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Spirituality, Gender, and Expressive Selfhood
Abstract
This article discusses contemporary spiritualities, focusing in particular on the recent growth of practices attending to “mind, body, and sprit” and centered on the goal of “holistic well-being.” We argue that the growing popularity of such “holistic spirituality” since the 1980s can be greatly illuminated by reference to Charles Taylor's account of the expressive mode of modern selfhood. Taylor's account is limited, however, by its inability to explain why women are disproportionately active within the sphere of holistic spirituality. By paying closer attention to gender, we seek to refine Taylor's approach and to advance our understanding of contemporary spirituality. Drawing on findings from two qualitative studies of holistic spirituality and health carried out in the United Kingdom, this article offers an analysis of what the “subjective turn” may mean for women. We argue that holistic spiritualities align with traditional spheres and representations of femininity, while simultaneously supporting and encouraging a move away from selfless to expressive selfhood. By endorsing and sanctioning “living life for others” and “living life for oneself,” holistic spiritualities offer a way of negotiating dilemmas of selfhood that face many women — and some men—in late modern contexts.
... Trzebiatowska and Bruce (2013) argue that a feedback loop exists, whereby the high number of women begets more women, while discouraging men from joining and staying, stressing that both spirituality and the holistic milieu are gender-typed feminine. Research in this area does in fact repeatedly observe that spiritual discourse and practices have "feminine" traits and qualities, center the experiences and interests of women as a group, and explicitly contest hegemonic forms of masculinity (e.g., Fedele and Knibbe 2020; Keshet and Simchai 2014;McGuire 2008;Sointu and Woodhead 2008;Zwissler 2007). Trzebiatowska and Bruce suggest men's reluctance to enter and remain within the holistic milieu is ultimately the result of a fear of stigma, masculinity threat, and being associated with femininity: "Women risk less of a social stigma if they associate themselves with New Age activities because the latter are perceived as compatible with a feminine worldview" (38). ...
... A large body of scholarship holds that both spiritual discourse and practices are feminine-typed (e.g., Fedele and Knibbe 2020; Keshet and Simchai 2014;McGuire 2008;Sointu and Woodhead 2008;Zwissler 2007). For instance, Erjavec and Vocic (2009:95) write of spirituality that this "discourse emphasizes that which is predominantly connected with 'feminine' or 'femininity. ...
... In line with this, Sointu and Woodhead (2008) argue that, when institutionalized in the holistic milieu, the discourse of spirituality functions to both legitimate and subvert traditional practices and discourses of femininity. For just as it emphasizes women's traditional work of relational, emotional, and bodily care, it simultaneously insists on the need for female empowerment and moral autonomy: "Although they affirm a relational mode of selfhood, these practices also insist that an individual's first responsibility is to her-or himself. ...
Although women and men identify as “spiritual” in similar numbers, far more women participate in the holistic milieu. We seek to solve this “gender puzzle” by fleshing out the gender scripts the holistic milieu fosters, and their varying relationships to the wider gender order. Surveying existing scholarship, we show that, for women, participation serves to naturalize a script of postfeminist femininity that combines gender essentialism with politically liberal commitments, is consonant with “difference” feminism, and holds an accommodationist relationship to the wider gender order. By contrast, for men, participation in the holistic milieu naturalizes a script of feminine masculinity (or male femininity) that, while also shaped by postfeminist culture, is comparatively counter-hegemonic, embodying a more radical challenge to the current gender order. This theoretical perspective enables us to explain not only why more women than men participate in the holistic milieu, but also why some women opt out, while some men opt in. Furthermore, it illuminates the pivotal place of gender in ongoing trends in the religious, and increasingly spiritual, landscape.
... Similar to other industrialized countries (Frass et al., 2012;Keshet and Simchai, 2014), in Switzerland, women are overrepresented in CAM, both as consumers (Federal Statistical Office, 2019;Klein et al., 2015) and as therapists (Dubois et al., 2019). CAM is partly intertwined with "holistic spiritualities" (Sointu and Woodhead, 2008), a range of body-centered practices that has grown since the 1980s, and endorses the unity of body, mind, and spirit, with the aim of improving individuals' well-being. Holistic spiritualities overlap with CAM, as CAM therapies often include a spiritual component and are influenced to various degrees by the New Age movement, especially those relying on the notion of "energy," such as acupuncture, massage, and energy therapies. ...
... Holistic spiritualities overlap with CAM, as CAM therapies often include a spiritual component and are influenced to various degrees by the New Age movement, especially those relying on the notion of "energy," such as acupuncture, massage, and energy therapies. Women often easily engage with holistic spiritualities and with CAM, either as users or as practitioners, because these approaches value the traditional gendered roles of healthcare providers (Keshet and Kimchai, 2014;Sointu, 2011;Sointu and Woodhead, 2008). ...
... Consistent with Longman's (2020) and Sointu and Woodhead's (2008) studies, my research showed that CAM approaches were largely embedded within heteronormative norms of femininity and sexuality. While revalorizing female embodied processes and experiences, they are also reflecting an essentialist gendered framework and traditional views on gender roles (Brenton and Elliott, 2014). ...
In neoliberal cultural contexts, where the ideal prevails that female bodies should be unchanged by reproductive processes, women often feel uncomfortable with their postpartum bodies. Cesareaned women suffer from additional discomfort during the postpartum period, and cesarean births are associated with less satisfying childbirth experiences, fostering feelings of failure among women who had planned a vaginal delivery. In Switzerland, one in three deliveries is a cesarean. Despite the frequency of this surgery, women complain that their biomedical follow-up provides minimal postpartum support. Complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) therapists address these issues by providing somatic and emotional postcesarean care. CAM is heavily gendered in that practitioners and users are overwhelmingly women and in that most CAM approaches rely on the essentialization of bodies. Based on interviews with cesareaned women and with CAM therapists specialized in postcesarean recovery, I explore women’s postpartum experiences and how they reclaim their postcesarean bodies.
... The first is the transcendence of the self, i.e. a belief that one is connected to other people, ideas, nature, or some kind of "higher power" (Ashforth & Pratt, 2003). Closely linked to this is an emphasis on authentic selfhood and inner wisdom, and on connecting with these inner depths (Sointu & Woodhead, 2008;Flere & Kirbiš, 2009;Houtman & Aupers, 2007). Secondly, people who embrace self-spirituality tend to be committed to a vision of authentic selfhood-in-relation. ...
... Secondly, people who embrace self-spirituality tend to be committed to a vision of authentic selfhood-in-relation. Such relationality is conceived as fundamentally small-scale and egalitarian in outlook (Sointu & Woodhead, 2008). The third overarching dimension is holism and harmony, i.e. the integration of different aspects of one's self into a coherent and symbiotic conception of the self (Ashforth & Pratt, 2003;Flere & Kirbiš, 2009). ...
... The third overarching dimension is holism and harmony, i.e. the integration of different aspects of one's self into a coherent and symbiotic conception of the self (Ashforth & Pratt, 2003;Flere & Kirbiš, 2009). This dimension includes a focus on the body (Sointu & Woodhead, 2008). The fourth dimension is a belief in personal growth: a clear sense of what one seeks to become, and what one needs to do in order to achieve self-actualization (Ashforth & Pratt, 2003). ...
... Age spirituality is commonly found. According to Heelas and Woodhead, then, the holistic milieu and the New Age spirituality it institutionalizes, cater to those who have been involved in subjective well-being culture, yet wish to "'go deeper' into the spiritual dimension" (90)-a desire which that in their understanding stems from feeling stifled or alienated by unwittingly adopted social roles (see Heelas 2008;Sointu & Woodhead 2008). ...
... So it seems that New Age spirituality appeals to many women because it validates, legitimates and sanctifies women's traditional work of providing bodily, emotional and relational care to others that, for many women, constitutes an important part of their identity (Woodhead 2008;Sointu & Woodhead 2008). Many 'New Age' techniques also focus on emotions and the body (Woodhead 2008) and are therefore "easily aligned with" ...
There is no denying that compared to the heydays of the 1950's, traditional Christian religion has meanwhile declined significantly and lost much of its former dominance, appeal and legitimacy, particularly in Western-Europe. Secularization theorists show convincing explanations for this downward trend, but however useful and valuable these explanations have been for the sociology of religion, this dissertation argues that the discipline's traditional obsession with secularization theory also has a massive downside. By placing this theory on a pedestal, it has been overshadowing (or obfuscating) other important developments that have meanwhile been taking place in the religious landscape of the West. Noteworthy are the increase in spiritual self-identifications as well as the expansion of a post-Christian 'New Age' spirituality. This dissertation argues that secularization theory's ascendancy in the sociology of religion has thwarted - intentionally or not - the social-scientific study of these two developments, thereby limiting the discipline's progress. Specifically, this unwanted situation has resulted in four neglected key issues which are explicated in the dissertation's introduction. The first problem is directly tackled in that first chapter. The other three issues are addressed as best as possible in the subsequent four empirical chapters.
The first key issue concerns the commonly held misconception that post-Christian 'New Age' spirituality is culturally incoherent (i.e., those concerned do not share a particular worldview) and socially and publicly insignificant (i.e., it has no influence whatsoever beyond the private domain). The dissertation's introduction explicates and critically evaluates both of these claims in the light of both recent and older scholarly works (both theoretical and empirical) originating from a more specialized literature on post-Christian 'New Age' spirituality. A thorough examination of the latter in fact reveals 1) a solid set of logically interrelated ideas that are central to the worldview of post-Christian 'New Age' spirituality (thereby defusing the first claim), and 2) that this type of spirituality is both socially transmissible and present in the public sphere (thereby defusing the second claim).
