruchsniveau Innovationsentwicklung; Zielsetzung und Zielerreichung; Stellenwert des Unternehmertums im Verhältnis zur sozialen Zielsetzung; konzeptionelle (Un‑)Vereinbarkeit von sozialer Zielsetzung und Unternehmertum; Hinweise zur Persönlichkeitstypologie von Social Entrepreneuren. Schilderungen der Interviewpartner zu generierten Kodes werden zur Illustration eingearbeitet. Die Erkenntnisse werden im internationalen Forschungskontext gespiegelt und in der Forschungslandschaft verortet. Kapitelabschließend wird die Bedeutung der Erkenntnisse für das Wirkungsmodell zur Arbeitsgestaltung aufgezeigt.
Purpose
This study aims to examine how negotiators’ goal orientations may affect their negotiation strategy and consequently the negotiation outcomes.
Design/methodology/approach
Using cross-sectional data collected from a Fortune 500 Global firm based in France, this study empirically examines how goal orientations of negotiators may affect their value creation (win-win) and value-claiming (win-lose) negotiation behavior reflecting their desired outcome in a given sales negotiation. In so doing, this study proposes a conceptual model and tests a number of hypotheses using partial least squares structural equation modeling.
Findings
This study shows that learning and performance goal orientations (PGO) are indeed related with two commonly used negotiation strategies: win-win (integrative) and win-lose strategies (distributive) strategies, respectively. The results indicate that while the learning orientation has a positive relationship with a win-win strategy and a negative relationship with a win-lose negotiation strategy, just the opposite is true with the PGO, which is positively related to win-lose strategy and negatively related to win-win strategy.
Originality/value
To the best of the authors’ knowledge, this research represents one of the first attempts to connect goal orientations with negotiations strategies to achieve desired negotiation outcome using data from salespeople with negotiation experience.
Bu çalışmada geçen yüzyılın son çeyreğinde motivasyon çalışmalarının sonucu olarak ortaya çıkmış ve motivasyon ile ilgili kavramlar arasında yer almış olan hedef yönelimi kavramı ele alınmıştır. Motivasyon çalışmalarının soyut düzeyde devam etmesi ve eğitim durumlarında doğrudan etkisinin gözlenememesine müteakip hedef yönelimi somut ve doğrudan öğrenmeyi etkileyen bir faktör olarak göze çarpmaktadır. Öğrenme ve motivasyon çalışmaları sonucunda ortaya çıkmış olan hedef yönelimi kavramı endüstri ve örgüt psikologları tarafından yoğun olarak ele alınmış ve çalışanlar performansı üzerinde de etkili olduğu görülmüştür. Ortaya çıktığı tarih olan 1980’lerden itibaren 10-15 yıl içerisinde sayısız bilimsel yayın ortaya konulmuş ve gayri ihtiyari olarak akademik ve iş alanı başta olmak üzere alansal ayrımları yapılmıştır. Bu çalışma, yükseköğretim üzerine yoğunlaşarak yükseköğretimi akademik hayatın son aşaması olarak ele alarak iş hayatı ile bağlantısını irdelemiş ve üniversite öğrencilerinin akademik ve iş alanında hedef yönelimi düzeylerini belirme amacını taşımaktadır. Bu kapsamda öncelikle söz konusu ölçekler Türkçe’ye uyarlanmış ve uyarlama çalışmasından sonra üniversite öğrencilerine uygulanmıştır. Bu düzeylerin belirlenmesinden sonra akademik ve iş alanında hedef yönelimi arasında bir ilişki olup olmadığı incelenmiş ve öğrencilerinin başarı düzeylerinin ve not ortalamalarının akademik ve iş alanında hedef yönelimlerini etkileyen önemli değişkenler olduğu tespit edilmiştir.
