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When Leaders Display Emotion: How Followers Respond to Negative Emotional Expression of Male and Female Leaders
Abstract
A leader's emotional display is proposed to affect his or her audience. In this study, observing a male or female leader express negative emotion was proposed to influence the observer's affective state and assessment of the leader's effectiveness. In a laboratory study, a leader's specific negative emotional tone impacted the affective state of participants in the study. Negative emotional display had a significant and negative main effect on participant assessment of leader effectiveness compared to a more neutral emotional display. Further, a significant interaction between leader gender and emotion was found. Male leaders received lower effectiveness ratings when expressing sadness compared to neutrality, while female leaders received lower ratings when expressing either sadness or anger. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
... However, the existing research on leader anger expression has implicitly or explicitly suggested its immediate destructive effects on employees' desire to engage in social relationships with the leader or the team. Specifically, leader anger expression signals the leader's tyrannical personality (Brescoll & Uhlmann, 2008;Shao et al., 2018); shows his/her intention to harm others (Shao, 2019b); stimulates anger or other negative emotions in the followers (e.g., Eberly & Fong, 2013;Johnson & Connelly, 2014;Lewis, 2000;Madera & Smith, 2009); reduces interpersonal liking (Koning & Van Kleef, 2015;Van Kleef et al., 2009); elicits low ratings of leadership effectiveness (Gaddis et al., 2004;Glomb & Hulin, 1997;Lewis, 2000); and leads to more deviant behaviors towards the leader (Schwarzmüller et al., 2018) and fewer citizenship behaviors (Koning & Van Kleef, 2015). This line of research has focused predominantly on leader anger expression that has no explicit target (e.g., Eberly & Fong, 2013;Shao et al., 2018, Study 2;Van Kleef et al., 2010a) or that targets employees' performance deficiencies (e.g., Glomb & Hulin, 1997;Koning & Van Kleef, 2015;Shao et al., 2018, Study 1, Study 3;Van Kleef et al., 2010c;Van Kleef et al., 2009). ...
... However, the existing research on leader anger expression has implicitly or explicitly suggested its immediate destructive effects on employees' desire to engage in social relationships with the leader or the team. Specifically, leader anger expression signals the leader's tyrannical personality (Brescoll & Uhlmann, 2008;Shao et al., 2018); shows his/her intention to harm others (Shao, 2019b); stimulates anger or other negative emotions in the followers (e.g., Eberly & Fong, 2013;Johnson & Connelly, 2014;Lewis, 2000;Madera & Smith, 2009); reduces interpersonal liking (Koning & Van Kleef, 2015;Van Kleef et al., 2009); elicits low ratings of leadership effectiveness (Gaddis et al., 2004;Glomb & Hulin, 1997;Lewis, 2000); and leads to more deviant behaviors towards the leader (Schwarzmüller et al., 2018) and fewer citizenship behaviors (Koning & Van Kleef, 2015). This line of research has focused predominantly on leader anger expression that has no explicit target (e.g., Eberly & Fong, 2013;Shao et al., 2018, Study 2;Van Kleef et al., 2010a) or that targets employees' performance deficiencies (e.g., Glomb & Hulin, 1997;Koning & Van Kleef, 2015;Shao et al., 2018, Study 1, Study 3;Van Kleef et al., 2010c;Van Kleef et al., 2009). ...
... The conceptual model outlining the hypothesized relationships is shown in Figure 1. (Gaddis et al., 2004;Glomb & Hulin, 1997;Koning & Van Kleef, 2015;Lewis, 2000). By viewing UB-targeted leader anger expression through a fairness lens, the current study recognizes that leader anger expression in a unique context, when unethical behaviors are observed, may motivate employees to invest in and get involved in social relationships with the leader and the whole team. ...
Although leader anger expression targeted at employees' unethical behavior is pervasive in the workplace, we still know little about its theoretical meaning and consequences. To address this theoretical blind spot, we drew on fairness heuristic theory to investigate whether, how, and when unethical‐behavior‐targeted (UB‐targeted) leader anger expression affects team outcomes. Our findings from two time‐lagged field studies suggest that a punishment‐based distributive justice climate mediates the positive effects of UB‐targeted leader anger expression on team organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) and team viability. Moreover, leader moral decoupling weakens these indirect relationships. Specifically, the indirect relationships are weaker when the leader separated judgments of performance from those of ethics. These findings highlight the importance of a fairness perspective in understanding the consequences of leader anger expression targeted at unethical behaviors.
... The prevailing assumption in the literature is that leaders' experience of negative emotions is associated with dysfunctional leader behaviors and impaired employee outcomes (Barsade, 2002;Gaddis, Connelly, & Mumford, 2004;Lewis, 2000). For instance, the metaanalytical study by Joseph, Dhanani, Shen, McHugh, and McCord (2015) showed that leader negative affectivity was negatively related to leader effectiveness. ...
... First, our findings contribute to the debate regarding the extent to which leader negative emotions may be beneficial (Barsade, 2002;Gaddis et al., 2004;Lewis, 2000) vs. ...
... Interestingly, although not predicted, our findings also reveal a negative linear and a positive curvilinear (i.e., U-shaped) main effect of leader fear of COVID-19 on leader promotion of team goals. The linear effect might reflect the assumption suggesting that leader negative emotions are detrimental to leader effectiveness (Barsade, 2002;Gaddis et al., 2004;Lewis, 2000). Conversely, the U-shaped effect might mirror the alternative perspective arguing that high-activated emotions can provide the energizing potential for effective actions to face work-related issues (Frijda, 1987;Russell, 1980Russell, , 2003. ...
The literature generally surmises that negative affective states of leaders are detrimental to leader effectiveness and work outcomes. Taking the opposite view, this study explores how the negative affective experiences of leaders related to COVID-19 may foster team commitment and employee performance. By integrating personality systems interaction theory, cognitive appraisal theory, and the literature on stress-based emotions, we develop a model that clarifies when, how, and to what extent leader fearful states related to COVID-19 drive employee performance. Using three-wave and multisource data from 579 employees and their leaders from 69 teams, we found that among leaders who exhibited higher levels of positive affectivity, leader fear of COVID-19 indirectly fostered employee performance via the mediating roles of leader promotion of team goals and team commitment. Moreover, these moderated indirect effects were strongest at moderate levels of leader fear of COVID-19. We discuss the theoretical and practical implications of these findings for research on leader affective states.
... Evidence for affect-improving IAR in this social role configuration is largely rooted in positive leadership theories and perspectives, such as transformational (Bass, 1985;1998) , 1995). For example, transformational leaders use positive emotions when communicating a vision to elicit positive responses from their subordinates (Lewis, 2000). These leaders also use their own affect to influence their employees by arousing similar feelings in their followers (Conger & Kanungo, 1998). ...
... In this context, we propose affect-improving IAR in the internal vertical social role configuration to be primarily driven by leaders' motives of coaching and compassion as well as instrumentality, in line with leaders' dual focus on task and relational aspects of work (Hemphill & Coons, 1957;DeRue et al., 2011;Stogdill, 1963;Yukl et al., 2002). For example, research on transformational, charismatic, and authentic leadership suggests leaders often engage in IAR to influence followers' feelings of excitement and inspiration to promote higher performance in followers (e.g., Lewis, 2000;Sutton, 2004;Sy et al., 2005;Yukl & Howell, 1999), resembling a coaching motive. Similarly, leaders frequently focus on improving followers' social functioning and well-being at work (Day & Antonakis, 2012;Judge et al., 2004). ...
Individuals often attempt to influence the affective states of others in the workplace. Such interpersonal affect regulation (IAR) occurs across social settings that are characterized by distinct roles and relationships between actors and targets. However, it is unclear whether and how IAR processes and outcomes differ across settings as pertinent research has developed in separate organizational literatures with different research traditions that have thus far not been compared or integrated. In addition, despite the social nature of IAR, the types of relationships between the actor engaging in IAR and the target of IAR have rarely been considered in prior research. Here, we present an integrative framework to establish why and how social roles at work shape motivation, strategies, and affective outcomes of IAR across three core actor-target configurations in organizations. Specifically, we theorize how internal-vertical, internal-horizontal, and external social role configurations influence IAR. We provide integrative insights into the nature and implications of IAR in organizations and generate a comprehensive agenda for future research on IAR.
... Other scholars have shown how leaders' negative emotions are negatively related to leader effectiveness (Connelly and Ruark 2010;Glomb and Hulin 1997;Lewis 2000;Schaubroeck and Shao 2012) and followers' performance (Connelly and Ruark 2010;Game 2008;Johnson 2009;Lewis 2000). ...