The second key problem pertains to the discipline's traditional focus on studying religious decline rather than religious change. Chapters 2 and 3 address this shortcoming by examining both processes in tandem. This is important because studying them separately merely provides one-sided views of how the religious landscape of the West has evolved over time. Chapter 2 therefore tests the thesis of religious decline, central to secularization theory, alongside theories of religious change that assert something completely different, namely that religion in Western-Europe has not so much declined but rather changed profoundly (i.e., from a traditional Christian religiosity toward a post-Christian 'New Age' spirituality). Chapter 2 finds support for both of these processes. Religion has declined, whether one understands it narrowly as traditional Christian religiosity, or more broadly so that it also includes new forms of religiosity and spirituality (like New Age). Noteworthy, the former has declined at a much higher pace than the latter. Although the rise of these new forms of religiosity and spirituality cannot compensate for the loss in traditional Christian religiosity, they do make up an increasing portion of the overall declining religious pie. Those who continue to be religious or spiritual deviate increasingly from the traditional Christian model, so when one does encounter religiosity, it is much more likely to be non-traditional religiosity (like New Age) than was true in the past, indicating a process of religious change. Chapter 3 then studies to what extent the decline of traditional Christian religion is responsible for religious transformations, both within and beyond Christian religion. More specifically, it systematically explicates and critically tests two theories on religious change that are both derived from Grace Davie's well-known and much-debated 'believing without belonging' thesis. Strikingly, the findings do not reinforce the typically foregrounded version of 'believing without belonging' (i.e., a de-institutionalization of Christianity), however, they do support the typically unnoticed version of a spiritualization of religion.
The third key issue has to do with the emergence and expansion of a research tradition on spiritual (and religious) self-identifications. It consists of scholars studying from scratch what people actually mean when they say they are spiritual (but not religious), thereby overlooking a whole body of specialized literature that explains what this spirituality may be all about (i.e., the clearly distinct and pre-existing research tradition on New Age spirituality). Chapter 4 closes this gap by connecting these two traditions, thereby stimulating a much-needed critical intellectual dialogue between the two areas of expertise. It does so by studying whether the 'spiritual but not religious' embrace New Age spirituality, and whether they much like New Agers dismiss traditional Christian religion, whereas the 'both religious and spiritual' adhere to traditional Christian religion and understand spirituality in a non-New Age fashion (i.e., spirituality in a Christian sense). Chapter 4 yet finds that the 'both religious and spiritual' generally have no less affinity with New Age spirituality than their non-religious counterparts. This is because the more liberal and progressive Christians in the former category embrace New Age spirituality, too, while their more conservative and traditional Christian counterparts in this former category rather dismiss it. Thus, spiritual self-identifications have become quite reliable shortcuts, both within and beyond Christian religion, to identify sympathy with New Age spirituality with.
The fourth and final key problem concerns the neglect of key issues within the social-scientific study of spirituality itself such as the infamous and obstinate 'New Age gender puzzle', i.e., the recurrent - but not yet satisfactorily explained - observation that far more women than men take an interest in New Age spirituality. Chapter 5 addresses this puzzle by systematically testing - for the first time - a theory that has been proposed nearly two decades ago by Heelas and Woodhead (2005). With their subjectivization thesis, they introduced contrasting and allegedly gendered notions of autonomous selfhood, viz., individuated- and relational subjectivism. They argue that men more typically endorse the former that fails to spur spiritual longings whereas women more naturally embrace the latter that does do so. Chapter 5 shows that women have indeed more affinity with New Age spirituality than men because they generally embrace relational subjectivism to a greater extent, thereby supporting the theory and contributing to the puzzle's solution.
... Taking the domain of spirituality and lived religion specifically, contributions, such as those by Linda Woodhead and Sointu (2008) in a global framework or Karina Felitti (2019) at a national scale, should undoubtedly be mentioned. Their research highlights how spiritual practices and beliefs can have deep political implications for women and the way in which this shapes the female experience in urban and modern milieu. ...
... Marta's circle of friends, customers, and students now engages in extensive shared time, energy, and in certain instances financial resources for activities that mutually serve their individual interests and aspirations. This newfound agency signifies a profound transformation for women like Marta, who were previously accustomed to devoting the majority of their time to what Woodhead and Sointu (2008) would term "relational care"-the act of nurturing and caring for others. ...
This paper aims to show the empowerment processes that different members of the group known as “Llave Mariana” experienced due to the incorporation of a new cosmology and the everyday practice of their healing rituals. Taking theoretical tools from gender theory, especially from feminist anthropology, I analyze the self-transformations that these women have undergone in their life trajectories. The first section accounts for the circumstances under which they have leaned toward a spiritual path. The second section explores the native notion of femininity and how it is influenced by a Marian maternal role model. Finally, I analyze how these spiritual experiences—and the empowerment processes they entailed—have concrete effects on the way these women live and feel. For the methodological approach, I implemented a combined perspective combining virtual ethnography techniques with traditional fieldwork resources, primarily participant observation and semi-structured interviews. Most of the fieldwork was conducted in initiations where the participants are taught the core doctrinal aspects of the movement, some healing techniques, and particular meditation routines. For this article, I focus on a group of women living in a working-class neighborhood in La Matanza district (located in Buenos Aires’ suburban area) and who in some cases live in underprivileged circumstances.
... At the same time alternative medicine and esoteric well-being is often assumed to be attractive to women because it is coherent with normative femininity (being caring and gentle, having strong communication skills, taking emotions seriously, and seeking to care for rather than cure) as well as it legitimizes the relationality that women are socialized to embody in care-giving in their feminine gender role (Sointu and Woodhead 2008). It is important to stress that recommending against vaccination is common amongst esoteric well-being practitioners (Ernst, 2001). ...
... Alternative medicine care is often assumed to offer attributes that are commonly identified with normative femininity, that is, being caring, being gentle, having strong communication skills, taking emotions seriously, and seeking to care for rather than cure (Shuval & Gross, 2008, p. 51). It is theorized to be attractive to women because it is coherent with, and legitimizes, the relationality that women are socialized to embody in their caregiving but at the same time validates notions of self-care which subvert the stereotypical care role and recognize the importance of a woman thinking about her own well-being rather than that of her dependents (Sointu & Woodhead, 2008). ...
Anti-vaccination sentiments have grown strong in public discourse in recent decades and especially during the Covid-19 pandemic, as online environment has proved to be the fertile setting for spreading conspiracy theories and false news. Anti-vaccine groups are using social networks to spread dubious health information, creating their own content without any evidence to confuse users who access their pages (Ortiz-Sánchez, Velando-Soriano et.al, 2020). Recent surveys found men were more likely to take the Covid-19 vaccine, compared to women (National Geographic survey, Gallup poll, Pew Survey, etc.), whilst existing studies show that the "vast majority" of people commenting, sharing, and liking anti-vaccination information on Facebook are women. Therefore, it is essential to comprehend, how notions about femininity and motherhood relate to decisions about vaccination.
... En el contexto de esta popularización, la mayor presencia de mujeres en la espiritualidad holística es confirmada por estudios internacionales (Crowley, 2011). Esta oferta espiritual otorga legitimidad y, al mismo tiempo, desafía prácticas y representaciones tradicionales de la feminidad, ofreciendo formas de negociar dilemas subjetivos como la tensión entre "vivir para otros" y "vivir para una misma" (Fedele y Knibbe, 2013;Sointu y Woodhead, 2008). Esta espiritualidad posibilita la expresión de valores como la realización personal, el placer corporal, la autenticidad y la libertad, junto con la importancia del cuidado de la salud. ...
... 71 experiencias y energías. Como sostienen otras investigaciones, las prácticas de salud que se desarrollan en los espacios de espiritualidad femenina sirven para otorgar valor al self en la forma de trabajo corporal, con su invitación a "conectar y explorar con el cuerpo" (Sointu y Woodhead, 2008). Para construir "conciencia" y autoconocimiento sobre el propio cuerpo, las facilitadoras invitan a llevar adelante ciertas prácticas y experiencias corporales: la confección del propio calendario menstrual, prácticas de meditación para percibir los movimientos del útero, la utilización de la copa menstrual o toallas de tela para entrar en contacto con la sangre menstrual, registrar los fluidos corporales y los estados de ánimo, emociones y sueños en cada etapa del ciclo, terapias con huevos de obsidiana, la exploración del autoplacer, entre otras. ...
This article analyzes the definitions and practices oriented to sexual and reproductive healthcare of women and the healing of situations experienced around bodily processes such as menstruation, pregnancy, childbirth and abortion. All these definitions and practices are proposed in women's circles and networks for the dissemination of feminine spirituality. It is based on qualitative research carried out in the City of Buenos Aires and Santa Fe, between 2014 and 2021. Various techniques for data collection, such as participant observation in women's circles and interviews to their facilitators and participants are applied in this research. In addition, we analyzed the contents shared by the facilitators in their social networks, and books that are part of their training. Findings are discussed and understood under the light of an arena of popularization of definitions and practices of feminine spirituality, social and political recognitions of feminisms, and public policies on sexual and reproductive health in contemporary Argentina.
... Holistic spiritualities, therefore, developed in opposition to Christian churches, contest the monopoly the latter claim on religious truth (Siegers, 2012). Such contestation is not limited to the authority of churches but extended to domination and exploitation in political and economic terms, defending an ethic of equality and ultimate justice (Sointu and Woodhead, 2008). ...
The COVID-19 pandemic has increased the political and scholarly attention on conspiracy theories. Among other predictors, religious and spiritual influences on conspiracy beliefs have been widely discussed in the literature. We suggest analyzing the relationship between religion and spirituality on the one hand and conspiracy beliefs on the other hand from the perspective of religious information processing. Based on the Post-Critical Beliefs Scale (PCBS), we argue that literal interpretations of religious information are positively associated with conspiracy beliefs. Furthermore, we assume that individual differences in analytic cognitive style account for the relationship between religious attitudes, spirituality, and conspiracism. Using a quota sample of German adults, we find that literal interpretations of religious content positively correlate with conspiracy beliefs for the literal affirmation of transcendence (e.g., orthodoxy) and the literal disaffirmation of transcendence (e.g., atheism). These findings suggest that religious information processing is related to conspiracy beliefs for religious and nonreligious individuals. Moreover, our results show a stable association between holistic spirituality and conspiracy beliefs. The relationships between different types of religious attitudes, spirituality, and conspiracy beliefs hold, even after accounting for analytic (versus intuitive) thinking. The implications for the study of religious attitudes and conspiracy beliefs are discussed.