ABSTRACT
The low performance of small and medium scale enterprises deprives their multiple contributions to the economies in their mobility towards the development. Though the issue has attracted the attention of many researchers, even today it is compelling due to the emerging global competition in the context of developing countries. The previous findings on the understanding of the complex relationships among factors influencing firm performance remain fragmented and unexplained. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to test a research model for investigating the effect of cognitive factors and strategic orientation on firm performance. The research model incorporated achievement motivation, personal goal setting, and mastery experience as cognitive variables while entrepreneurial orientation, market orientation, and learning orientation were configured as strategic orientation. The mediating role of self-efficacy and the moderating effect of absorptive capacity were also examined. The survey questionnaire translated into the native language was administered to a sample of 800 owner managers in the small and medium scale hotel and restaurant industry in Sri Lanka resulting in 350 usable responses. The stratified random sampling was the method used for the selection of the respondents to the sample. Data analysis was carried out by applying the structural equation modeling method. The findings widened the knowledge of the complex relationships among variables concerned indicating that the synergetic effect of cognitive variables and strategic orientation on firm performance is indispensable. Self-efficacy was found to be a significant mediating mechanism in the relationship between cognitive dispositions and firm performance. Strategic orientation of the organizations with higher level of absorptive capacity was found to be strongly related to firm performance. The results also extended the contextual validation of the research model in the developing countries. Keywords: cognitive factors, strategic orientation, firm performance, self-efficacy, absorptive capacity.
(PDF) MEDIATING AND MODERATING EFFECTS OF ENTREPRENEURIAL SELF-EFFICACY AND ABSORPTIVE CAPACITY ON THE RELATIONSHIP AMONG COGNITIVE FACTORS, STRATEGIC ORIENTATION AND FIRM PERFORMANCE OF SMALL AND MEDIUM SCALE HOTEL AND RESTAURANT INDUSTRY IN SRI LANKA HERATH MUDIYANSELAGE ARIYARATHNE DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY UNIVERSITI UTARA MALAYSIA.
Available from:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/351428056_MEDIATING_AND_MODERATING_EFFECTS_OF_ENTREPRENEURIAL_SELF-EFFICACY_AND_ABSORPTIVE_CAPACITY_ON_THE_RELATIONSHIP_AMONG_COGNITIVE_FACTORS_STRATEGIC_ORIENTATION_AND_FIRM_PERFORMANCE_OF_SMALL_AND_MEDIUM_SCA
In addition to the team’s shared goals, team members also often hold goals unrelated to the team. Research about such goals, which we call “extra-team goals” (ETGs), has been limited. In the current research, we examine how awareness of a team member’s ETGs affects team outcomes. A laboratory experiment examines the effects of disclosure of different types of ETGs by one team member (target) on team performance, team viability, and team satisfaction while engaging in a brainstorming task. Our findings suggest that there are significant positive effects of ETG disclosure on team performance, team viability, and team satisfaction, and that these effects are mediated by perceptions of the target’s commitment to the team’s goal.
This study tested a framework in which goals are proposed to be central determinants of achievement patterns. Learning goals, in which individuals seek to increase their competence, were predicted to promote challenge-seeking and a mastery-oriented response to failure regardless of perceived ability. Performance goals, in which individuals seek to gain favorable judgments of their competence or avoid negative judgments, were predicted to produce challenge-avoidance and learned helplessness when perceived ability was low and to promote certain forms of risk-avoidance even when perceived ability was high. Manipulations of relative goal value (learning vs. performance) and perceived ability (high vs. low) resulted in the predicted differences on measures of task choice, performance during difficulty, and spontaneous verbalizations during difficulty. Particularly striking was the way in which the performance goal-low perceived ability condition produced the same pattern of strategy deterioration, failure attribution, and negative affect found in naturally occurring learned helplessness. Implications for theories of motivation and achievement are discussed.