... Other scholars have shown how leaders' negative emotions are negatively related to leader effectiveness (Connelly and Ruark 2010;Glomb and Hulin 1997;Lewis 2000;Schaubroeck and Shao 2012) and followers' performance (Connelly and Ruark 2010;Game 2008;Johnson 2009;Lewis 2000). ...
Emotions are an important component of human life, influencing dyadic and organization-wide interactions. More specifically, leaders’ emotions affect positively and negatively not only their followers, but also organizational and group outcomes. Through a multiple case study of four collaborative governance networks, this paper explores whether and how leaders’ emotions influence network success. The results show that the emotional states that leaders bring into the network seem to influence its functioning: positive emotions seem to propel its activities and outcomes; negative emotions appear to curb them. Emotions seem also to interact with network identity and trust in affecting network success.
... Research on the impacts of leaders' positive and negative emotions on followers has shown the importance of leader's staying positive in the face of organizational demands (George and Bettenhausen, 1990;George, 1995;George, 2000;Lewis, 2000;Humphrey, 2002;Gaddis et al., 2004;Sy et al., 2005;Humphrey et al., 2008). Sy et al. (2005) provide evidence that a leader's emotions are contagious. ...
... The leader's positive (negative) moods induced group members to experience more positive (negative) moods and affective tone. Lewis (2000) similarly found that a leader's negative emotions induced more follower negative affective states and less favorable assessments of leader effectiveness. A leader's high levels of emotional labor can benefit followers and organizations, but the potential cost can be emotional exhaustion and drained vitality. ...
Introduction
Leaders of organizations have incessant demands placed on them, including cultivating teams, building culture, and increasing the bottom line, in addition to caring for followers’ well-being and thriving. Numerous resources are required to meet these continuous demands, and vitality is one of the most valuable.
Methods
Through interviewing 20 of the most influential and pressured leaders of Fortune 1,000 companies, this qualitative study answers three important questions: what drains vitality, what fosters it, and how do leaders most effectively utilize vitality for followers?
Results
The results shed light on psychological mechanisms that drain leaders’ vitality, including emotional labor, self-control, loss of job control, the unproductive mindsets of others, and isolation created from the role. In terms of fostering vitality, several of the pathways of the PERMA+4 model of well-being were highlighted, including fostering relationships, physical health, accomplishment, mindset, meaning, environment, and engagement. Two additional themes that foster vitality included job autonomy and time away from work. Themes emerged that underscore how leaders utilize their vitality for followers, and the potentially detrimental impacts to leadership when leaders are drained.
Discussion
Overall, results highlight the importance of vitality and self-care as critical for leaders’ ability to maximize their leadership performance.
... Selecting appropriate emotions to express can reflect upon the organizations' ability to respond efficiently to crises (Lewis, 2000). Although the recognition of the significances for emotional factors in crisis communication by public relations practitioners has been slow (Read, 2007), the results from previous studies suggest that understanding the role of emotions communicated in crisis responses may be helpful. ...
... However, most of the existing literature in this domain has focused on how to alter the emotions of participants rather than the significance and usage of pre-determined emotional appeals. To address this research gap, Lewis (2000) elucidated that emotional appeals displayed in crisis response messages may affect publics' estimation of risk and change the way they understand the role of organizations in crisis. ...
The thoughtful use of emotion by an organization during crisis communication may help enhance or safeguard its reputation and credibility. However, there have been only limited studies evaluating the influence of communicated emotions in terms of how publics process crisis information released by the organization and consequently their relationships with the organization. Additionally, the invention and widespread use of social media has greatly changed the way people communicate and receive information. In crisis situations, social media has been integrated into crisis response strategies of organizations not only to prevent potential damage to organization–public relations (OPR), but also to influence stakeholders’ behavioral intentions toward the organization. The rapidly changing digital environment has led to an increase of expression in emotional forms, which should cause more scholars to consider the influence of communicated emotions in crisis communication. Further, more in-depth systematic studies are required to investigate the intersection of emotional communication and social media in crisis communication. Therefore, this paper proposes that appropriate expressions of emotions by organizations in crisis communication may be conducive to establishing and maintaining positive relationships with the publics, and consequently may cause the public to engage in favorable behaviors on social media sites.
The present study aims to analyze the influence of emotional expressions in corporate response for a natural disaster crisis through social media on OPR and on the public’s behavioral intentions. By highlighting the role played by communicated emotions in crisis outcomes, the findings of this study will help explore whether and how communicated emotions, integrated with the social media ecosystem, affects publics’ relationships with the organization in the context of crisis situations.
... Previous studies (e.g. Lewis, 2000) showed that gender-role expectations could influence the perception of effectiveness in leaders. This study showed that female leaders with the expression of anger and sadness were rated as less effective leaders. ...
... In our culture, men are not encouraged to show emotions, sadness in particular. A previously mentioned study (Lewis, 2000) showed that the presence of a sad expression in male leaders also led to a lower rating of their effectiveness. This is not surprising knowing that sadness could be seen as passiveness and lack of confidence. ...
Facial attractiveness is the concept that has been widely explored in previous studies. The findings suggest that some of the factors that affect aesthetical judgment of faces include symmetry, averageness, and facial expressions. The role of facial expressions is not fully established, but it seems that faces with the facial expression of happiness are rated higher (at least female faces). The aim of our study is to explore whether the presence of facial expressions has a different effect on the aesthetic judgment of female and male faces. Unlike previous studies, in which this was not explicitly controlled, we only considered facial expressions that were correctly recognized at 90% or more. A total of 61 respondents participated in this study. They evaluated female and male faces with the expressions of happiness, anger, sadness, or neutral on several scales: Beautiful, Pleasant, Attractive, and Harmonious. Overall, female faces were rated as more attractive, beautiful, and pleasant, but not harmonious. In addition, faces with the expressions of anger and sadness were rated lower on each scale compared to neutral and happy faces, and sad male faces were rated lower compared to sad female faces. One of the possible explanations for such a result could be the role of the social context in which the society discourages the display of certain emotions, particularly for men. Sad men are seen as weak and weak man are not attractive (because this does not fit into their gender role).
... Since leaders profoundly influence organizational functions and members (Yukl, 2010), leaders' sentiments can influence subordinates' perceptions, psychological states, and behaviors. While scholars have speculated the potential significance of individuals' beliefs regarding leaders' emotions and moods (Lewis, 2000;Sy et al., 2005Sy et al., , 2018Damen et al., 2008;Fein and Isaacson, 2009;Sy and Van Knippenberg, 2021), the extant literature has not been investigating thoughtfully these beliefs regarding leaders' sentiments. For instance, Inceoglu et al.'s (2018) integrated review has identified only one study encompassing such beliefs, which mediate the relationship between leadership behaviors (supported and un-supported) and employee well-being (job strain and job satisfaction) (see Rooney et al., 2009). ...
This research examines the role of employees’ perceptions regarding the sentiments of their leaders in predicting followers’ levels of work engagement. Drawing on the Affective Events theory, Emotion as Information Model and Job Demands-Resources theory, it investigates the types of sentiments employees perceive their leaders display and whether these perceptions are associated with favorable employee outcomes, namely work engagement. Following a mixed-method research design, we collected both qualitative and quantitative data in Lebanon. We first interviewed Lebanese experts regarding the most common sentiments that leaders display in their workplaces. Informed by the qualitative research findings, we tested our conceptual model, collecting responses from a two-wave survey among 337 Lebanese employees. The results of the qualitative study provided the categorization of both positive and negative leader sentiments. The quantitative research findings indicated that employees’ perceived leader sentiments positively influence their work engagement levels. This relationship was partially mediated by employees’ amplification of their positive emotions towards their leader. Offering insights from a non-Western workplace context, the findings of this study can serve as the basis for future cross-cultural comparisons regarding the role of leaders’ sentiments in promoting favorable employee outcomes in the workplace.
... Both theoretical and empirical evidence support these possibilities. For instance, research indicates that when female leaders express anger, they are perceived as less effective compared to male leaders (Lewis, 2000). Brett et al. (2005) discovered that women face greater consequences than men when they fail to discipline in a considerate manner. ...
This study investigates whether female superiors can be considered a form of management capital. To explore this, our research question is: Do female superiors receive higher compliance with management directives from their subordinates than male superiors? Using a survey experiment with Nepalese civil servants (n = 858), the study finds that compliance with managerial directives is higher when the superior is female. This effect may be influenced by the differing attitudes typically associated with male and female superiors (agentic vs. communal). The research reveals gender dynamics among subordinates, showing that female subordinates are more reluctant to comply with male superiors compared to male subordinates. However, their willingness to comply increases when the request comes from a female superior. This variation may stem from female subordinates perceiving male superiors as less considerate than female superiors, particularly when assigning tasks such as carrying out inspections in remote hilly areas.