... The domain of religiosity has certainly not remained unaffected at the level of institutional, vernacular religion (Bowman and Valk 2012) and lived religion (McGuire 2008;Ammerman 2021) and of religious "belief without belonging" (Davie 1994) or "believing in belonging" (Day 2011). One of the most prominent consequences with reference to the shifting boundaries of contemporary religiosity, for example, is the rising popularity of non-denominational forms of "holistic" (Sointu and Woodhead 2008) and/or "New Age" (Heelas 1996;Sutcliffe and Gilhus 2013) spirituality. ...
From the socio-economic and political crisis in southern Europe during the last few decades, to the more recent global healthcare crisis created by the COVID-19 pandemic, contemporary societies have faced and are still under the impact of considerable sociocultural change [...]
... Jiné studie na podobné téma dospěly k podobným závěrům -příkladem může být např. starší text Eevy Sointu a Lindy Woodhead (Sointu, Woodhead 2008) nebo novější článek Chia Longman o ženských kruzích (Longman 2018); podobně též text Yael Keshet a Dalit Simchai o genderových rolích v alternativní spiritualitě a holistické medicíně (Keshet, Simchai 2014). Individuální případ Kamuina přiblížení tradičnější genderové roli lze samozřejmě perspektivou gender studies vnímat jako krok zpět do patriarchátu. ...
... A produção contemporânea sobre a conceitualização do termo New Age (Chryssides, 2012;Heelas, 2006Heelas, , 2009Redden, 2011) propicia toda a emergência de um vocabulário próprio a partir de noções como "alternative spirituality" (Sutcliffe y Bowman, 2000), "holistic spiritualities" (Sointu y Woodhead, 2008), "reflexive spirituality" (Besecke, 2001) "self spirituality" (Heelas, 1996), "spirituality of life" (Heelas, 2009), "subjective life spirituality" (Woodhead, 2010) ou "post-Christian spirituality" (Houtman y Aupers, 2007). Contudo, a ênfase dada aos discursos dos interlocutores, ao invés dos mecanismos que sintetizariam as práticas devocionais, ainda persiste entre os investigadores. ...
The objective is to assess the body of work on Sufism in Argentina and Brazil and analyze the developmental processes that have facilitated the preliminary construction of this field of study in Social Anthropology over the past 30 years in both countries. Sufism encompasses the outcome of mobilized conceptual tools and physical techniques acquired through an initiation process, which includes the transmission of moral teachings and physical exercises by its adherents. The proposed comparison seeks to scrutinize the primary research themes and theoretical-methodological debates by examining monographs in institutional repositories of universities in Argentina and the CAPES website in Brazil, to encompass the diversity of empirical experiences in the following regions: Buenos Aires, Patagonia, and Santa Fe (Argentina), as well as the Federal District, Rio de Janeiro, and Rio Grande do Sul (Brazil). It is important to note that the analyses conducted by various authors reflect the complexity of forms of adherence and devotional practices, which demonstrate the diverse manifestations of creativity in the relationships formed among its practitioners. Contrasting these communities as presented in the bibliographic production enables us to reconsider local dynamics through their specific configurations, as cultural differences within the Muslim world give rise to many ways of defining, practicing, and experiencing Islam.
... Dans une perspective sociohistorique, nous observons plutôt les continuités de la catégorie du « spirituel », qui comme le relève Peter Van der Veer (2009: 1100), s'est largement coconstruite en interaction avec le séculier dans son opposition envers le religieux traditionnel. Après avoir été porté par des traditions ésotériques et des mouvements sociaux virtuoses tels que la théosophie et l'anthroposophie, le spirituel s'est popularisé en Occident par le biais du « New Age » et plus tardivement à travers l'implantation d'une scène holistique et de soins alternatifs (Sointu et Woodhead, 2008). Il est également intéressant de noter qu'historiquement, la notion de « spiritualité » s'est constituée non pas uniquement comme un médiateur entre le religieux et le séculier, mais également entre les modèles politiques d'économie de marché et de centralisation étatique, à l'instar de Rudolf Steiner qui théorise une « troisième voie » entre responsabilité individuelle et réformes sociales (McKanan, 2018: 4). ...
This article considers the contemporary entanglement between spiritual registers and a progressive militant scene upon two fieldworks conducted in Switzerland (2015–2021) on contemporary encounters between religion, spirituality and ecology. My observations contrast common accusations upon the so-called depoliticization, narcissism or mere bricolage revolving around the popularization of new and self-centered modes of exercise of power in progressive militancy. If these spiritual registers are becoming more audible and legitimate in militancy, it is surely for what they enable to enunciate as well as for the technic of the ‘selves’ and the transformational imaginary they promote. Often considered as pragmatic resources or commodities, this paper suggests that contemporary spiritual registers are to be studied along their ‘subtle’ politic uses in very concrete situations.
... Connected to the rising importance of spirituality and its experiential framing of the sacred, concepts such as the body, practice and embodiment have also witnessed a resurgence of interest in recent decades among sociologists of religion (Ammerman 2014(Ammerman , 2020Giordan 2009;Mellor and Shilling 1997McGuire 1990McGuire , 2008McGuire , 2016Sointu and Woodhead 2008;Winchester 2008;Winchester and Pagis 2022;Wuthnow 2020). For instance, as Daniel Winchester (2008, p. 66) notes, "Within the broader field of the sociology of religion, 'practice' has become a key term, even vying to supplant concepts such as 'belief', 'doctrine', 'creeds', 'texts,' and 'symbols' as the central category around which to empirically and theoretically approach religion". ...
Modern postural yoga, a body-mind practice developed in the last hundred and fifty years at the intersection of therapeutic, fitness and spiritual logics, is experiencing an unprecedented worldwide diffusion, including in Italy. This article, relying on discourse analysis of three yoga manuals and twenty-seven biographical interviews of yoga practitioners, aims at exploring yoga's positioning in the Italian context, with particular attention paid to its practical-discursive construction as a contemporary form of spiritualities of the body, defined as spiritualities oriented towards practitioners' 'unmediated' relationship with the sacred and the cultivation of well-being through "body work". More specifically, the article investigates the "cultural pragmatics" of a selection of Italian yoga manuals, scripted performances (regarding health and spirituality) capable of directly influencing and impacting practitioners' "social imaginaries" of yoga in their everyday practice. In so doing, it also contributes to discussing the circular and reciprocal relationship between "discourses" and "practices" within specific contexts of practice, such as yoga classes and teacher training courses. The article concludes by emphasizing which conceptualizations of health and spirituality are promoted, transmitted and in turn embodied during yoga practice, the role of health discourses and pedagogies in the professionalization of yoga and the growing practical-discursive construction of the yoga teacher as a spiritual director and health expert.
... 263-64) was important in the development of a certain line of thought. Sointu and Woodhead (2008) defend that Taylor's critique of contemporary forms of expressive selfhood seems to be shaped by a lingering attachment to the masculinist hero of Romanticism. ...
This article explores the notion of the “magic of a place” and the way a space attracts groups and individuals who follow various forms of vernacular or lived religion and spirituality. The space is Sintra, an “enchanted” mountain facing the westernmost point of Europe, the Roca Cape. Classified by UNESCO as Cultural Landscape, Sintra is a unique place, a “sensuous sacred geography”; its sacredness comes from its natural setting, combined with historical layers of religious use and the way these are nowadays interpreted by individuals who live spirituality as “sensational forms” (configurations of imaginations and sensations in a context of religious and spiritual traditions). Thought of as an encapsulated magical place where innumerous groups perform their ceremonies, meditations, and spiritual retreats, Sintra is a scenario where Tweed’s discussion on the sacredness of a place is highly suitable and transreligiosity and spiritual elasticity are the norm. Furthermore, through the ethnographic data presented, we will see how, within this “spiritual elasticity” directly relating to the astonishing nature of the Sintra mountain, individuals find relief for their personal crises or their collective eco-anxiety.
... In this previous research, both clients and therapeutic service producers have been studied. However, the research on service providers has mainly focused on CAM practices, where the borders between healers and the healed are often shifting and porous (e.g., Kalvig 2012;Sointu and Woodhead 2008;Utriainen 2017). ...
In this article, we apply and assess the concept of transreligiosity in the study of formally educated and licensed psychologists and psychotherapists in Finland who integrate mindfulness practices in their professional toolkit. Our analytical focus complements the discussion on the use of religious and spiritual traditions as therapeutic resources by turning scholarly attention from individual coping tools to the professional skills of therapeutic work and from complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) practices to mainstream health care and education. In the field of mindfulness research, we add to the cumulative body of ethnographic approaches by analyzing the mindfulness-related individual learning paths of mental health professionals through qualitative interview data. Based on our analysis, we conclude that the professional skills of using mindfulness practices in secular health care and education can result from transreligious learning trajectories, in which psychologists and psychotherapists supplement science-based academic education with learning in Buddhist communities and training with Buddhist teachers. This role of Buddhist environments and resources points to a blind spot in the current understanding of adult and professional learning, in which the value and position of religious traditions as possible complementary sources of professional knowledge and skills are not sufficiently recognized.
... Las medicinas "alternativas" construyen a sus pacientes de manera que los alejan del modelo del sick role médico convencional. El nuevo paciente estaría empoderado, sería consciente y responsable por sus experiencias y percepciones de la enfermedad o su malestar (Sointu y Woodhead, 2008). En esta misma línea, Mónica Cornejo Valle y Maribel Blázquez Rodríguez señalan que "CAM (Complementary and Alternative Medicines) y new age coinciden en el empoderamiento de pacientes y creyentes, que pasan a convertirse en agentes activos de sus procesos de curación o de salvación de una forma más efectiva de la que se ha dado antes" (2014, p. 22). ...