The success of large-scale or “paradigm change” training programs often hinge on work climate factors that support transfer of training. Focus groups (N = 70) and survey data from both trained (N = 564) and untrained (N = 345) municipal employees were used to assess perceptions related to change (e. g., role ambiguity) and transfer climate that constrained or facilitated their use of Total Quality (TQ) training. Employees who felt blocked from applying training reported significantly less customer orientation than untrained employees, whereas those reporting a helpful transfer climate reported significantly more customer orientation than the untrained group. Regression analyses suggested that controlling for contextual factors (e. g., department affiliation), both a change and stress climate and, to a lesser extent, transfer climate (e. g., supervisor and coworker support) predicted customer orientation. Results have implications for organizational development practitioners and managers who seek to improve transfer of training in the midst of organizational change and stress.
Four studies were conducted to examine the relationship between academic self-efficacy and performance in college courses. Measures of academic grade goals and ability were also obtained. The first study was used to select valid items from a larger pool of self-efficacy measures. The items were further revised and the new item set was then tested out on the sample from study 4. A final set of items was selected and the resulting self-efficacy scale replicated on two other samples (studies 2 and 3). Self-efficacy was found to be significantly related to academic performance and to self-set academic grade goals. Grade goals and ability were also related to course performance. These results are consistent with laboratory studies of the relation of self-efficacy and goals to task performance.
The effect of learning versus outcome goals on performance quality on a simple versus a complex scheduling task was examined using business school students as participants (n = 114). On a simple task an outcome goal led to significantly more correct schedules being produced than urging people to do their best. On a complex task, assigning a learning goal led to performance that was significantly higher than either an assigned outcome goal or being urged to do one's best. Self-efficacy was significantly higher in the learning goal condition than it was in the do-best condition. Moreover, the number of effective task strategies used on a complex task was significantly higher in the learning goal condition than it was in the other two conditions. These findings suggest that when attempting new complex processes, such as acquiring new businesses, organizations should set specific difficult learning as opposed to performance outcome goals.
This article analyzes organizational functioning from the perspective of social cognitive theory, which explains psychosocial functioning in terms of triadic reciprocal causation. In this causal structure, behavior, cognitive, and other personal factors and environmental events operate as interacting determinants that influence each other bidirectionally. The application of the theory is illustrated in a series of experiments of complex managerial decision making, using a simulated organization. The interactional causal structure is tested in conjunction with experimentally varied organizational properties and belief systems that can enhance or undermine the operation of the self-regulatory determinants. Induced beliefs about the controllability of organizations and the conception of managerial ability strongly affect both managers' self-regulatory processes and their organizational attainments. Organizational complexity and assigned performance standards also serve as contributing influences. Path analyses reveal that perceived managerial self-efficacy influences managers' organizational attainments both directly and through its effects on their goal setting and analytic thinking. Personal goals, in turn, enhance organizational attainments directly and via the mediation of analytic strategies. As managers begin to form a self-schema of their efficacy through further experience, the performance system is regulated more strongly and intricately through their self-conceptions of managerial efficacy. Although the relative strength of the constituent influences changes with increasing experience, these influences operate together as a triadic reciprocal control system.