... The most influential articles on women's leadership are given in Table 2. According to Table 2, the first most cited article is Lewis (2000). According to the article's findings, a specific negative emotional tone of a leader affects the participants' emotional state in the study. ...
This study aimed to identify main and promising research topics on women's leadership and refine publication policies for future studies. Using articles titled “women's leadership” from the Web of Science database, bibliometric analysis was conducted on 474 unique keywords across 189 articles. Findings revealed “leadership,” “gender,” “women,” and “gender diversity” as main research topics, with “gender diversity,” “intersectionality,” and “resilience” emerging as current themes. Scientific mapping categorized “leadership” and “women” as “Not Promising Research Topics,” “genders” as “Transition Research Topics,” and “Gender Diversity” as “Promising Research Topics.” The discussion, which outlines future research directions, holds the potential to inspire and motivate further research in the field of women's leadership studies.
... Similarly, men are expected to express anger more overtly because they believe it will help to maintain power and status (Backor, 2009), and are less concerned with consequences to interpersonal relationships at work (Timmers et al., 1998;Gibson et al., 2009). Research suggests that anger is an "endorsed" or encouraged emotion for men, whereas anger is not an endorsed or desirable emotion for women in the workplace (Lewis, 2000). Overall, this research offers novel insights into the moderating role of gender in a non-Western context (i.e. ...
Purpose
Drawing on affective events theory, the purpose of this paper was to investigate direct and indirect relationships between perceived organizational politics and workplace cyberbullying (WCB) perpetration mediated through anger, as well as to examine the moderating role of gender in these relationships.
Design/methodology/approach
The sample comprised 534 white-collar employees who were employed in a variety of service industries, including banking, higher education, telecommunications, health care and insurance in Islamabad, Pakistan. Data were analyzed using the structural equation modeling technique in Amos.
Findings
Results demonstrated that perceived organizational politics has a direct positive effect on WCB perpetration. Moreover, results indicated that perceived organizational politics evokes anger among employees that, in turn, triggers WCB perpetration. Results of a multigroup analysis revealed that the positive effect of perceived organizational politics on WCB perpetration was not significantly different between men and women. However, the positive relationship between perceived organizational politics and anger was significantly stronger for men than for women. Likewise, this study found a significantly stronger relationship for men than for women between anger and WCB perpetration. Anger partially mediated the relationship between perceived organizational politics and WCB perpetration only among men.
Originality/value
This study contributes to the literature by demonstrating that perceived organizational politics triggers WCB perpetration directly and indirectly through its impact on anger. Moreover, this study identified gender differences in the experience and expression of anger in response to perceived organizational politics.
... In general, in the work environment, women may be penalized for minor or moderate displays of emotion, especially when the emotion displayed conveys dominance, such as anger or pride [26][27][28]. ...
This paper investigates the negative and positive effects of emotional expression in the workplace on women's career development, and finds that the antecedent variables are gender stereotypes and differences in gender expectations in the female workplace. Through the method of literature review, it is found that there is a lack of analysis of the mechanisms and pathways to intervene in gender stereotyping in the workplace, and it is suggested that in the future, we should explore how to realize career development from the perspective of women's self-development.
... Thus, we could expect angry women and sad men to be taken less seriously and be less trusted than angry men and sad women, respectively. Previous research focusing on other professions supports such backlash effects for violating gender stereotypes regarding emotional expressions, particularly when it comes to anger in women (Brescoll & Uhlmann, 2008;Lewis, 2000;Salerno et al., 2018;Salerno & Peter-Hagene, 2015). ...
... Consequently, individuals who follow the leader on social media are more likely to echo their emotions. Lewis (2000) utilised filmed speeches to evaluate the emotions of leaders and how they influenced their followers. He found that neutral emotions are more effective than angry or sad ones. ...
In a complex information environment, Russia’s invasion of Ukraine presents a major challenge to the communication of political leaders throughout the world. The objective of this article is to analyse the frames and sentiments used by German chancellor Olaf Scholz, employing a novel data set of his Twitter communication (N = 612) during the Russian invasion of Ukraine between 24 February 2022 and 24 February 2023. A combination of computational text analysis approaches with natural language processing (NLP) techniques was used, including the Valence Aware Dictionary and the sentiment Reasoner (VADER) model for sentiment analysis and Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA) for topic modelling. This research investigates the prevalent frames and emotions in the chancellor’s communication, providing valuable insights into the German government’s stance and strategic communication during this critical geopolitical event. The results of the study revealed that the chancellor used the frames ‘effects of the Ukraine invasion’, ‘climate & environment’, ‘solidarity’ and ‘Russian aggression’ and communicated with positive sentiments. By examining the chancellor’s Twitter communication, this study contributes to the understanding of political communication in the digital era, particularly in the context of international crises, and offers implications for policymakers, scholars and the broader public.
... Research suggests that observing anger expressions evokes a sense of threat (Miron-Spektor et al, 2011). Not surprisingly, leader's expression of anger has also been found related to low effectiveness (Gaddis, Connelly, and Mumford, 2004;Lewis, 2000) and less coordination among team members (Sy, Côté, and Saavedra, 2005). Just as the other example described at the beginning of the chapter, the anger displayed by the conductor in the movie Whiplash hurt some students so badly that those students eventually lost faith in their beloved career. ...
... Based on the above discussion, Proposition 7 and 8 are First, most of the existing literature on gender diversity has focused primarily on the relationship between female leaders and subordinates (e.g. Lewis, 2000;Woolley, Caza & Levy, 2011) and did not adequately address the diverse challenges of working in a TMT. This research assembles the literature on TMTs and gender studies, and focuses exclusively on the relationship between female and male members of a TMT, and how the dominate positional power of male members leads to epistemological shock experiences among female executives during initial assignments. ...
Drawing on social identity theory, this conceptual article proposes how working in a male‐dominated top management team (TMT) leads to changes in the social psychology of female executives over time. Further, it simultaneously incorporates the role of various factors to develop a comprehensive understanding of positive as well as negative change experiences of female executives. Based on thorough review and integration of the relevant literature from the domains of organizational behaviour, gender management, and psychology, key themes have been extracted and a conceptual model has been proposed. It is suggested that female executives are likely to face epistemological shock after becoming a part of male‐dominated TMTs; however, proactive interactions and development of their cultural toolkit is expected to polish leadership capabilities and improve leader identity in them. Conversely, challenges in developing their cultural toolkit may lead to experiences of emotional exhaustion and the eventual psychological detachment of female executives from their teams and work environment. Unlike the focus of existing literature on general social and cultural challenges faced by female workers, this research offers a unique theoretical direction regarding the essence of extensive psychological changes and their long‐term prospects for females in male‐dominated TMTs. Finally, it also offers practical implications for highlighting various ways to encourage proactivity and social support for creating diversity and inclusion‐based leadership in organizations.
Purpose
As a low-cost and effective way to maintain good interpersonal relations, gratitude expression has moved into the public glare of organizational management arena. Nonetheless, leader gratitude expression and its impact on employees’ behavior have received scarce attention. This study aims to elucidate the mechanisms underlying the effect of line manager gratitude expression on employees’ negative behaviors, that is, knowledge hiding and unethical pro-supervisor behavior (UPSB).
Design/methodology/approach
The authors conducted an experiment study and a field study. Study 1 invited full-time students from a Chinese university ( n = 210) to participate a scenario-based experiment, then used SPSS 29.0 to conduct independent sample t -tests. Study 2 involved a time-lagged design with two waves of data collection over two months from employees in China ( n = 550). The authors used Mplus 8.3 for confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation modeling to test the hypotheses.
Findings
An experimental study (Study 1) finds that line manager gratitude expression positively correlates with UPSB/rationalized hiding while negatively correlates with evasive hiding and playing dumb. Field study (Study 2) confirms the results and further finds that emotional expression authenticity moderates the relationship between line manager gratitude expression and employees’ negative behaviors (i.e. UPSB, evasive hiding and playing dumb).
Originality/value
Based on signaling theory, this study provides novel evidence on how line manager gratitude expression affects employee negative behaviors, thereby adding a new perspective to the literature on gratitude. The findings of this study contribute to the understanding of whether and when employees exhibit negative behaviors (i.e. UPSB and knowledge hiding) after they perceive line manager gratitude expression.