En el marco de la proliferación contemporánea de prácticas y discursos ligados a las medicinas tradicionales, alternativas y/o complementarias dentro de las sociedades occidentales, este trabajo explora las prácticas y representaciones terapéuticas de las participantes de una formación en plantas medicinales. Se trata de una formación dictada en una localidad de la provincia de Córdoba, Argentina. Se aborda el análisis a partir de un enfoque etnográfico, lo que comprende entrevistas en profundidad a las participantes de la formación, observación participante de todos los encuentros que se llevaron a cabo en dicho espacio y la indagación de los materiales bibliográficos allí́ ofrecidos. El escrito analiza cómo las participantes llegaron a este espacio, a partir de las trayectorias de los itinerarios terapéuticos, profundizando en los marcos de entendimiento previos que posibilitaban ciertas configuraciones. Problematiza, además, las construcciones de nociones como sanar que allí́ se elaboraban, como forma de entender la ‘salud’ de manera amplia y holística, que excede la mera ausencia de enfermedad, ligado a la idea y propósito de resolver el malestar de raíz. Por último, aborda la dimensión política que para las participantes de la formación implicaban las distintas formas de atender los procesos de salud-enfermedad-atención, en la búsqueda de posicionarse desde un lugar activo y protagónico.
... Thus, whereas secularisation theorists highlight declining religious belief and affiliation (Voas and Crockett 2005) but miss the relocation of existential engagement to networks and affective practices, and advocates of the 'affective' and 'subjective' turns (Sointu and Woodhead 2008), observe this relocation and show how it articulates with contemporary renegotiations of gender roles and narratives of 'expressive selfhood' in late modern societies (ibid. 259), but miss how this is facilitated by changes in communicative conditions, we believe our conceptualisation can make sense of both perspectives and illuminate the missing communicative dimension in these accounts. ...
This article draws from interviews with 67 nonreligious millennials across six countries in 25 European towns and cities, part of a research programme Understanding Unbelief This research was made possible through a grant from the John Templeton Foundation (JTF grant ID#60624 based at the University of Kent). which aims at mapping the global diversity of nonreligion. We contribute to this by examining the diversity of beliefs amongst nonreligious millennials across a range of societies from North West to South Central Europe. We examine how they find and make meaning in their lives and how they deal with death and other existential issues. We further investigate how social and political context and the laws and practices regulating nonreligion shape emergent nonreligious forms, using the example of Poland, and build on the Polish case to examine nonreligious identity building, social activism and institution formation. Finally, we step back to our international comparisons to propose an explanation of the conditions shaping nonreligious identity and group formation.
... Las medicinas "alternativas" construyen a sus pacientes de manera que los alejan del modelo del sick role médico convencional. El nuevo paciente estaría empoderado, sería consciente y responsable por sus experiencias y percepciones de la enfermedad o su malestar (Sointu y Woodhead, 2008). En esta misma línea, Mónica Cornejo Valle y Maribel Blázquez Rodríguez señalan que "CAM (Complementary and Alternative Medicines) y new age coinciden en el empoderamiento de pacientes y creyentes, que pasan a convertirse en agentes activos de sus procesos de curación o de salvación de una forma más efectiva de la que se ha dado antes" (2014, p. 22). ...
Suplemento especial de Cuadernos Médico Sociales, dedicado a Antropología de la Salud
... The holistic spirituality and well-being associated with yoga generally fit with traditional feminine ideals [40,66], which is a reason why yoga is often stereotyped as a feminine activity. This stereotyping could act as a barrier to participation to some men, especially if they hold strong traditional masculine beliefs [67]. ...
Yoga is a traditional practice from India with the potential to promote physical activity and health. Participation worldwide remains low, particularly among men. To better understand yoga participation parameters, with a special focus on what influences male participation, this study examined gender differences in participation motives and conformity to masculine norms. It also explored these factors across three participant subgroups who differed in their engagement with the physical and the more psycho-spiritual aspects of yoga. A total of 546 yoga participants (138 males, 399 females, 9 others), 18–73 years old, completed an online survey that included an adapted version of the Exercise Motivation Inventory–2 and three subscales from the Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory–46. Results showed significant gender differences in participation motives and conformity to masculine norms. Females were more motivated by positive affect, health/fitness, nimbleness, mind–body integration, and coping/stress management, whereas males were more motivated by supplementary activity and competition/social recognition. These differences should be considered in tailoring messages to promote uptake and continued participation. Furthermore, males were more likely than females to conform to emotional control and heterosexual self-presentation masculine norms. Future research may examine how differences in masculine norm adherence influences uptake, particularly among men.
... As for the other factors-gender, educational attainment, and age-the sociology of religion has largely demonstrated that they also affect religious identity and practice. As for gender let us just briefly recall that the holistic milieu is primarily made up of women (Woodhead 2007a(Woodhead , 2007bSointu and Woodhead 2008;Stolz and Monnot 2019). Moreover, findings also show that women of higher social status tend to be more personally concerned about environmental issues than men (Blocker and Eckberg 1997). ...
This article examines the emergence, in the Swiss context, of a new category of ecologically oriented 'spiritual' activists. The authors look at empirical studies conducted internationally on the link between religion and environmentalism and argue that 'spiritually oriented activists' are rarely investigated in quantitative studies. The authors then examine the findings of a case study of local milieus in two Swiss cities and nationwide data collected as part of the Swiss Household Panel (SHP). They close the gap between results coming from case studies, on the one hand, and representative studies, on the other, by introducing the variable of spiritua-lity into quantitative research. The results suggest that an ecological milieu is emerging comprised of people who are located politically on the left, do not self-identify as religious, but nonetheless practice meditation and have holistic feelings. The forms of spirituality practiced by these ecologists are 'subtle' in the sense of being adaptable, located in the background, and supportive of sustainability.
Este trabajo recupera las investigaciones de ambas autoras con el objeto de describir y analizar, desde una propuesta comparativa, las modalidades de conversión y sociabilidad femenina dentro de la orden sufí Naqshbandi Haqqani en Argentina. Exploraremos similitudes y contrastes emergentes entre los testimonios y experiencias de aquellas mujeres que participan de la cofradía en el Área Metropolitana de Buenos Aires (AMBA) y quienes integran comunidades rurales que la orden conformó en distintas provincias (Mendoza, Córdoba, Río Negro). Comenzaremos situando brevemente la presencia Naqshbandi en la geografía musulmana local. En segundo lugar, a partir de los testimonios de las interlocutoras y escenas destacadas del trabajo etnográfico, describiremos los itinerarios y procesos de conversión. En tercer lugar, una vez presentadas las relaciones de género dentro del sufismo, reflexionaremos acerca de la configuración de feminidades que oscilan –en sus múltiples intercambios, tensiones y desplazamientos– entre el islam y las espiritualidades Nueva Era. Tomaremos como ejemplo la danza y práctica del giro sufí en espacios urbanos, así como los saberes y experiencias sobre ginecología en los entornos rurales.
This article examines the self-transformation process in Kundalini yoga discourse and practice from a gendered perspective. Data were collected over three years in Western Switzerland using multi-sited ethnography, combining participant observation with twenty-eight interviews. Using Kundalini yoga as taught by Yogi Bhajan and its representations of the ‘feminine’ and ‘masculine’ as a case study, I explore how practitioners adopt gendered rituals. In this tradition, self-transformation is based on concepts of inner strength, sensitivity, and divine femininity, which creates dissonance for some practitioners. Additionally, specific arrangements arise to negotiate (internal) experiential authority, gendered agency, and biography in yoga teaching and teacher–student relationships. Finally, I investigate the interactions between practitioners’ yoga trajectories and their personal and professional lives, observing differences in women’s and men’s experiences.
This article explores the emergence and development of Neo-santeria in Barcelona, a contemporary trend of Afro-Cuban religious practices characterized by the rejection of animal sacrifice, a central ritual in traditional Santeria. The study identifies and analyzes four key arguments employed by Neo-santeros to legitimize this rejection within the secular and modern European context: the scientistic, de-traditionalist, individualistic, and ecologist arguments. Drawing on over a decade of ethnographic research, the article demonstrates how Neo-santeros navigate the tension between distancing themselves from certain traditional spiritual roots—particularly the practice of animal sacrifice—and the intertwining with European and contemporary cultural logics, particularly those related to secularism. The article situates Neo-santeria within the broader landscape of European holistic spiritualities, highlighting its strategic positioning as a religion that aligns with and challenges secularist expectations in modern Europe. The findings contribute to a deeper understanding of how Afro-Cuban religions, particularly Neo-Santería, can be defined by the ongoing creativity of their practitioners. This distinctive feature not only defines the fluid nature of these traditions but also contributes to the diversification and increased complexity of the spiritual landscape in European contexts, where Afro-Cuban practices are being intertwined in local cultural and religious frameworks.
En el presente artículo analizamos, desde una perspectiva socioantropológica, ciertas prácticas y discursos sobre cuerpos y corporalidades femeninas, de la Córdoba contemporánea, vinculados a los circuitos alternativos (Carozzi, 1999; Citro y Aschieri, 2015). Se trata de espacios que buscan distanciarse del saber-poder biomédico, entendido como occidental, blanco y hegemónico. Específicamente, nos centramos en los partos respetados y humanizados y en el uso y consumo de plantas medicinales. Para ello retomamos dos etnografías realizadas entre los años 2013 y 2019 en Córdoba: por un lado, una etnografía cuya finalidad fue analizar y comprender el mundo social del parto humanizado en Córdoba. Por el otro, una etnografía en la que se exploraron prácticas y representaciones en torno al cuerpo y a la salud que se construían en una formación de plantas medicinales, en una localidad de las Sierras Chicas, Córdoba.