In Exp I, 60 female clerical workers were randomly assigned to participative, assigned, and "do best" goal conditions on a clerical test. Specific goals led to higher performance than did the "do best" goals. With goal difficulty held constant, there was no significant difference between the assigned and participative conditions on performance or goal acceptance. Goal attainment, however, was higher in the assigned condition than it was in the participative condition. No main or interaction effects were found for knowledge of results (KR) or for individual difference measures with performance or goal acceptance. However, high self-esteem Ss who received KR attained their goals more often than did Ss with low self-esteem when the goals were participatively set. Exp II was conducted with 28 employees from the same sample in a performance-appraisal setting over an 8-mo period. Assigned goals resulted in higher performance and greater goal acceptance than participatively set goals. There was a positive linear relationship between goal difficulty and performance in the participative condition only. (10 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Examined the generality of goal-setting theory to an industrial setting. 20 pulpwood-logging operators were matched and randomly assigned to either a 1-day training program in goal setting or a control group. Measures of production, turnover, absenteeism, and injuries were collected for 12 consecutive wks. Analyses of variance indicated that goal setting can lead to an increase in production and a decrease in absenteeism. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Past work has documented and described major patterns of adaptive and maladaptive behavior: the mastery-oriented and the helpless patterns. In this article, we present a research-based model that accounts for these patterns in terms of underlying psychological processes. The model specifies how individuals' implicit theories orient them toward particular goals and how these goals set up the different patterns. Indeed, we show how each feature (cognitive, affective, and behavioral) of the adaptive and maladaptive patterns can be seen to follow directly from different goals. We then examine the generality of the model and use it to illuminate phenomena in a wide variety of domains. Finally, we place the model in its broadest context and examine its implications for our understanding of motivational and personality processes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
A model of learning transfer that focused on the active role of the learner was developed and tested within a complex decision-making task. The study examined how individual differences, learning strategies, and training outcomes influenced transfer of learning to a more complex task. A sample of 93 undergraduate students participated in a 2-day radar operations study. Hierarchical regression analysis results indicated that mastery orientation was positively related to metacognitive activity of the learner. Metacognitive activity was significantly related to knowledge acquisition, skilled performance at the end of training, and self-efficacy. All 3 of these training outcomes were related to performance on the transfer task. Implications of these findings for research and practice are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Tested the hypothesis that self-motivation through proximal goal setting serves as an effective mechanism for cultivating competencies, self-percepts of efficacy, and intrinsic interest. 40 children (7.3–10.1 yrs of age) who exhibited gross deficits and disinterest in mathematical tasks pursued a program of self-directed learning under conditions involving either proximal subgoals, distal goals, or no goals. Results of the multifaceted assessment provide support for the superiority of proximal self-influence. Under proximal subgoals, Ss progressed rapidly in self-directed learning, achieved substantial mastery of mathematical operations, and developed a sense of personal efficacy and intrinsic interest in arithmetic activities that initially held little attraction for them. Distal goals had no demonstrable effects. In addition to its other benefits, goal proximity fostered veridical self-knowledge of capabilities as reflected in high congruence between judgments of mathematical self-efficacy and subsequent mathematical performance. Perceived self-efficacy was positively related to accuracy of mathematical performance and to intrinsic interest in arithmetic activities. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Compared 5 ways of operationalizing self-efficacy that are commonly found in the literature and assessed the antecedents and consequences of self-efficacy on the basis of A. Bandura's (1986) conceptualization. Results indicate that measuring self-efficacy by using a task-specific, 1-item confidence rating showed the lowest convergent validity with the other self-efficacy operationalizations and showed the least consistency in its correlation with the hypothesized self-efficacy antecedents and outcomes. Furthermore, self-efficacy magnitude and self-efficacy strength (combining all the certainty answers) appeared to be inferior to self-efficacy composites based on combining only the strength items where the magnitude response was "yes, I can perform at that level." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Two central constructs of applied psychology, motivation and cognitive ability, were integrated within an information-processing (IPR) framework. This framework simultaneously considers individual differences in cognitive abilities, self-regulatory processes of motivation, and IPR demands. Evidence for the framework is provided in the context of skill acquisition, in which IPR and ability demands change as a function of practice, training paradigm, and timing of goal setting (GS). Three field-based lab experiments were conducted with 1,010 US Air Force trainees. Exp 1 evaluated the basic ability–performance parameters of the air traffic controller task and GS effects early in practice. Exp 2 evaluated GS later in practice. Exp 3 investigated the simultaneous effects of training content, GS and ability–performance interactions. Results support the theoretical framework and have implications for notions of ability–motivation interactions and design of training and motivation programs. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This study examined the mediating role of procedural justice in the relationship between participation and satisfaction. The study design used 3 possible goal-setting methods—assigned, self-set, and participative. A total of 235 undergraduate students participated in 3 trials of a class scheduling task. Structural equation modeling of the predicted model showed that perceived participation affected satisfaction through effects on the perceived fairness of participation in decision-making procedures. Tests of an alternative model further supported the hypothesized relationship. The results suggested that perceived justice may be responsible, at least in part, for participation effects on satisfaction and may provide an explanation for inconsistencies in prior participation studies. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