Digital technology enables employees to communicate with each other via virtual platforms. Emoji, particularly smile emoji, has received significant attention in virtual communication research. Drawing upon expectancy violation theory, we propose that in digital communications with followers, leader smile emoji usage has a positive effect on follower satisfaction with leader through perceived leader intimacy. In addition, leader smile emoji usage has a negative effect on perceived leader effectiveness through decreased perception of leader power. We further propose that the effects of leader smile emoji usage hinge on follower power distance orientation such that the negative effects of leader smile emojis usage are more pronounced for followers with high versus low power distance orientation. An experiment and a field study supported our hypotheses. Our research sheds light on the benefits and potential pitfalls of smile emoji usage in leader–follower digital communication.
Voice endorsement—managers’ approval of employees’ voiced suggestions—has largely been regarded as positive, yet little research examines how managers’ emotional expressions during endorsement affect employees. Drawing on the Emotions as Social Information (EASI) model, we propose that not all instances of voice endorsements are necessarily positive events for employees. Specifically, we propose that managers’ anger while endorsing voice, negatively impact employees’ perceptions of psychological safety and their future voice behavior. Across two experimental studies, we find that participants who faced an angry manager endorsing their voice reported both lower psychological safety and future voice behavior than those whose voice was endorsed by a happy or neutral looking manager. Study 2 further found that employees experiencing voice endorsement with anger felt as psychologically unsafe as those whose voice was outright rejected, suggesting that anger-laden endorsements are just as detrimental as voice rejections. Our findings contribute to the literature by challenging the notion that all voice endorsements are inherently positive, emphasizing the role of managers’ emotions on managerial reactions to voice.
Heightened competition within and across organizations compels leaders to set inflexibly high standards and to demand creative performance from their employees. Considering recent research on the interpersonal approach to perfectionism and anger expression, we predicted that leaders' perfectionism combined with their anger expression would threaten employees' psychological safety and creative effort that, in turn, would diminish their creative performance. To test our predictions, we designed three multimethod studies: (1) a preregistered memory reconstruction study, (2) a preregistered laboratory experiment, and (3) a multi‐wave and multi‐source field study. We found convergent evidence that leaders' anger expressions exacerbate the negative indirect influence of their perfectionism on employees' creative performance via psychological safety and creative effort. We conclude by discussing the interpersonal consequences of leader perfectionism in the workplace.
The world of work is replete with daily hassles that make the experience of negative emotions ubiquitous. Conversations between leaders and followers during challenging times are often characterized by negative emotions, and thus, are of central importance in modern organizations. Yet, the intersection of negative emotion, difficult conversations and leader–follower relationships is often ignored, and these topics are treated as separate areas of study. We integrate these various streams with research on asymmetrical leader negative emotion displays to identify when and how difficult conversations laden with negative emotions result in benefits to leader–follower relationships. Using a grounded theory approach, we build a theoretical model based on interviews with 21 leaders and 17 followers describing 166 difficult conversations. Our work depicts specific communication strategies that leaders use to facilitate difficult conversations. These strategies, in turn, create shared meaning and validate followers' feelings during difficult conversations, which allows for beneficial relationship‐specific outcomes to ensue. We unpack these findings in the context of the power differential between leaders and followers to advance current thinking on the intersection of negative emotions and communication in leader–follower relationships.
Using deep learning methods, this study provides insights into the significant impact of corporate executive behavior on firm performance, particularly through the lens of vocal emotions. Considering that emotions play a crucial role in leadership effectiveness as well as corporate success, this paper employs a Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) network to meticulously categorize the emotions in executive speeches into positive, neutral, and negative categories. The initial stage requires rigorous pre-processing of the speech signal, including collection, denoising and feature extraction using Mel Frequency Cepstrum Coefficients (MFCC). Subsequently, LSTM models are trained on these preprocessed data for sentiment classification. This study further innovates by combining sentiment analysis with Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) to scrutinize the correlation between executives’ emotional expressions and company performance. Through statistical analysis and machine learning techniques, we assess the significance of this correlation and present evidence that highlights the predictive power of executives’ emotional expressions on firm performance metrics. Our findings not only contribute to an understanding of the nuanced ways in which leadership behavior impacts firm performance, but also open avenues for enhancing executive training and performance assessment methods. This paper demonstrates the classification accuracy of our model and its effectiveness in correlating executive emotions with firm performance, providing valuable insights into the interplay between leadership emotional intelligence and firm success.
This research proposes a new framework called interpersonally oriented parental emotion socialization (inter-PES) practices to address parental socialization of adolescents’ interpersonal emotional processing. This framework captures parents’ interpersonal perspectives when their adolescent children experience negative emotions resulting from social interactions. In Study 1, parents (n = 925; 84.54% females; Mage = 39.86 years, SD = 4.37) recalled their PES practices. Content analysis of parents’ narratives showed four components of inter-PES: perspective-taking, positive attributions to others, negative attributions to others, and concern for others. In Study 2, parents (n = 536; 57.98% females; Mage = 42.84 years, SD = 4.01) evaluated their own parenting behaviors on a newly developed scale to measure the four components mentioned above. Factor analysis supported the four-factor structure. Moreover, the four subscales demonstrated good reliabilities. In Study 3, adolescents (n = 864; 45.97% females; Mage = 14.50 years, SD = 0.77) reported their perceived maternal inter-PES using the same scale, and factor analysis again confirmed the four-factor structure. Study 3 also showed that the four components of inter-PES reported by adolescents were related to their perceptions of other commonly assessed maternal parenting variables and self-reported socioemotional development. Overall, this research develops a new tool for studying inter-PES and reveals new avenues for future research on how parents’ interpersonal perspectives during emotional socialization may relate to adolescents’ socioemotional outcomes.
Although communicative and relational skills are currently in the greatest demand in organizations large and small, we are as educators, executives, and talent developers very far away from the kind of precision in identifying, measuring, selecting and developing these skills that we have achieved with cognitive and technical skills. At the same time, the relentless automation of swaths of human tasks has placed a sharp light on the ‘quintessentially human skills’ – those that cannot and in some cases should not be subject to algorithmic automation. This book aims to ‘change the soft skills game’ by introducing language for identifying and describing them, ways of measuring the degree to which a person possesses them and selecting those who possess them in the utmost from those less skilled, and ways of helping students and executives alike develop them, through a methodology that has been designed and practiced for the past ten years.
We need a ‘re-set’ in the way we think about human skill and in particular the ways we think about those human skills which cannot be sub-contracted to an algorithm running on silicon. This book aims to provide that re-set.
Extant research demonstrates the destructive nature of authoritarian leadership in the workplace, yet its widespread use suggests that a more balanced view of this leadership style may be needed to identify whether this form of leadership engenders favorable reactions in specific circumstances. Integrating insights from appraisal theory and the compensatory control model, we posit that authoritarian leadership can evoke anxiety among employees in less disruptive settings, whereas it evokes feelings of awe in highly disruptive contexts. These anxiety and awe reactions then influence employees’ downstream leader-focused behaviors (i.e., leader-directed avoidance and affiliation) and general work behaviors (i.e., counterproductive behavior and job performance). Thus, whether reactions to authoritarian leadership are dysfunctional or functional is contingent on event disruption as a key boundary condition. Results from an experience sampling study (Study 1), a multiwave and multisource field study (Study 2), and laboratory experiments (Studies 3a and 3b) largely confirm these predictions. The findings underscore the importance of event disruption for predicting employee reactions to authoritarian styles of leadership.
Cette étude exploratoire porte sur le leadership du prix Nobel de la paix Muhammad Yunus. En nous appuyant sur la littérature et sur des données qualitatives, codées avec Nvivo, nous cherchons à mieux comprendre son leadership. L’angle d’approche de ce papier est la dimension empathique du leadership. La revue de la littérature met en lumière comment l’empathie peut être au service d’un alignement entre les valeurs et l’engagement éthique du leader. L’étude du verbatim constitué d’un entretien personnel avec M. Yunus et de plusieurs entretiens avec ses proches collaborateurs permet de comprendre la spécificité de son leadership empathique. Les résultats de notre étude qualitative exploratoire soulignent la posture « hors norme » du leadership de M. Yunus qui allie notamment des qualités de communication exceptionnelles et une capacité à mettre une pensée intellectuelle en action dans un engagement collectif et altruiste. Notre contribution réside dans un modèle original du leadership de M. Yunus qui montre comment sa dynamique émotionnelle supportée par une forte empathie permet le déploiement d’un leadership multifacette aux compétences particulières basé sur un alignement entre ses valeurs et son engagement.