This review focuses on the incorporation of self-spirituality and mindfulness into secular institutions such as for-profit organizations, as well as into public and private healthcare organizations. The review considers research into the value of self-spirituality and the reasons for organizational rejection, or acceptance as a response to manifestations of self-spirituality; research proposing frameworks for analyzing modes of incorporating self-spirituality into organizations; and research into the enactment of self- spirituality in different sectors. The review shows that individuals reported a reduction in stress, a reinforced capacity for coping with challenging workplace demands, and improved workplace communication. The review also argues that the encounter of organizations with self-spirituality is shaped by, and reenforces, existing social forces such as instrumentalism. At the same time, it generates alternative ideas and practices. At present, the capacity of self-spirituality to create transformation in organizations is limited, although specific practices (e. g., mindfulness) can be more influential.
In this article, based on my doctoral research, I discuss the appropriation of religious elements from South America by Finnish ‘mystical tourists’. The plant medicine ceremonies are approached as spiritual commodities. Imagining local beliefs and practices as ancient cultural heritage, essentially and authentically spiritual, Finnish mystical tourists adapt these practices for their own therapeutic uses. They are accompanied by singing prayers to various plant spirits. Among the appropriated elements are the ceremonial ingestion of imported organic cacao, sacred tobacco and ayahuasca, as well as praying by singing to plant spirits understood in terms of animism. My findings indicate how the appropriated cultural elements are given therapeutic functions in collectively created musical and ritual spaces for individual well-being. I analyse appropriation in categories introduced by Richard A. Rogers (2006) and understand the ceremonies to provide ‘mystical tourists’ with a role as a racially privileged group over the subaltern indigenous peoples through processes of commercialization, where reimagined cultural elements become spiritual commodities to be bought and sold in commercial networks on the basis of access. I argue that the associated forms of cultural appropriation align with the individualistic spiritual well-being needs of the Finnish participants and are related to the theme of ‘sacralization of the self’.
James Redfield's novel The Celestine Prophecy spent over three years on the New York Times bestseller list and has become an influential work that promotes New Age ideologies to a broad readership. Although New Age spirituality was originally associated with countercultural politics, a structural analysis of The Celestine Prophecy reveals how Redfield mobilizes gendered and racialized tropes to reaffirm rather than challenge hegemonic American culture. An analysis of readers' online reviews finds that despite its lack of literary merit, the text resonates with individuals who feel dominated by powerful others including social institutions and domestic aggressors. Since New Age spirituality predominantly attracts white middle-class women, a close reading investigates what kind of future society The Celestine Prophecy proposes and whom it might serve.
Increasingly popular ‘feminine spiritualities’ urge women to foster personal transformation and social change through spiritual empowerment and healing of ‘the feminine’. However, in spite of feminist undertones, feminism is rarely explicitly evoked, and is often even rejected. Gender scholars have debated over the ambivalent feminism of contemporary spiritualities, which are readily seen as closer to postfeminist rather than feminist ideals, or framed as a form of old-fashioned cultural feminism. While some recent analyses do explore the feminist potential of feminine spiritualities in more positive terms, the debates often lack practitioner perspectives on feminism and deeper considerations of the practitioners’ own self-definitions. Based on ethnographic interview material across Finnish and Anglo-American contexts, this article explores how adherents of feminine spirituality imagine feminism, and whether they consider their spirituality to be feminist or not and why. I argue that while practitioners hold varying, often ambiguous positions in relation to feminism, the narratives iterate shared themes that render feminism and feminine spirituality as incompatible: an emphasis on femininity over feminism, and a focus on spirituality instead of politics. Furthermore, practitioners critique mainstream feminism for being too secular, while often simultaneously agreeing with feminist criticisms of both cultural feminist and postfeminist ideals. I suggest that failing to take the voices of spiritual women into account prevents constructive dialogue and solidarity among secular and spiritual feminists as well as non-feminist women, and offers little room for emerging postsecular feminist identities.
Kirtan as the Eastern practice of accompanied call-and-response singing has secured its place in Finland’s holistic spirituality. It arrived in Finland through Hindu religious movements and has since diversified, incorporating symbols and techniques borrowed from various sources. Holistic spirituality is often understood in terms of embracing the construction of sacred realities through individual practices centered around an “authentic self.” This chapter is based on Heinonen’s fieldwork, which consists of interviews of Finnish “spiritual but not religious” Kirtan practitioners. Heinonen explores the reasons behind practicing Kirtan in Finnish holistic spirituality, how Kirtan informs meaning-making among its practitioners, and the “therapeutic” results expected by its participants. Heinonen understands Kirtan to be associated with positive emotions, experiences of increased psychological well-being, and the therapeutic processing of emotions within collectively created musical and ritual spaces. Examining Kirtan from the perspective of sociology of religion, Heinonen identifies collective emotion, musical intersubjectivity, and face-to-face interaction as the primary causes of Kirtan’s therapeutic results. Heinonen’s results show that among its Finnish practitioners, Kirtan combines musical, emotional, embodied, and relational techniques to produce well-being and spiritual meaning for the individual, fostering an empowering collective practice that sustains holistic spirituality in Finland.
Women's involvement in religion varies depending on whether we are considering personal beliefs and practices or institutional affiliation and leadership. While some women are moving away from traditional western religious institutions because they do not adequately meet their needs or provide the kind of overarching moral narrative that gives meaning to women's lives, religion itself is not inevitably oppressive to women. Gender egalitarianism and strands of women's empowerment exist within most traditions and the historical involvement of women as leaders, teachers, and writers across diverse traditions has often been minimized for political and economic rather than substantially theological reasons.
New Age inanışlar ile neoliberalizmin yükselişinin bir bağlantısı vardır. Neoliberal birey kolektiviteden uzak bir yalnızlık ortamında bir girişimci gibi kendine özgün yeni bir benlik inşa eder. Bu makale neoliberal öznenin özgün benliğini ve gerçekliğini yaratmaya zorlandığı bir sosyal yapı içerisinde yöneldiği öznel bir inanç sistemini konu almaktadır. Makalenin temel argümanı neoliberal özenin acılarını dindirmeye yönelik pek çok inanç ve uygulama sunan New Age’in geç kapitalizmin bir ürünü olduğu üzerinedir. Bu argüman, önce moderniteden postmoderniteye geçişte öznelliğin dönüşümü konusuna; daha sonra postmodernitenin ekonomik altyapısını oluşturan geç kapitalizmde kültürün depolitizasyonu meselesine; akabinde bu depolitize olmuş kültürün içinde gelişen New Age eğilimlerin iyileştirici vaadinin arka planına; son olarak New Age’in içinde konumlandığı yeni paradigma olan Kuantum mistisizmi ve bunun küresel anlamadaki popülerliğinin ardında yatan psikanalitik kökenlere değinilerek geliştirilmektedir.
The creation of Vibrational Essences, including the Edward Bach Flower Remedies, represents a twentieth-century innovation of homeopathy that takes the notion of ingestible healing liquids into entirely new territory. While homeopathic remedies can be understood as a form of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM), New Age practitioners have expanded the scope of liquid essences to reportedly harness the metaphysical powers of sacred places and otherworldly entities. These essences are best described as hierophagic since they are believed to originate in a divine or semi-divine source and are designed to facilitate spiritual transformation through consumption while delivering sacred knowledge. Following a brief history of Vibrational Essences since the 1930s, a close examination of textual sources investigates how New Age practitioners create these essences through pilgrimage and ritual practices, including communication with intermediary beings. This evidence raises questions about otherworldly agency and contributes new research into spiritual embodiment practices in contemporary esotericism.
This paper discusses a specific set of new shamanic practices recognizable in the Japanese metropolitan context. Three case studies help illustrate the main characteristics of this "new" discourse and lead to a discussion on terminology. To effectively understand and analyze shamanic practices in contemporary Japan, I suggest the use of a new model for the study of shamanism. This could contribute to overcoming prejudicial and polarized views concerning the existence of a "traditional" and thus "authentic" kind of shamanism, on the one hand, and of a "new" and hence "inauthentic" one, on the other.
Our era is marked by ‘therapeutic culture’, referring to the increasing prevalence of therapeutic concepts and psychological knowledge in the way people understand and make sense of their lives. A marked part of therapeutic culture is self-help literature. It comprises a wide array of items that centre around managing everyday life issues, self-development, and psychological growth. Existing research portrays self-help books as deeply individualistic. However, there is little knowledge about the spiritual and religious dimensions of the genre. The aim of this article is to explore human intersubjectivity, and its religious dimensions, in self-help literature. Drawing on a content analysis of eleven self-help books, we address the issues of whether, how, and to what extent self-help books represent humans as relational beings and how the notions of religion and spirituality underlying the books relate to these issues. The findings illustrate the centrality of intersubjectivity in the genre. The conclusions on religion are multifaceted: spirituality in the books has positive connotations, while institutional religion is seen as negative, or even as a threat, to well-being and intersubjectivity.
Die alternativ-spirituelle Gruppe Terra Sagrada, die sich den afro-brasilianischen Traditionen des Candomblés und der Umbanda zuschreibt, wird hauptsächlich von Frauen mit einem psycho-sozialen beruflichen Hintergrund besucht und kultiviert. Dieser gegenderten Attraktion der Geisterinkorporation wird sich auf Grundlage von Interviews und Ritualteilnahmen genähert, um den besonderen Reiz dieses Rituals für Frauen zu beleuchten. Neben der Betonung von Körper und Erleben, der Möglichkeit, Selbstwirksamkeit, Kontrolle und Macht zu erleben sowie dem Gemeinschaftssinn ist es vor allem die Vorstellung von Person und Selbst – das sogenannte „innere Team“ –, die die Frauen aus ihren sozialpädagogischen und psychologischen Ausbildungshintergründen kennen und welche nun in diesem religiösen Kontext aktiviert wird. Die Verknüpfung dieser zwei Kontexte ermöglicht die Akzeptanz des Ritualgeschehens und verstärkt die Identifikation mit den spirituellen Vorstellungen der Terra Sagrada.