In Study 1, 76 engineers/scientists either participated in the setting of, or were assigned, specific behavioral goals during their performance appraisal. Participative goal setting resulted in more difficult goals being set than was the case when the goals were assigned. Perceptions of goal difficulty, however, were not significantly different in the 2 goal-setting conditions. In Study 2, the analysis of the performance data collected 6 mo later on 132 engineers/scientists revealed main effects for both goal setting and anticipated rewards. Only participative goal setting led to significantly higher performance than a "do your best" and a control group condition. There was no significant difference between the performance of the latter 2 conditions despite the fact that the individuals in the do-your-best group received knowledge of results. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Whether you're a manager, company psychologist, quality control specialist, or involved with motivating people to work harder in any capacity—Locke and Latham's guide will hand you the keen insight and practical advice you need to reach even your toughest cases. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Tested the hypothesis that information about a goal and/or task, choice in setting a strategy to achieve a goal, and task complexity interact to influence goal acceptance, personal goals, and performance. A laboratory experiment with 96 college students working on a class-scheduling task was used to test the hypothesis. The task consisted of producing mock class schedules consisting of 5 nonredundant classes. The Ss were assigned to either high-information, choice manipulation, or task-complexity conditions. Ss were administered a questionnaire assessing goal acceptance, personal goals, and performance prior to and on completion of the task. Results of 3-way ANOVA conducted on measures of goal acceptance, personal goals, and performance supported the hypotheses that choice in goal-setting and the provision of information interact as do information and task complexity. A 2nd study conducted to generalize these findings also supported the hypotheses. In the 2nd study, 40 animal caregivers (average age 28 yrs) were participants in a replication of the laboratory experiment with task complexity as a repeated-measures factor. Findings are discussed as a means of expanding the position of participation within the goal-setting model. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
to establish a general theory of work behavior, one must begin with the concept of action / action is goal-oriented behavior that is organized in specific ways by goals, information integration, plans, and feedback and can be regulated consciously or via routines / describe general [German] theory along these lines / this is quite a different theory from the typical American theories in industrial and organizational psychology (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Specific, difficult goals enhance performance in many tasks. We hypothesize, however, that this effect disappears or reverses for novel tasks that allow multiple alternative strategies. We report findings from three laboratory experiments using a stock market prediction task with these characteristics. In the first study, 34 students made predictions concerning the value of 100 companies' stock based on three manipulated cues after receiving either a "do your best" or a specific, difficult goal concerning the accuracy of their predictions. In the second study, 88 students making stock market predictions received one of the following goals: do your best, specific-easy, specific-moderate, specific-hard, or a tapering, specific goal. The third study (
n = 30) replicated the first study by using a different prediction algorithm for the stock market simulation. Repeated measures multivariate analyses of variance conducted on indexes of prediction accuracy and predictor weightings supported the hypothesis that specific, difficult goals (prediction accuracy) increase an individual's strategy search activity and reduce prediction accuracy for the stock predictions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Smiley, Patricia A., and Dweck, Carol S. Individual Differences in Achievement Goals among Young Children. Child Development, 1994 65, 1723–1743. Developmental research has generally not found evidence of helpless responses to failure in young children; a prevailing view is that young children lack the cognitive prerequisite for helplessness. However, recent evidence suggests that even preschoolers are vulnerable to helplessness in some situations. In the present study with 4- and 5-year-olds, we tested a goal-confidence model that predicts achievement behavior during failure for older children. We first categorized preschoolers' orientations toward “learning” or “performance” goals based on their preference for a challenging or nonchallenging task. As for older children, goal orientation was independent of ability and predicted cognitions and emotions during failure. Further, consistent with the model, within a learning goal, children displayed the mastery-oriented pattern regardless of confidence level, whereas within a performance goal, children with low confidence were most susceptible to helplessness. These behavior patterns were found on a second task as well. Thus, our findings show that individual differences in achievement goals emerge very early.