Showing pride at work clearly communicates personal success (i.e., high competence) and boosts status; yet some evidence suggests it can also signal self‐focus and insensitivity to others (i.e., low warmth). Prior scholars have proposed gender differences explain mixed findings, but with limited support. We propose that the benefit‐cost tradeoff depends on the displayer's gender in conjunction with the social context of the display. We test the contextualized dual‐signaling model of employee pride displays, uniquely assessing how the signaler's gender and receiver's social motives (between‐person comparisons) change first‐impressions of competence and warmth after one or repeated exposures (i.e., within‐person comparisons). Study 1 was a 2 (signaler gender) by 2 (signal context) design obtaining judgments before and after seeing a dynamic pride display. Pride displays increased competence similarly across employee gender, but women saw significantly greater costs to warmth when displays were public (i.e., coworkers present), a violation of gender norms. In Study 2, we replicate this finding regardless of whether coworkers were collaborators or competitors (between‐person), and found repeated displays increase the warmth cost for women and the competence gains for men. In Study 3, we compare the costs for women of confirming gender norms for warmth (i.e., happiness display) or violating gender norms for warmth but conforming to leader norms for competence (i.e., pride display). Results suggest “happy” women are preferred as leaders over “proud” women despite higher competence. We clarify mixed findings and confirm the need for contextualized theory to understand gender differences in pride displays and career trajectories.
How is it possible to survive as a woman senior leader in the gendered managerial academy? In this autoethnographical article, I illustrate the lived reality, insecurity, and struggle of academic leadership. Drawing from three vignettes, I discuss decision‐making processes, blatant sexist aggressions, and the problematic negation of affect and personal life. Their critical contribution is to expose the consequences of gendered managerialism in the neo‐liberal academy and the false promise of ‘leadership’, in which women continue to experience gender challenges, sexism, and the risk of burnout in their everyday experiences. However, I also show how it is possible to counter the detrimental effects of gendered managerialism through four forms of resistance: resistance through embodied affective authenticity; resistance through solidarities, and social relations with others; resistance through feminist activism; and resistance by stepping back.
The Conference of Parties (COP) is the longest running forum for international discussion of climate change and offers rich data in the form of speeches. Studying how elites have historically communicated about climate change can help us understand their approaches to address climate change. In this study, we analyzed 2493 COP statements from 1995 to 2021 to describe how sentiment is used, and to see whether specific issues associated with climate policy (adaptation, mitigation, financing, development, disasters) are discussed in particular sentiment contexts. Quantitative analysis (sentiment analysis with multi-level modelling) revealed that leaders expressed high levels of positive sentiment in these diplomatic statements, but also some negative sentiment. Over time, representatives at COP used more positive, angry, and fearful sentiments in speeches. Representatives of wealthier and more developed countries expressed themselves differently than those from less wealthy and developing countries. To examine sentiment surrounding policy issues we used embedding regression. Countries expressed different sentiments about adaptation, mitigation, and development depending on their development status, and about disasters depending on their wealth. Shifts in sentiment over time were observed when results were plotted graphically, and these shifts may be related to specific events and agreements. Using these two approaches, we highlight how those with the power to make top-down changes to address climate change have historically talked about this issue.
Ngày nay, việc vận dụng các phương pháp nghiên cứu khoa học trong kinh doanh không còn là chuyện riêng của các học viên cao học và nghiên cứu sinh đang theo đuổi các bậc học sau đại học, mà cả các doanh nghiệp cũng đang rất cần những kết quả nghiên cứu đáng tin cậy, để hỗ trợ ra quyết định ở tất cả các cấp, trong môi trường kinh doanh hội nhập toàn cầu, và cạnh tranh ngày càng gay gắt. Đòi hỏi kiến thức và kỹ năng kinh doanh, ngày nay, cần kết hợp với kiến thức và kỹ năng nghiên cứu khoa học, để hình thành nên lợi thế cạnh tranh bền vững, giúp cá nhân và doanh nghiệp vững bước đến tương lai. Học phần "Phương pháp nghiên cứu khoa học trong kinh doanh" giới thiệu phương pháp luận, cũng như những vấn đề về nghiên cứu thực nghiệm, cũng như những ứng dụng trong nghiên cứu thực nghiệm trong lĩnh vực xã hội, đặc biệt trong các lĩnh vực kinh doanh. Chính vì thế, mục đích của học phần này là để giúp cho học viên có cách tiếp cận phù hợp với việc vận dụng các kiến thức về phương pháp nghiên cứu khoa học trong bối cảnh kinh doanh hiện đại, đòi hỏi vận dụng nhiều thông tin từ các kết quả nghiên cứu hơn. Trong bối cảnh đó, giáo trình cao học "Phương pháp nghiên cứu khoa học trong kinh doanh-Cập nhật SmartPLS" được biên soạn nhằm đáp ứng nhu cầu học tập, trước hết của học viên, nghiên cứu sinh các ngành quản lý và kinh doanh nói chung, cùng những ngành có liên quan, cũng như đáp ứng nhu cầu tham khảo của độc giả, giới doanh nhân, và của những người đang làm việc liên quan đến các hoạt động kinh doanh hiện đại. "Phương pháp nghiên cứu khoa học trong kinh doanh-Cập nhật SmartPLS" là giáo trình cao học được biên soạn trên cơ sở kiến thức của học phần "Phương pháp nghiên cứu khoa học trong kinh doanh", có cập nhật ứng dụng mới nhất về SmartPLS, bao gồm 3 phần chính, 12 chương. • Phần I (Chương 1, 2, 3, 4): Tổng quan về nghiên cứu • Phần II (Chương 5, 6, 7, 8, 9): Một số vấn đề nghiên cứu thực nghiệm • Phần III (Chương 10, 11, 12): Một số ứng dụng nghiên cứu thực nghiệm Các chương được sắp xếp theo trình tự nội dung trước là luận cứ đưa đến nội dung sau. Cuối mỗi chương đều có câu hỏi ôn tập và thảo luận, để người đọc có thể tự giải quyết, nắm chắc nội dung đã trình bày trong chương. Người đọc, đặc biệt là nghiên cứu sinh, và học viên cao học, có thể sử dụng giáo trình đồng thời với sách chuyên khảo "Tránh và Khắc phục sai sót trong thực hiện luận văn Kinh doanh và Quản lý tại Việt Nam" để có thể vận dụng kiến thức tốt nhất khi thực hiện Luận án, Luận văn. Giáo trình cao học "Phương pháp nghiên cứu khoa học trong kinh doanh-Cập nhật SmartPLS" là sản phẩm từ quá trình làm việc nghiêm túc của nhóm tác giả, kết hợp với sự kế thừa, tiếp thu, tham khảo nhiều tài liệu khác nhau, trong nước, ngoài nước; cùng với kinh nghiệm giảng dạy nhiều năm, nhiều chương trình khác nhau ở nhiều trường, cũng như thực hiện các đề tài nghiên cứu cũng như thực tiễn có liên quan, đồng thời tham khảo kinh nghiệm thực tế của nhiều đồng nghiệp, học viên. Chúng tôi xin trân trọng cảm ơn những tác giả đi trước, nhất là các tác giả có tên trong danh mục tài liệu tham khảo cuối sách. Bên cạnh đó, chúng tôi xin gửi lời cảm ơn chân thành đến Hội đồng Khoa học và Đào tạo Học viện Hàng không Việt Nam đã tạo điều kiện, hỗ trợ chúng tôi hoàn thành giáo trình cao học. Chúng tôi xin cảm ơn gia đình, bạn bè, học viên, nghiên cứu sinh, doanh nghiệp đã nhiệt tình ủng hộ chúng tôi thực hiện giáo trình. Vì nguồn lực và thời gian có hạn, giáo
Leaders are frequently put in the difficult position of repudiating critical questions in front of their followers. To help manage this situation, leaders sometimes express laughter in the hopes that it will “lubricate” their interaction and reduce perceptions that they are aggressive or confrontational with the critical questioner. Ironically, leaders’ laughter may backfire by diminishing their apparent friendliness and approachability in the eyes of the witnessing followers. In this article, we employ an emotional aperture perspective to examine two seemingly contradictory theoretical perspectives regarding the potential impact of laughter on the witnessing followers’ perception of a leader’s warmth and effectiveness. Findings from nine studies across 2,012 adults show that leader laughter—even expressed briefly—bolsters or damages leader effectiveness depending on one important contingency: whether the leader’s laughter is shared by the questioner. Unshared laughter reduces leader effectiveness by undermining leaders’ apparent warmth, while shared laughter increases leader effectiveness by enhancing leaders’ apparent warmth. We discuss implications for the literature on emotion expression, leadership events, and leader perception and influence.