The chapter argues that the therapeutic field serves as an important site in which gendered contradictions of capitalism are lived out and negotiated. I discuss women’s experiences of and encounters with the therapeutic field, and explore what they find meaningful in therapeutic engagements, and how they make sense of and seek to transform gender relations and identities through therapeutic engagements. The therapeutic field provides women with space for cultural critique of gender, and allows them to take issue with a “deep story of strong femininity” that perceives gender as a pivotal source of domination. Contemporary capitalist society is seen as subjecting women to masculine values and denying vulnerability, while longstanding gendered socialization practices are seen as cultivating women as “good girls” who sacrifice themselves for others and end up reproducing detrimental gendered relations. I suggest that while not often explicitly feminist, many therapeutic practices draw on second-wave feminist thought and techniques in articulating and working on gendered experiences and grievances. I conclude that in therapeutic engagements, personal and social transformations are entangled in complex ways. Although these engagements tend to privilege individualized strategies for self-change, they also open up space to collectively make sense of and contest gendered power and forge solidarity among women.
At 32.3%, Switzerland ranks among countries with the highest rates of cesarean deliveries in Europe. Because cesareans generally negatively influence the birth experience, parents turn to holistic therapists to heal somatic and emotional disorders not addressed by standard biomedical follow-ups. Doula care is still emerging in Switzerland. Although doulas are not allowed in the operation rooms, they support parents before birth and during the postpartum period. They aim at improving the birth experience by restoring intimate, "sacred" elements of birth through symbolic and spiritual practices. Based on interviews with doulas, I explore their experiences and practices regarding surgical birth.
Over the last two decades, mindfulness has become popular in Western countries as part of the well-being movement. The corporate world has taken notice and is now hailing the potential of mindfulness as a tool to increase work performance and employee well-being. This view of mindfulness, however, contains an intrinsic contradiction: the core of mindfulness is derived from Buddhist traditions that accept the present moment without judgement, while neoliberal productivity demands constant renewal and a drive for stronger performance. The ethnographic data for this study was collected in an environment emblematic of the neoliberal service economy: a professional service firm with highly skilled employees. This chapter develops the concept of spiritual labour, which is informed by the ideas of post-secularisation and spirituality in the sociology of religion and the concept of emotional labour in organisational studies. Spiritual labour refers to harnessing the spirituality of the employee and incorporating it into the work of the organisation.
In recent years, the involvement of Swiss wine-crafters (vignerons) with ‘holistic spiritualities’ has become more visible. Through the use of esoterically driven preparations, energetic crystals, and neo-shamanic ‘vision questing’ practices, vignerons have incorporated alternative self-healing practices in their workplace. Under the umbrella term ‘biodynamic farming,’ vignerons are experimenting and delineating a new professional and relational ethos, be it with humans or nonhumans (e.g., grapevines). In the context of the Swiss vineyards, however, the engagement of vignerons with ‘holistic spiritualities’ has also forced them to grapple with potential social stigmas. This article examines the social uses, dynamics, and dilemmas resulting from the gradual ‘spiritualization’ of vignerons’ workplaces.
This article is a proposition and exploration of the term ‘transreligiosity’. We argue that transreligiosity is more apt to describe the transgressive character of religiosity, focusing more particularly on the transversality of spaces, symbolic or otherwise, which are created in religious phenomena. We examine the porosity of religious boundaries and, ultimately, propose the term transreligiosity to embrace them, placing emphasis on their transreligious character, while perceiving them as significant instantiations of transreligiosity. We take some of Latour’s key concepts on ‘purification’, to argue for the ultimate impossibility of it in the sphere of religiosity. While processes of purification have been powerful through efforts to institutionalize and centralize religiosity, at a vernacular level, this has had a contrary effect. Religious subjects have been distanced from a more direct participation (‘mediation’). Hence, they are constantly creating transreligious instances to abolish and transgress those rigid borders.
Over the past two decades, Swiss wine-crafting professionals (vignerons) have increasingly turned their attention toward a ‘holistic’ and ecosystemic understanding of their vineyards. Among them, a growing professional segment has engaged in an esoteric agronomy inspired by Rudolf Steiner: Biodynamics. This approach is illustrative of Bron Taylor’s dark green religion applied to agronomy. This ethnographic study describes and analyzes how Swiss vignerons translate and adapt the legacy of Steiner in their everyday lives. After detailing how practitioners frame their engagement in this agronomy, the author distinguishes two processes in the translation and adaptation of Rudolf Steiner’s insights: (a) secularization, which bridges the guidelines of biodynamics and common secular naturalistic ideas; and (b) spiritualization, which relies on supernaturalistic conceptions in line with ‘expressive selfhood’ and the quest for well-being. The author argues that these two processes do not stand in mutual opposition, but rather have been intertwined in Euro-American modernities.
The starting point for this paper is a review of the literature, which seeks to explain the use of alternative medicines, therapies and practices in developed countries. Using the Statistics Canada 1996–97 National Population Health Survey—Health File, we then examine the profile of alternative service users. Our analysis shows that use of alternative health care is still limited to a relatively small segment of Canadians whose profile is similar to those in other developed countries. Women are more likely than men to use alternative medicines, therapies and practices, as are those who have higher incomes and are better educated. To move what has been an essentially empirical discussion forward, we explore critiques of conventional medical practice and propose that the analysis of alternative health care be situated within the geographies of consumption.
This research examines trends in coverage of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) in five prestigious medical journals during a period of intense reorganization within medicine (1965-1999). Content analysis of a sample of documents (N = 102) shows the medical profession responded to the growth of CAM in three distinct phases. During each phase, changes in the medical marketplace - such as relaxed medical licensing, the development of managed care, rising consumerism, and the establishment of the Office of Alternative Medicine - influenced the type of response in the journals. From the late 1960s to the early 1970s, during the condemnation phase, authors ridiculed, exaggerated the risks, and petitioned the state to contain CAM. In the reassessment phase (mid-1970s through early 1990s), increased consumer utilization of CAM prompted concern, and authors pondered whether patient dissatisfaction and shortcomings in conventional care contributed to this trend. Throughout the 1990s, in the integration phase, struggles to outlaw CAM were abandoned, physicians began learning to work around or administer CAM, and the subjugation of CAM to scientific scrutiny became the primary means of control. This analysis demonstrates the evolutionary process of professionalization, a process in which dominance is sustained through adaptation to structural change. © 2005 by Society for the Study of Social Problems, Inc. All rights reserved.
The starting point for this paper is a review of the literature, which seeks to explain the use of alternative medicines, therapies and practices in developed countries. Using the Statistics Canada 1996-97 National Population Health Survey--Health File, we then examine the profile of alternative service users. Our analysis shows that use of alternative health care is still limited to a relatively small segment of Canadians whose profile is similar to those in other developed countries. Women are more likely than men to use alternative medicines, therapies and practices, as are those who have higher incomes and are better educated. To move what has been an essentially empirical discussion forward, we explore critiques of conventional medical practice and propose that the analysis of alternative health care be situated within the geographies of consumption.
Most users of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) approach it differently than physicians, because they employ informal knowledge, based on their experiences, beliefs, and values. Mary Ruggie stresses that, although physicians also use informal knowledge from their clinical experience to understand patients and their needs, they rely on formal knowledge, based on science, to understand medicine. Thus, if CAM is going to become a legitimate part of health care, physicians must insist that scientific research prove its safety and efficacy.
Complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) is increasingly utilized and accepted by patients and providers throughout the American health care system. Most accounts attribute this growing acceptability to the shortcomings of conventional medicine, the appeal of CAM's core beliefs, and the growing body of research indicating that CAM actually works. These explanations, while all accurate to some degree, neglect the extent to which CAM's recent success is due to economic and political factors. This article describes the emerging relationship between CAM and major economic actors (pharmaceutical firms, managed care companies, insurance companies, media conglomerates, Internet providers, etc.) as well as CAM's relationship with a range of political forces (political parties, bureaucrats, lobbying groups, ethnic- and gender-based movements and organizations, etc.). The convergence of interests between these economic and political forces and many of CAM's goals is one important reason for CAM's recent success.
The understanding and interpretation of the presumed "secularization" of Britain and other European nations is clouded by a lack of adequate information regarding the substance and timing of religious change. This paper represents the first systematic effort to collect and analyze existing survey data on religious belief in Britain from the late 1930s to the present. Overall, the results show an increase in general scepticism about the existence of God, the related erosion of dominant, traditional Christian beliefs, and the persistence of nontraditional beliefs. A theoretical perspective is needed that recognizes the often corrosive effects of modern life on the transmission of religious beliefs and the continued popularity of worldviews which presume a transcendent referent, however broadly defined.
The present study attempts to measure how individuals define the terms religiousness and spirituality, to measure how individuals define their own religiousness and spirituality, and to examine whether these definitions are associated with different demographic, religio/spiritual, and psychosocial variables. The complete sample of 346 individuals was composed of 11 groups of participants drawn from a wide range of religious backgrounds. Analyses were conducted to compare participants' self-rated religiousness and spirituality, to correlate self-rated religiousness and spirituality with the predictor variables, and to use the predictor variables to distinguish between participants who described themselves as "spiritual and religious" from those who identified themselves as "spiritual but not religious." A content analysis of participants' definitions of religiousness and spirituality was also performed. The results suggest several points of convergence and divergence between the constructs religiousness and spirituality. The theoretical, empirical, and practical implications of these results for the scientific study of religion are discussed.
Whilst much research into alternative and complementary medicine use indicates that these practices enable experiences of control, agency and empowerment, few theoretically informed answers have been given to why and how consultations with alternative and complementary health practitioners facilitate experiences that are felt to be ‘healing’.This article utilizes theories of recognition in order to reflect on the healing experiences of women seeking health and wellbeing through varied forms of alternative and complementary medicine. I analyse the empowering and agency-giving aspects of alternative and complementary medicines, in particular in relation to wider societal conceptualizations of the self. This article is based on qualitative interviews with both practitioners and clients of varying alternative and complementary medicines.