A general theoretical model of tasks is presented in which the three essential components of all tasks are products, (required) acts, and information cues. These components are defined and are then used to derive three analytical dimensions of task complexity: component complexity, coordinative complexity, and dynamic complexity. Various indexes which can be used in the quantification of these constructs are also presented. Two examples which illustrate the calculation of some of the indexes for a relatively simple task and a relatively complex task are presented and the relationship between task complexity and task performance is briefly discussed.
Tested the hypothesis that perceived controllability and stringency of performance standards would affect self-regulatory mechanisms governing performance attainments of a simulated organization. Ss who managed the simulated organization under a cognitive set that organizations are not easily controllable displayed low perceived self-efficacy, even when standards were within easy reach, and lowered their organizational goals. Ss who operated under a cognitive set that organizations are controllable maintained a strong sense of self-efficacy, set increasingly challenging goals, and exhibited effective analytic thinking. The divergent changes in these self-regulatory factors were accompanied by large differences in organizational attainments. Path analyses revealed that perceived self-efficacy, which was affected by prior accomplishments, influenced subsequent organizational performance through its effects on analytic strategies. After further experience, the performance system was regulated more extensively and intricately by Ss' self-conceptions of efficacy. Perceived self-efficacy affected subsequent organizational attainments both directly and indirectly through its influence on personal goal challenges. Personal goals, in turn, enhanced organizational attainments directly and through mediation of analytic strategies.
In this article, we attempt to distinguish between the properties of moderator and mediator variables at a number of levels. First, we seek to make theorists and researchers aware of the importance of not using the terms moderator and mediator interchangeably by carefully elaborating, both conceptually and strategically, the many ways in which moderators and mediators differ. We then go beyond this largely pedagogical function and delineate the conceptual and strategic implications of making use of such distinctions with regard to a wide range of phenomena, including control and stress, attitudes, and personality traits. We also provide a specific compendium of analytic procedures appropriate for making the most effective use of the moderator and mediator distinction, both separately and in terms of a broader causal system that includes both moderators and mediators.
Developmental research has generally not found evidence of helpless responses to failure in young children; a prevailing view is that young children lack the cognitive prerequisite for helplessness. However, recent evidence suggests that even preschoolers are vulnerable to helplessness in some situations. In the present study with 4- and 5-year-olds, we tested a goal-confidence model that predicts achievement behavior during failure for older children. We first categorized preschoolers' orientations toward "learning" or "performance" goals based on their preference for a challenging or nonchallenging task. As for older children, goal orientation was independent of ability and predicted cognitions and emotions during failure. Further, consistent with the model, within a learning goal, children displayed the mastery-oriented pattern regardless of confidence level, whereas within a performance goal, children with low confidence were most susceptible to helplessness. These behavior patterns were found on a second task as well. Thus, our findings show that individual differences in achievement goals emerge very early.
The effect of a proximal plus a distal goal was investigated relative to setting only a distal goal or urging participants to do their best. Young adults (N = 39) were paid on a piece rate basis to make toys. An analysis of variance revealed that the amount of money earned by the participants who were urged to 'do your best' was significantly greater than the amount of money earned by the participants who were assigned a distal goal. However, the amount of money earned by the participants who were assigned proximal goals, in addition to a distal goal, was significantly greater than the amount of money earned by the participants in the 'do your best' condition. The correlation between perceived self-efficacy and the amount of money earned was 0.45 (p < 0.01). Perceived self-efficacy significantly increased only for those participants in the proximal plus distal goal condition. Proximal goals, through self-efficacy and performance feedback, appear to have focused attention on task appropriate strategies. The results suggest an informational explanation of proximal goals as opposed to a motivational one through goal commitment. Implications of these findings for mentoring and training are discussed. Copyright (C) 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This study examined the mediating role of procedural justice in the relationship between participation and satisfaction. The study design used 3 possible goal-setting methods-assigned, self-set, and participative. A total of 235 undergraduate students participated in 3 trials of a class scheduling task. Structural equation modeling of the predicted model showed that perceived participation affected satisfaction through effects on the perceived fairness of participation in decision-making procedures. Tests of an alternative model further supported the hypothesized relationship. The results suggested that perceived justice may be responsible, at least in part, for participation effects on satisfaction and may provide an explanation for inconsistencies in prior participation studies.