Since time inception the problem of self-knowledge has been the fundamental matter of concern in ancient philosophy. We have a sense of belief that we all know our emotions. This belief gives rise to a number of questions- Do we know our emotions all the time? Are we aware of the emotions of others? Is there any connection between emotion identification and decision making? To answer these questions, one has to unpack the notion of emotional intelligence. This chapter intends to express 5S approach to emotional intelligence as the foundation to business management. These 5S refers to self-awareness, self-management, self-kindness, social awareness, and social skills/social management. Moving further, the emphasis will be on the notion of spirituality as a means to attain the 5S, to excel in emotional intelligence. Our emotions guide our actions and words; thus, significantly assist us in taking appropriate decisions, which as a result, helps us in managing business efficiently and effectively.
Various styles of leadership have the potential for positive and negative influence on employees and organization. The monograph offers a new approach and proposes the systematic analysis of negative leadership traits and behaviors through the broadening of existing approaches (based on employees’ orientation and organizational orientation) by analyzing them together with a third dimension: leader’s traits, which will allow us to analyze the intent of the leader. Based on this approach, the monograph introduces the term: fake leadership, characterized by an emphasis on individual goals of the leader (regardless of their importance for the organization) coupled with intentional anti-employees and anti-organizational behaviours. Such leaders operate with intent to engage in negative behaviors towards employees and organization, simultaneously aiming at hiding such intent. The monograph introduces and empirically verifies various models explaining the mechanisms, through which fake leadership negatively influences job performance of employees and organizational reliability based on intraorganizational trust and positive job-related attitudes (work motivation, job satisfaction, work engagement, organizational commitment), as well as negative job-related attitudes (work disengagement, job dissatisfaction, work demotivation), tend to hide errors, which is coupled with the number of management and employees’ errors. These models reference the concept of authentic leadership, which is chosen as a positive alternative to the described fake leadership.
Leader affective presence, the tendency of leaders to consistently evoke feelings in team members, has gained prominence in the context of leadership and teamwork. However, prior research lacks a comprehensive theoretical framework, focuses on limited team processes, and relies mainly on cross sectional designs to study this construct. Building upon theories of the social functions of affect, this study examines the relationship between leaders' affective presence and team member behaviour, specifically focusing on team proactive problem prevention and examining whether this relationship is mediated by team psychological safety. Using a two‐wave panel model with 504 professionals in 134 teams, our findings revealed that positive leader affective presence, characterized by instilling enthusiasm, joy and inspiration among team members, was positively associated with perceptions of team psychological safety. In turn, team psychological safety was positively related to leaders' assessments of proactive problem prevention. Interestingly, negative leader affective presence, which triggers worry, tension and stress, was not related to team psychological safety but was positively associated with team proactive problem prevention. These results highlight the importance of leader affective presence in shaping emergent team states and team member behaviour. Researchers and practitioners should thus consider these insights when assessing and intervening in leadership and teamwork processes in organizations.
Servant leadership is a dynamic and feasible process that has been recognized to be effective and conducive by scholars and exercised by rulers and noble personalities of the world in their functioning through the ages. It is the extreme/extension of all leadership styles, which convey characteristics like selflessness, sacrifice, and humility of a humble person. This chapter analyzes the inner qualities of a servant leader, which are essential for his sincere approach and the tangible practice of leadership, and manifest the quintessence of his character. While it is the most dutiful approach that embraces the spirit of serving and highlights the strength of philanthropy, self-efficacy, modesty, and devoutness, and propels a leader to self-welfare, including the well-being of others, this leadership methodology indicates a sense of responsibility of the leader and adherence to ethics and principles and has prioritized selflessness from a spiritual and humanitarian perspective. This study presents the eminence of women, who are naturally and intrinsically empowered as servant leaders due to their feministic attributes of compassion and sense of sacrifice, and it also identifies the significance of folk wisdom to comprehend this leadership style. It explicates the significance of conscientiousness, humility, and dignity of the leader through selfless service and exhibits servant leadership as an exemplary persuasive criterion for employees to develop a human perspective toward others.KeywordsDevoutnessFeminismFolkloreModestyNishkam KarmaSacrificeSelflessnessSpiritualityŚrīmad Bhagavad Gītā
A brand logo is considered a key visual representation of a brand. Letter case, as an important element of logo design, plays a vital role in determining consumers’ attitudes. Yet, few researchers have studied the influence of letter cases on the consumers’ brand perception, and the potential moderators in such effect. Based on the Symbolic Association Theory (SAT), this research used 2 experiments to test the correlation between letters, customer-perceived brand power, and attitude.
Existing theories have focused on the impact of brand logos' color, shape, size, clarity, border, italics, and other visual elements on perceptions, but few have focused on the impact of letter cases on consumers’ perceptions and attitudes. Three gaps remain in the existing literature. First, most of the studies explain the influence of letter cases based on perceived fluency, arguing that the use of upper case letters in sentences reduces reading efficiency and thus affects readers’ behavior. But such a conclusion can only explain the consumers’ unwillingness to engage in upper case letters in longer verses, while in brand logos, the length of the texts is usually limited. It has also been proved that upper-case logos are more recognizable and memorable than lower-case logos, which contradicts with existing findings. Second, prior studies can only explain consumers' preference for lowercase letters but cannot explain why consumers sometimes prefer uppercase logos. Third, due to the lack of relevant studies, the boundaries of the letter case effect remain unclear. Based on these research gaps, we focus on 3 research questions. First, how do letter cases affect consumers' attitudes? Second, what is the psychological mechanism involved? Third, what is the potential moderator?
This study used three separate sets of experiments to test the proposed hypotheses. Experiment 1 examined the main effect of letter cases on consumers’ brand attitudes and the mediating effect of perceived power. Experiment 2 examined the moderating effect of perceived luxury. This research proves that consumers prefer brand logos composed of upper letter case only when the brand has a relatively higher perceived level of luxury, while for brands that are of lower level of luxury, upper case logos may have a negative impact on consumers’ attitudes. This research not only expands and enriches the scope of SAT but also provides constructive guidelines for logo design.
基于符号联想理论，通过两组实验探讨感知权力倾向在字母大小写对消费者态度影响中的中介作用和品牌奢侈程度的调节作用。研究发现：（1）大写字母会提升消费者对品牌权力展示倾向的感知，进而提高消费者对品牌的态度；（2）感知奢侈程度在字母大小写对消费者态度的影响中起正向调节作用。对于高感知奢侈程度的品牌，大写字母标识会获得更好的消费者态度；对于低感知奢侈程度的品牌，小写字母标识会获得更好的消费者态度。
This paper analyzes emotion work in the European Union (EU) with a specific focus on the European Parliament (EP) and the European Commission (EC). While emotion work-studied within the discipline of sociology of emotions-has been found to be highly relevant within business organizations little is known about its eventual role in political organizations. This paper shows that a meta-discussion on the role of emotions takes place within European institutions and that there is great variation per key player and per policy area. When the attention was shift to the policy areas where emotions were the most present, such as Foreign and security policy, Food safety and Justice and Home affairs, the most important dimensions of emotion work, including a pre-arrangement of what is possible and feeling rules were clearly identified. Data analyzed include the EP database (1999-2014) and the EUSpeech database (2007-2015). Work in Progress, comments welcomed! Contact: r.m.sanchez@uva.nl
This paper analyzes emotion work in the European Union (EU) with a specific focus on the European Parliament (EP) and the European Commission (EC). While emotion work-studied within the discipline of sociology of emotions-has been found to be highly relevant within business organizations little is known about its eventual role in political organizations. This paper shows that a meta-discussion on the role of emotions takes place within European institutions and that there is great variation per key player and per policy area. When the attention was shift to the policy areas where emotions were the most present, such as Foreign and security policy, Food safety and Justice and Home affairs, the most important dimensions of emotion work, including a pre-arrangement of what is possible and feeling rules were clearly identified. Data analyzed include the EP database (1999-2014) and the EUSpeech database (2007-2015). Work in Progress, comments welcomed! Contact: r.m.sanchez@uva.nl
There is extensive research conducted on the various aspects affecting women's ability to reach leadership position and their contribution toward the success of the organization. Studies on the necessity of the intelligent use of emotion as a prerequisite for effective leadership have been done in the past. However, the literature on the role of emotions in women's leadership is fragmented and disparate regarding emotions playing an advantageous or disadvantageous role for women leaders, thus, suggesting the need for a systematic literature review. Consequently, the current study of the available literature aims to discuss the reported progress in the research on women's leadership and emotions. We used articles from Scopus and Web of Science databases and applied inclusion and exclusion criteria following the SPAR-4-SLR protocol. We conducted a systematic review using bibliometric analysis and the Theory-Context-Characteristics-Methods (TCCM) framework, which provides a detailed understanding of the intersection of gender, leadership, and emotions and shows the evolution of this topic over time. Our findings revealed two main research themes: emotional expressions and emotional competence among women in leadership positions and the effect on their career advancement. This study supplements the existing reviews and attempts to interpret and suggest future research directions using the TCCM framework.