Welfare state The classic welfare state The restructured welfare state The modern welfare state Economic explanations Political explanations Organizational explanations Social explanations Welfare change Further Reading References Index.
In this research, the authors integrated research on stereotyping and health to document relationship-status stereotyping about sexual risk. Drawing on research on relational schemas and implicit personality theories, the authors hypothesized that targets who were described as being in relationships would be perceived as having a lesser likelihood of risk for sexually transmitted diseases than would targets who were described as single. Gender of the targets and gender of the participants also were examined as potential moderating variables. In five vignette studies, people rated single targets as having more risky personality traits and higher probabilistic risk for STDs than partnered targets. They also reported a greater desire to be involved with someone similar to the partnered target. In general, male and female targets were perceived similarly; however, female targets were rated as having a lower probabilistic risk.
A first aim of the present chapter is to provide evidence for the spread of spirituality during the last few decades by studying spiritual beliefs and self-designations among the general populations of Western countries. This chapter’s more important second aim is to refine Houtman and Mascini’s (2002) theory that the spread of spirituality is caused by a process of detraditionalisation. This refinement is called for, because in its original form it cannot explain the high levels of affinity with spirituality among women (although it does a good job in explaining those among the younger age cohorts and the well educated). With men and women being identical when it comes to levels of post-traditionalism, the question why women nevertheless display more affinity with spirituality than men remains ‘an intriguing and theoretically important puzzle to be solved’ (Houtman and Mascini, 2002: 468). Solving this ‘gender puzzle’ (Heelas et al., 2004) requires gendering the theory of detraditionalisation (see also Woodhead 2005, forthcoming
2006). The second aim of the present chapter, in short, is to develop and test a gendered version of the theory of detraditionalisation.
Complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) is increasingly utilized and accepted by patients and providers throughout the American health care system. Most accounts attribute this growing acceptability to the shortcomings of conventional medicine, the appeal of CAM's core beliefs, and the growing body of research indicating that CAM actually works. These explanations, while all accurate to some degree, neglect the extent to which CAM's recent success is due to economic and political factors. This article describes the emerging relationship between CAM and major economic actors (pharmaceutical firms, managed care companies, insurance companies, media conglomerates, Internet providers, etc.) as well as CAM's relationship with a range of political forces (political parties, bureaucrats, lobbying groups, ethnic- and gender-based movements and organizations, etc.). The convergence of interests between these economic and political forces and many of CAM's goals is one important reason for CAM's recent success.
Context.—
Research both in the United States and abroad suggests that significant
numbers of people are involved with various forms of alternative medicine.
However, the reasons for such use are, at present, poorly understood.Objective.—
To investigate possible predictors of alternative health care use.Methods.—
Three primary hypotheses were tested. People seek out these alternatives
because (1) they are dissatisfied in some way with conventional treatment;
(2) they see alternative treatments as offering more personal autonomy and
control over health care decisions; and (3) the alternatives are seen as more
compatible with the patients' values, worldview, or beliefs regarding the
nature and meaning of health and illness. Additional predictor variables explored
included demographics and health status.Design.—
A written survey examining use of alternative health care, health status,
values, and attitudes toward conventional medicine. Multiple logistic regression
analyses were used in an effort to identify predictors of alternative health
care use.Setting and Participants.—
A total of 1035 individuals randomly selected from a panel who had agreed
to participate in mail surveys and who live throughout the United States.Main Outcome Measure.—
Use of alternative medicine within the previous year.Results.—
The response rate was 69%.The following variables emerged as predictors
of alternative health care use: more education (odds ratio [OR], 1.2; 95%
confidence interval [CI], 1.1-1.3); poorer health status (OR, 1.3; 95% CI,
1.1-1.5); a holistic orientation to health (OR, 1.4; 95% CI, 1.1-1.9); having
had a transformational experience that changed the person's worldview (OR,
1.8; 95% CI, 1.3-2.5); any of the following health problems: anxiety (OR,
3.1; 95% CI, 1.6-6.0); back problems (OR, 2.3; 95% CI, 1.7-3.2); chronic pain
(OR, 2.0; 95% CI, 1.1-3.5); urinary tract problems (OR, 2.2; 95% CI, 1.3-3.5);
and classification in a cultural group identifiable by their commitment to
environmentalism, commitment to feminism, and interest in spirituality and
personal growth psychology (OR, 2.0; 95% CI, 1.4-2.7). Dissatisfaction with
conventional medicine did not predict use of alternative medicine. Only 4.4%
of those surveyed reported relying primarily on alternative therapies.Conclusion.—
Along with being more educated and reporting poorer health status, the
majority of alternative medicine users appear to be doing so not so much as
a result of being dissatisfied with conventional medicine but largely because
they find these health care alternatives to be more congruent with their own
values, beliefs, and philosophical orientations toward health and life.
IN 1993 Eisenberg and colleagues1 reported
that 34% of adults in the United States used at least 1 unconventional form
of health care (defined as those practices "neither taught widely in U.S.
medical schools nor generally available in U.S. hospitals") during the previous
year. The most frequently used alternatives to conventional medicine were
relaxation techniques, chiropractic, and massage. Although educated, middle-class
white persons between the ages of 25 and 49 years were the most likely ones
to use alternative medicine, use was not confined to any particular segment
of the population. These researchers estimated that Americans made 425 million
visits to alternative health care providers in 1990, a figure that exceeded
the number of visits to allopathic primary care physicians during the same
period.
Recent studies in the United States2
and abroad3- 4 support the prevalent
use of alternative health care. For example, a 1994 survey of physicians from
a wide array of medical specialties (in Washington State, New Mexico, and
Israel) revealed that more than 60% recommended alternative therapies to their
patients at least once in the preceding year, while 38% had done so in the
previous month.2 Forty-seven percent of these
physicians also reported using alternative therapies themselves, while 23%
incorporated them into their practices.
When faced with the apparent popularity of unconventional medical practices
and the fact that people seem quite willing to pay out-of-pocket for these
services,1 the question arises: What are the
sociocultural and personal factors (health status, beliefs, attitudes, motivations)
underlying a person's decision to use alternative therapies?
At present, there is no clear or comprehensive theoretical model to
account for the increasing use of alternative forms of health care. Accordingly,
the goal of the present study was to develop some tentative explanatory models
that might account for this phenomenon.
Three theories that have been proposed to explain the use of alternative
medicine were tested:
Dissatisfaction: Patients are dissatisfied with
conventional treatment because it has been ineffective,5- 6
has produced adverse effects,6- 7
or is seen as impersonal, too technologically oriented, and/or too costly.6- 15Need for personal control: Patients seek alternative
therapies because they see them as less authoritarian16
and more empowering and as offering them more personal autonomy and control
over their health care decisions.14,16- 19Philosophical congruence: Alternative therapies
are attractive because they are seen as more compatible with patients' values,
worldview, spiritual/religious philosophy, or beliefs regarding the nature
and meaning of health and illness.19- 24
In addition to testing the validity of these 3 theoretical perspectives,
this study also sought to determine on an exploratory basis how the decision
to seek alternative therapies is affected by patients' health status and demographic
factors.
“Public” life once meant that vital part one’s life outside the circle of family and close friends. Connecting with strangers in an emotionally satisfying way and yet remaining aloof from them was seen as the means by which the human animal was transformed into the social – the civilized – being. And the fullest flowering of that public life was realized in the 18th Century in the great capital cities of Europe.
Sennett shows how our lives today are bereft of the pleasures and reinforcements of this lost interchange with fellow citizens. He shows how, today, the stranger is a threatening figure; how silence and observation have become the only ways to experience public life, especially street life, without feeling overwhelmed ; how each person believes in the right, in public, to be left alone. And he makes clear how, because of the change in public life, private life becomes distorted as we of necessity focus more and more on ourselves, on increasingly narcissistic forms of intimacy and self-absorption. Because of this, our personalities cannot fully develop: we lack much of the ease, the spirit of play, the kind of discretion that would allow us real and pleasurable relationships with those whom we may never know intimately.
Contemporary sociology conceptualizes religion along two dimensions: the institutional and the individual. Lost in this dichotomy is religion's noninstitutional, but collective and public, cultural dimension. As a result, theories of religious modernity, including both sides of the secularization debate, are unable to recognize or evaluate the social power of noninstitutionalized religious communication. This article offers a reconceptualization of religion that highlights its cultural, communicative dimension. Original research on religious talk provides an empirical ground for a theoretical discussion that highlights: (1) the “invisible” nature of religion in modern societies, as theorized by Thomas Luckmann and (2) the social power attributed to communication by contemporary cultural sociologists and cultural theorists. I argue that conceptualizing religion as an evolving societal conversation about transcendent meaning broadens the empirical and theoretical grasp of the religion concept.
Recent discussions of religious attitudes and behavior tend to suggest—and in a few cases, provide evidence—that Americans are becoming “more spiritual” and “less religious.” What do people mean, however, when they say they are “spiritual” or “religious”? Do Americans see these concepts as definitionally or operationally different? If so, does that difference result in a zero-sum dynamic between them? In this article, we explore the relationship between “being religious” and “being spiritual” in a national sample of American Protestants and compare our findings to other studies, including Wade Clark Roof’s baby-boomer research (1993, 2000), 1999 Gallup and 2000 Spirituality and Health polls, and the Zinnbauer et al. (1997) study of religious definitions. In addition to presenting quantitative and qualitative evidence about the way people think about their religious/spiritual identity, the article draws implications about modernity, the distinctiveness of religious change in the recent past, and the deinstitutionalization of religion.