The effect of a proximal plus a distal goal was investigated relative to setting only a distal goal or urging participants to do their best. Young adults (N=39) were paid on a piece rate basis to make toys. An analysis of variance revealed that the amount of money earned by the participants who were urged to ‘do your best’ was significantly greater than the amount of money earned by the participants who were assigned a distal goal. However, the amount of money earned by the participants who were assigned proximal goals, in addition to a distal goal, was significantly greater than the amount of money earned by the participants in the ‘do your best’ condition. The correlation between perceived self-efficacy and the amount of money earned was 0.45 (p
This research combined meta-analytic and narrative review methods in an effort to assess the influence of group goals on group performance. The meta-analytic review revealed a strong group goal effect. The narrative review discusses the generalizability of the group goal effect and provides suggestions for designing future group goal-setting research.
The construct of self-efficacy has received increasing empirical attention in the organizational behavior literature. People who think they can perform well on a task do better than those who think they will fail. Differences in self-efficacy are associated with bona fide differences in skill level; however, efficacy perceptions also may be influenced by differences in personality, motivation, and the task itself. This article reviews theoretically the antecedent processes and information cues involved in the formation of self-efficacy. A model of the determinants of self-efficacy is proposed that enhances understanding of both the complexity and malleability of the construct. Determinants that facilitate the most immediate change in self-efficacy are identified, and appropriate change strategies are highlighted. Implications and propositions pertaining to future research are discussed at the end of the article.
Previous experimental studies of participation have typically examined its motivational (especially commitment) benefits. These studies showed that these benefits are neither large nor consistent. The present study focused on the cognitive benefits of participation in decision making (pdm) and on the role of a different motivational mediator, self-efficacy. Unlike previous research which claimed to study the cognitive (informational) effects of participation, the present experiment: (a) allowed the information concerning task strategies to emerge from group discussion rather than being manipulated by the experimenter; (b) measured the actual strategies that were developed and used by subjects in the pdm condition; and (c) measured self-efficacy which was associated with the discovery and use of these strategies. It was found that the strategies developed by the subjects and their self-efficacy completely mediated the effect of participation on performance. Further, participation in setting goals, consistent with previous studies, did not affect performance but did affect self-efficacy.
Organizational changes are creating the need for continuous learning environments that support employees' self-development. Self-development means seeking and using feedback, setting development goals, engaging in developmental activities, and tracking progress on one's own. This assumes that people are capable not only of monitoring their own behaviors, but also of recognizing which behaviors and outcomes are most favorable and desirable. Drawing on self-determination theory, this article shows how organizations can encourage self-development by providing nonthreatening performance feedback, ensuring behavioral choices for learning, encouraging feedback seeking, and rewarding participation in learning activities and other self-determined behavior. © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Eight performance review interview characteristics were related to 7 interview outcomes. Several of these individual variables had been examined in previous research. Two hundred seventy nursing personnel described their last review interview. Five of the interview characteristics were related to most of the outcomes, replicating earlier research as well as adding new findings. Implications for improving the conduct of appraisal interviews in organizations are offered.