Human-customer service chatbot interaction has had mixed effects on customer satisfaction in sales-related services. To dissect these conflicting results, three 2 (temporal cues: instant versus anthropomorphic delayed response) × 2 (conversational cues: task- versus social-oriented) between-group experiments were conducted. The results revealed the complex effects of temporal cues, conversational cues, and their interactions on perceived warmth, perceived competence, and satisfaction. And, perceived warmth and competence mediated the effects of temporal and conversational cues on satisfaction. Furthermore, the product attribute type (func-tional versus experiential) affected the relationships between these variables. These findings provide two explanatory perspectives (temporal and conversational cues) for dissecting the mixed effects of human-customer service chatbot interaction on customer satisfaction, and provide practical insights for improving customer service chatbots and enhancing customer satisfaction.
This study empirically examines the influence of emotional intelligence on entrepreneurial success using a quantitative research survey administered to a sample of 306 Saudi entrepreneurs. The results revealed that emotionally intelligent entrepreneurs are more likely to succeed in their new venture. Furthermore, the research findings identified differences in the influence of emotional intelligence dimensions on entrepreneurship success. The findings of this study offer useful implications for entrepreneurs and practitioners who provide resources to entrepreneurial startups. Received: 26 January 2023 / Accepted: 19 April 2023 / Published: 5 May 2023
In the article by S. Schachter and J. Singer, which appeared in Psychological Review (1962, 69(5), 379-399) the following corrections should be made: The superscript "a" should precede the word "All" in the footnote to Table 2. The superscript "a" should appear next to the column heading "Initiates" in Table 3. The following Tables 6-9 should be substituted for those which appeared in print. (The following abstract of this article originally appeared in record 196306064-001.) It is suggested that emotional states may be considered a function of a state of physiological arousal and of a cognition appropriate to this state of arousal. From this follows these propositions: (a) Given a state of physiological arousal for which an individual has no immediate explanation, he will label this state and describe his feelings in terms of the cognitions available to him. (b) Given a state of physiological arousal for which an individual has a completely appropriate explanation, no evaluative needs will arise and the individual is unlikely to label his feelings in terms of the alternative cognitions available. (c) Given the same cognitive circumstances, the individual will react emotionally or describe his feelings as emotions only to the extent that he experiences a state of physiological arousal. An experiment is described which, together with the results of other studies, supports these propositions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved).
The study of leader traits has a long and controversial history. While research shows that the possession of certain traits alone does not guarantee leadership success, there is evidence that effective leaders are different from other people in certain key respects. Key leader traits include: drive (a broad term which includes achievement, motivation, ambition, energy, tenacity, and initiative); leadership motivation (the desire to lead but not to seek power as an end in itself); honesty and integrity; self-confidence (which is associated with emotional stability); cognitive ability; and knowledge of the business. There is less clear evidence for traits such as charisma, creativity and flexibility. We believe that the key leader traits help the leader acquire necessary skills; formulate an organizational vision and an effective plan for pursuing it; and take the necessary steps to implement the vision in reality.
Charismatic leadership has been largely overlooked by organizational theorists. In part, the problem can be attributed to the lack of a systematic conceptual framework Drawing from political science, sociology, and social psychology, this paper addresses the problem by proposing a model linking organizational contexts to charismatic leadership. A series of research hypotheses is offered.
This article explores the emotional contagion hypothesis, proposed by Hatfield, Cacioppo, and Rapson (1994), in a sales context. Specifically, the emotional contagion hypothesis explains how the emotions of two people (e.g., salesperson and customer) during a conversation are transmitted from one to the other via facial cues, and that these emotions affect the outcome of that interaction. The emotional contagion hypothesis implies that there are definitive individual differences concerning whether someone is either sensitive to emotions from others or able to transmit his or her emotions onto others. This study explores whether these individual differences are assets or liabilities over the long term for salespersons in a sales organization. The data in this study show that a salesperson's ability to infect others with his or her emotions is an asset (because it can lead to higher performance). In addition, being sensitive to the emotions of others is an asset (it can also lead to better performance); at the same time it is a liability (because of the higher risk of burnout). This study further explores how emotionally sensitive salespersons develop burnout as a consequence of role stress, which then affects their performance. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
This study addressed the nature and functioning of relationships of interpersonal trust among managers and professionals in organizations, the factors influencing trust's development, and the implications of trust for behavior and performance. Theoretical foundations were drawn from the sociological literature on trust and the social-psychological literature on trust in close relationships. An initial test of the proposed theoretical framework was conducted in a field setting with 194 managers and professionals.
The rejection by psychologists of the trait explanation of leadership emergence can be attributed to the results of 2 major types of studies: attempts to identify leadership traits and the use of rotation designs. Numerous reviews of the literature consistently note the failure to isolate a specific leadership trait. Using a rotation design, D. C. Barnlund (see record
1963-01124-001), after varying both the task and member composition of groups and computing the correlation of leadership rank in one group with the average leadership ranks received in all other groups, reported that leadership emergence varied across group situations. Thus, his data suggested that leadership is not a stable characteristic. The present study, however, used D. A. Kenny's (1981) social relations model to reexamine Barnlund's conclusion. This reanalysis suggests that between 49% and 82% (representing lower- and upper-bound estimates) leadership variance can be attributed to some stable characteristic. It is speculated that this characteristic, rather than being a traditional personality trait, may actually involve the ability to perceive the needs and goals of a constituency and to adjust one's personal approach to group action accordingly. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
this chapter will examine how the construct of emotion is applied to each sex / the focus is not whether the subjective feeling of emotion or the expression of emotion is different for women and men / I will consider emotion as a concept and the way that concept is applied differentially by women and men to women and men / the first section considers how and why emotion has been problematic for feminist psychology / in the following sections the dimensions of an emotional double standard are considered in more detail (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Bringing feminism to bear on psychology, this book explores the ongoing processes by which we develop our emotions, from childhood through to adulthood. It adopts the innovative method of memory-work to discuss happiness and hurt, fear and joy, guilt and shame, anger and rage.
The authors analyse memories—primarily, but not exclusively, their own—and group discussions of those memories, to reveal contradictions and conflicts, unexplained absences and taken-for-granted premises. They demonstrate that memory-work has much to offer, particularly in the context of emotion: it both embraces subjectivity and avoids psychological individualism.
The method also recognizes the collectivity of experience, so drawing attention to the ways in which gender, among other factors, shapes our emotions. The processes of social construction are general but they are played out in different ways by women and men. While acknowledging emotions to be social constructs, the authors lay equal stress on agency. They argue that emotions are constituted in an active search for a common sense, an understanding brought about by reflection.