Wellbeing is a quality in demand in today's society. Wellbeing is virtue that is much desired, much promoted, and much debated. Yet, as an ideal, wellbeing is not a concept set in stone. Rather, conceptualisations and experiences of wellbeing are produced in and through wider social perceptions and practices. This article outlines and analyses contemporary conceptualisations of wellbeing and suggests that ideas of wellbeing capture and reproduce important social norms. Indeed, the increasing popularity of the ideal of wellbeing appears to reflect shifts in perceptions and experiences of individual agency and responsibility. In particular, dominant discourses of wellbeing relate to changes in subjectivity; they manifest a move from subjects as citizens to subjects as consumers. In a consumer society, wellbeing emerges as a normative obligation chosen and sought after by individual agents. This article is informed by social theories of subjectivity and critical analyses of selected newspaper reports from 1985 to 2003.
From feng shui to holistic medicine, from aromatherapy candles to yoga weekends, spirituality is big business. It promises to soothe away the angst of modern living, and to offer an antidote to shallow materialism. Selling Spirituality is a short, sharp attack on this fallacy. It shows how spirituality has in fact become a powerful commodity in the global marketplace--a cultural addiction that reflects orthodox politics, curbs self-expression and colonizes Eastern beliefs. Exposing how spirituality has today come to embody the privatization of religion in the modern West, Jeremy Carrette and Richard King reveal the people and brands who profit from this corporate hijack, and explore how spirituality can be reclaimed as a means of resistance to capitalism and its frauds.
Three prominent social thinkers discuss how modern society is undercutting its formations of class, stratum, occupations, sex roles, the nuclear family, and more. Reflexive modernization, or the way one kind of modernization undercuts and changes another, has wide ranging implications for contemporary social and cultural theory, as this provocative book demonstrates.
Thesis--Harvard. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 612-624). Microfilm (negative) of typescript. Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard University Library Microreproduction Service, 1978. -- 1 reel ; 35 mm.
Powers of Freedom, first published in 1999, offers a compelling approach to the analysis of political power which extends Foucault's hypotheses on governmentality in challenging ways. Nikolas Rose sets out the key characteristics of this approach to political power and analyses the government of conduct. He analyses the role of expertise, the politics of numbers, technologies of economic management and the political uses of space. He illuminates the relation of this approach to contemporary theories of 'risk society' and 'the sociology of governance'. He argues that freedom is not the opposite of government but one of its key inventions and most significant resources. He also seeks some rapprochement between analyses of government and the concerns of critical sociology, cultural studies and Marxism, to establish a basis for the critique of power and its exercise. The book will be of interest to students and scholars in political theory, sociology, social policy and cultural studies.
Over 250 patients from three complementary medicine practices—acupuncture, osteopathy and homoeopathy-completed a questionnaire rating 20 potential reasons for seeking complementary treatment. The reasons that were most strongly endorsed were ‘because I value the emphasis on treating the whole person’; ‘because I believe complementary therapy will be more effective for my problem than orthodox medicine’; ‘because I believe that complementary medicine will enable me to take a more active part in maintaining my health’; and ‘because orthodox treatment was not effective for my particular problem’.
Five factors were identified, in order of importance: a positive valuation of complementary treatment, the ineffectiveness of orthodox treatment for their complaint, concern about the adverse effects of orthodox medicine, concerns about communication with doctors and, of less importance, the availability of complementary medicine. Groups were compared, using analysis of covariance to control for demographic differences between the three patient groups.
Osteopathy patients' reasons indicated they were least concerned about the side effects of orthodox medicine and most influenced by the availability of osteopathy for their complaints. Homoeopathy patients were most strongly influenced by the ineffectiveness of orthodox medicine for their complaints, a fact which was largely accounted for by the chronicity of their complaints. Results are discussed in terms of the limited research in this area. Future studies should separate the reasons for beginning complementary treatment from the reasons for continuing it. It is possible, for instance, that the failure of orthodox medicine is the strongest motive for seeking complementary treatment but that, once treatment has been experienced, other more positive factors become more important.
This study investigated some of the factors associated with the choice of alternative health therapy that have attracted the greatest attention in the largely exploratory research carried out to date. Patients of an alternative health centre and a comparable community sample were interviewed by telephone. The alternative therapy respondents showed a substantially lower level of confidence in the efficacy of conventional medicine in general, but they were not clearly less satisfied with their recent experiences with medical practitioners and treatment. Even though there was no evidence that they suffered more from persistent medical conditions, they were clearly less satisfied with the ability of conventional treatment to relieve them. Alternative therapy respondents preferred alternative treatment for a wide range of symptoms, but they were selective in their choices of treatment. They perceived themselves to be substantially more "unconventional" than did the community sample. Overall, the variables that best distinguished the alternative therapy group from the community sample were "unconventionality" and "general lack of confidence in conventional medical treatment", both of which made significant independent contributions. It is suggested that research in the area should now move from an exploratory approach to the testing of explicit explanatory propositions.
This paper reports on research conducted in a large Canadian city during 1994-1995. The study examines the motivations of patients who choose to seek care from one of five different types of practitioners: family physicians, chiropractors, acupuncturists/traditional Chinese doctors, naturopaths and Reiki practitioners. We use the Andersen socio-behavioural model to help explain why people choose orthodox medicine or a type of alternative care. The data are derived from face to face interviews with 300 patients: 60 from each of the five modes of treatment. The findings demonstrate that this model can explain the use of alternative as well as orthodox medical services. Patients choose specific kinds of practitioners for particular problems, and some use a mixture of practitioners to treat a specific complaint. The choice of type of practitioner(s) is multidimensional and cannot solely be explained either by disenchantment with medicine or by an "alternative ideology".
Research both in the United States and abroad suggests that significant numbers of people are involved with various forms of alternative medicine. However, the reasons for such use are, at present, poorly understood.
To investigate possible predictors of alternative health care use.
Three primary hypotheses were tested. People seek out these alternatives because (1) they are dissatisfied in some way with conventional treatment; (2) they see alternative treatments as offering more personal autonomy and control over health care decisions; and (3) the alternatives are seen as more compatible with the patients' values, worldview, or beliefs regarding the nature and meaning of health and illness. Additional predictor variables explored included demographics and health status.
A written survey examining use of alternative health care, health status, values, and attitudes toward conventional medicine. Multiple logistic regression analyses were used in an effort to identify predictors of alternative health care use.
A total of 1035 individuals randomly selected from a panel who had agreed to participate in mail surveys and who live throughout the United States.
Use of alternative medicine within the previous year.
The response rate was 69%. The following variables emerged as predictors of alternative health care use: more education (odds ratio [OR], 1.2; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.1-1.3); poorer health status (OR, 1.3; 95% CI, 1.1-1.5); a holistic orientation to health (OR, 1.4; 95% CI, 1.1-1.9); having had a transformational experience that changed the person's worldview (OR, 1 .8; 95% CI, 1 .3-2.5); any of the following health problems: anxiety (OR, 3.1; 95% CI, 1.6-6.0); back problems (OR, 2.3; 95% CI, 1 .7-3.2); chronic pain (OR, 2.0; 95% CI, 1.1 -3.5); urinarytract problems (OR, 2.2; 95% CI, 1.3-3.5); and classification in a cultural group identifiable by their commitment to environmentalism, commitment to feminism, and interest in spirituality and personal growth psychology (OR, 2.0; 95% CI, 1.4-2.7). Dissatisfaction with conventional medicine did not predict use of alternative medicine. Only 4.4% of those surveyed reported relying primarily on alternative therapies.
Along with being more educated and reporting poorer health status, the majority of alternative medicine users appear to be doing so not so much as a result of being dissatisfied with conventional medicine but largely because they find these health care alternatives to be more congruent with their own values, beliefs, and philosophical orientations toward health and life.
Many claims are made that complementary medicine use is a substantial and growing part of health-care behaviour. Estimates of practitioner visits in the USA and Australia indicate high levels of use and expenditure. No reliable population-based estimates of practitioner use are available for the UK.
In 1998, a previously piloted postal questionnaire was sent to a geographically stratified, random sample of 5010 adults in England. The questionnaire focuses on practitioner contacts, but also asked about the purchase of over-the-counter remedies. Additional information was requested on socio-demographic characteristics, perceived health, and recent NHS resource use. Information on use included reason for encounter, expenditure, insurance, and location of visit.
Population estimates (by age group and sex) of lifetime use and use in the past 12 months for acupuncture, chiropractic, homoeopathy, hypnotherapy, medical herbalism, osteopathy. Estimates for two additional therapies (reflexology and aromatherapy), and homoeopathic or herbal remedies purchased over-the-counter. Estimates of annual out-of-pocket expenditure on practitioner visits in 1998.
A crude response rate of 60% was achieved (adjusted response rate 59%). Responders were older and more likely to be female than non-responders. Usable responses (n = 2669) were weighted using the age/sex profile of the sample frame. From these adjusted data we estimate that 10.6% (95% CI 9.4 to 11.7) of the adult population of England had visited at least one therapist providing any one of the six more established therapies in the past 12 months (13.6% for use of any of the eight named therapies, 95% CI 12.3 to 14.9). If all eight therapies, and self-care using remedies purchased over the counter are included, the estimated proportion rises to 28.3% (95% CI 26.6 to 30.0) for use in the past 12 months, and 46.6% (95% CI 44.6 to 48.5) for lifetime use. All types of use declined in older age groups, and were more commonly reported by women than men (P < 0.01 for all comparisons). An estimated 22 million visits were made to practitioners of one of the six established therapies in 1998. The NHS provided an estimated 10% of these contacts. The majority of non-NHS visits were financed through direct out-of-pocket expenditure. Annual out-of-pocket expenditure on any of the six more established therapies was estimated at pound 450 million (95% CI 357 to 543).
This survey has demonstrated substantial use of practitioner-provided complementary therapies in England in 1998. The findings suggest that CAM is making a measurable contribution to first-contact primary care. However, we have shown that 90% of this provision is purchased privately. Further research into the cost-effectiveness of different CAM therapies for particular patient groups is now urgently needed to facilitate equal and appropriate access via the NHS.