The present experiment tested the hypothesis that self-regulation of refractory behavior varies as a function of goal proximity. Obese subjects were assigned to conditions in which they either monitored their eating behavior, monitored their eating behavior and set subgoals for reducing the amount of food consumed, or received no treatment. Within the goal-setting conditions, subjects adopted either distal goals defined in terms of weekly goal limits or proximal goals specifying the goal limits for each of four time periods during each day. Goal setting enhanced self-directed change as measured by reductions in both eating behavior and weight. The higher the goal attainments, the greater were the losses in weight. Proximal and distal goal setting yielded comparable overall results because the majority of subjects assigned remote goals altered this condition by adopting proximal goals to augment control over their own behavior. Within the distal goal-setting condition, the adherents to distal goals achieved relatively small changes, whereas those who improvised proximal subgoals for themselves attained substantial reductions on the multifaceted measures of self-directed change. The combined evidence lends support to the motivational and regulative functions of proximal intentions and highlights the reciprocal influence processes that operate in self-directed change.
Despite much theoretical discussion, relatively little research has examined the motivational effects of proximal goal-setting, and existing findings are inconsistent. This experiment examines the effects of proximal subgoals on perceived self-efficacy, self-evaluative reactions to performance, and task persistence. Subjects performed a complex problem-solving task under conditions involving either no subgoal, an attainable subgoal, or an unattainable subgoal. The self-regulatory processes were assessed prior to and during performance. Setting a subgoal boosted initial perceived self-efficacy. Attaining the proximal goal increased self-efficacy perceptions, self-satisfaction with performance, and subsequent task persistence. Changes in perceived self-efficacy mediated the effects of subgoal attainment on behavior.
Goals are central to current treatments of work motivation, and goal commitment is a critical construct in understanding the relationship between goals and performance. Inconsistency in the measurement of goal commitment hindered early research in this area but the nine-item, self-report scale developed by Hollenbeck, Williams, and Klein (1989b), and derivatives of that scale, have become the most commonly used measures of goal commitment. Despite this convergence, a few authors, based on small sample studies, have raised questions about the dimensionality of this measure. To address the conflicting recommendations in the literature regarding what items to use in assessing goal commitment, the current study combines the results of 17 independent samples and 2918 subjects to provide a more conclusive assessment by combining meta-analytic and multisample confirmatory factor analytic techniques. This effort reflects the first combined use of these techniques to test a measurement model and allowed for the creation of a database substantially larger than that of previously factor analyzed samples containing these scale items. By mitigating sampling error, the results clarified a number of debated issues that have arisen out of previous small sample factor analyses and revealed a five-item scale that is unidimensional and equivalent across measurement timing, goal origin, and task complexity. It is recommended that this five-item scale be used in future research assessing goal commitment. Copyright 2001 Academic Press.
Concepts from the domains of leadership theory, goal setting theory and social cognitive theory were used to identify factors influencing team effectiveness. Seventy-two three-person teams performed a computerized tank battle simulation (BOLO) in a 2 × 2 design. Teams were assigned difficult or easy goals and were led by commanders or team coordinators. Commanders were preselected based on personality. Both types of leaders were instructed in their roles. Gender ratios of the teams were balanced. Controlling for ability, teams with team coordinators implemented better tactics than teams with commanders, and the quality of the tactics discovered and implemented by the teams strongly affected team performance. Assigned goal difficulty affected both team efficacy and team-set goal difficulty. Team efficacy influenced team-set goal difficulty, which in conjunction with team tactics influenced performance. Team tactics were more strongly related to team performance than was team-set goal difficulty. Additionally, an interaction effect on performance was found between team tactics and team-set goal difficulty.
The extant literature on goal setting through 1990 has been reviewed and integrated by Locke and Latham (1990a). The result was the development of a theory of goal setting with special emphasis on its practical implications for the motivation of employees in organizational settings. The purpose of the present paper is twofold. First, the theory is summarized and updated with respect to research completed since publication of the 1990 book. Second, the self-regulatory effects of goal setting are described. Emphasis is given to ways that people can use goals as a self-management technique.
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