"Emotion and Gender" will be a stimulating and evocative read for students and academics across the social sciences, and in particular for feminists and social psychologists. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
While viewing absence as a mechanism of mood control, I explored the impact of mood at work on absenteeism, taking into account situational influences. Among a sample of 210 salespeople, I found that positive mood at work was significantly and negatively associated with absenteeism. Adjustment to the work situation as indexed by tenure also was influential for absence behavior. In addition, the personality traits, positive affectivity, and negative affectivity had significant effects on the extent to which workers experienced positive moods and negative moods, respectively. The implications of these results and directions for future research are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
[Correction Notice: An erratum for this article was reported in Vol 112(3) of
Psychological Bulletin (see record
2008-10512-001). Some of the numbers in the Value columns of Table 1, page 11, were aligned incorrectly. The corrected version of Table 1 is provided in the erratum.] Reviews research on the evaluation of women and men that occupy leadership roles. While holding the characteristics, except for sex, constant and varying the sex of the leader, these experiments investigated whether people are biased against female leaders and managers. Although this research showed only a small overall tendency for Ss to evaluate female leaders less favorably than male ones, this tendency was more pronounced under certain circumstances. Specifically, women in leadership positions were devalued relative to their male counterparts when leadership was carried out in stereotypically masculine styles, especially when this style was autocratic or directive. Also, the devaluation of women was greater when leaders occupied male-dominated roles and when the evaluators were men. Findings are interpreted from a perspective that emphasizes the influence of gender roles within organizational settings. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Reviews research in psychology, sociology, and organizational behavior to develop a conceptual framework that specifies how positive emotion (PE) helps employees obtain favorable outcomes at work. It is proposed that feeling and expressing PEs on the job have favorable consequences on (1) employees, independent of their relationships with others (e.g., greater persistence); (2) reactions of others to employees (e.g., "halo," or overgeneralization to other desirable traits); and (3) reactions of employees to others (e.g., helping others). Results from an 18-mo study of 272 employees indicate that PE on the job at Time 1 is associated with evidence of work achievement (more favorable supervisor evaluations and higher pay) and a supportive social context (more support from supervisors and coworkers) at Time 2. PE at Time 1 is not significantly associated with job enrichment at Time 2. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
40 undergraduates viewed videotaped excerpts of happiness/reassurance, anger/threat, and fear/evasion expressive displays by US President Ronald Reagan. Within each display condition 1 excerpt was presented in image-only and 1 in sound-plus-image format. Emotional reactions were assessed by facial electromyography (EMG) from the brow and cheek regions, skin resistance, and heart rate. Following each excerpt, Ss also verbally reported the intensity of 8 emotions, including joy, interest, anger, and fear. Findings indicate that self-reported emotions were influenced strongly by both the expressive displays and prior attitude toward Reagan and by media condition. Facial EMG indicated smiling during happiness/reassurance displays and frowning during anger/threat and fear/evasion displays, especially during image-only presentations. Display effects were also found for skin resistance responses when the media conditions were combined and for heart rate changes in the sound-plus-image condition. Results indicate that expressive displays had a direct emotional impact on viewers and that prior attitudes influenced retrospective self-reports of emotion. (46 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Research comparing the leadership styles of women and men is reviewed, and evidence is found for both the presence and the absence of differences between the sexes. In contrast to the gender-stereotypic expectation that women lead in an interpersonally oriented style and men in a task-oriented style, female and male leaders did not differ in these two styles in organizational studies. However, these aspects of leadership style were somewhat gender stereotypic in the two other classes of leadership studies investigated, namely (a) laboratory experiments and (b) assessment studies, which were defined as research that assessed the leadership styles of people not selected for occupancy of leadership roles. Consistent with stereotypic expectations about a different aspect of leadership style, the tendency to lead democratically or autocratically, women tended to adopt a more democratic or participative style and a less autocratic or directive style than did men. This sex difference appeared in all three classes of leadership studies, including those conducted in organizations. These and other findings are interpreted in terms of a social role theory of sex differences in social behavior.
Twenty so-called clear markers of positive and negative mood (Watson & Tellegen, 1985) were applied in the current study to measure affect at work. Confirmatory factor analyses of a bipolar Two-Factor (i.e., positive and negative affect) Model and a competing multifactor model were conducted with three samples: managerial and professional workers in an insurance firm, retail sales personnel, and a heterogeneous group of students who were employed. The first-order Two-Factor Model (i.e., descriptively bipolar positive and negative affect factors) hypothesized to underlie the 20 affect items did not provide a strong fit to the data in the three samples. A first-order Four-Factor Model with descriptively unipolar factors labeled as Positive Arousal (Enthusiasm), Negative Activation (Nervousness), Low Arousal (Fatigue), and Low Activation (Relaxation) provided a better fit across the samples. These results support the measurement of positive and negative mood as descriptively unipolar factors. The measurement implications of these results as well as conceptual linkages between the four mood factors and the two major cortical regulatory systems, left-lateralized dopaminergic activation and right-lateralized noradrenergic arousal, are discussed.
We predicted that the dispositional construct negative affectivity (NA) would be related to self-report measures of job stress and job strain and that observed relationships between these stress and strain measures would be inflated considerably by NA. Results of a study of 497 managers and professionals were largely consistent with those expectations. Thus, we discuss implications for NA as both a methodological nuisance and a substantive cause of stressful work events, and conclude that NA should no longer remain an unmeasured variable in the study of job stress. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Reanalyses of a number of studies of self-reported mood indicate that Positive and Negative Affect consistently emerge as the first two Varimax rotated dimensions in orthogonal factor analyses or as the first two second-order factors derived from oblique solutions. The two factors emerged with varying sets of descriptors and were even replicated in several data sets characterized by possible methodological problems noted by earlier writers (acquiescence response bias, inappropriate response formats, and so on). The results thus strongly attest to the stability and robustness of Positive and Negative Affect in self-report. Because this same two-dimensional configuration has also been consistently identified in all of the other major lines of mood research, it is now firmly established as the basic structure of English-language affect at the general factor level.
This article presents a synthesis of research on the relative effectiveness of women and men who occupy leadership and managerial roles. Aggregated over the organizational and laboratory experimental studies in the sample, male and female leaders were equally effective. However, consistent with the assumption that the congruence of leadership roles with leaders' gender enhances effectiveness, men were more effective than women in roles that were defined in more masculine terms, and women were more effective than men in roles that were defined in less masculine terms. Also, men were more effective than women to the extent that leader and subordinate roles were male-dominated numerically. These and other findings are discussed from the perspective of social-role theory of sex differences in social behavior as well as from alternative perspectives.
It is suggested that emotional states may be considered a function of a state of physiological arousal and of a cognition appropriate to this state of arousal. From this follows these propositions: (a) Given a state of physiological arousal for which an individual has no immediate explanation, he will label this state and describe his feelings in terms of the cognitions available to him (b) Given a state of physiological arousal for which an individual has a completely appropriate explanation, no evaluative needs will arise and the individual is unlikely to label his feelings in terms of the alternative cognitions available. (c) Given the same cognitive circumstances, the individual will react emotionally or describe his feelings as emotions only to the extent that he experiences a state of physiological arousal. An experiment is described which, together with the results of other studies, supports these propositions.
We argue in this paper that in an age of complexity, change, large enterprises, and nation states, leaders are more important than ever. However, their effectiveness depends on their personality and charisma and not solely on their control over bureaucratic structures. We used a study of U.S. presidents to test a general model of leader effectiveness that includes leader personality characteristics, charisma, crises, age of the institution headed by the leader, and leader effectiveness. Age of the presidency accounted for approximately 20 percent of the variance in presidential needs for power, achievement, and affiliation. Presidential needs and a measure of leader self-restraint in using power, the age of the presidency, and crises accounted for 24 percent of the variance in presidential charisma. Age of the presidency, crises, needs, and charisma together predicted from 25 percent to 66 percent of the variance in five measures of presidential performance. Our study demonstrates that personality and charisma do make a difference.
Research in organizational behavior focuses on expressed and felt emotions as indicators of employee health and satisfaction. In contrast, less conceptual and empirical work addresses the display of feelings as part of the job. This paper proposes a conceptual framework to guide theory development and research about the causes, qualities, and consequences of emotions that are expressed to fulfill role expectations.
A qualitative study of a bill-collection organization was used to identify norms about the emotions that collectors are expected to convey to debtors and the means used by the organization to maintain such norms given that collectors' expressed emotions are simultaneously influenced by their inner feelings. These data indicate that collectors are selected, socialized, and rewarded for following the general norm of conveying urgency (high arousal with a hint of irritation) to debtors. Collectors are further socialized and rewarded to adjust their expressed emotions in response to variations in debtor demeanor. These contingent norms sometimes clash with collectors' feelings toward debtors. Bill collectors are taught to cope with such emotive dissonance by using cognitive appraisals that help them become emotionally detached from debtors and by releasing unpleasant feelings without communicating these emotions to debtors. The discussion focuses on the implications of this research for developing general theory about the expression of emotion in organizational life.
An explanation of the effects of leader behavior on subordinate satisfaction, motivation, and performance is presented. The explanation is derived from a path-goal theory of motivation. Dimensions of leader behavior such as leader initiating structure, consideration, authoritarianism, hierarchical influence, and closeness of supervision are analyzed in terms of path-goal variables such as valence and instrumentality. The theory specifies some of the situational moderators on which the effects of specific leader behaviors are contingent. A set of general propositions are advanced which integrate and explain earlier fragmentary research findings. Several specific predictions are made to illustrate how the general propositions can be operationalized. The usefulness of the theory is demonstrated by showing how several seemingly unrelated prior research findings could have been deduced from its general propositions and by applying it to reconcile what appear to be contradictory findings from prior studies. Results of two empirical studies are reported that provide support for seven of eight hypotheses derived directly from the general propositions of the theory. A third study designed to test three of the original eight hypotheses is also reported. Two of these three hypotheses are successfully replicated. In the light of these results and the integrative power of the theory, it is argued that the theory shows promise and should be further tested with experimental as well as correlational methods.
This research is an attempt to explore and understand the prominence of the concept of leadership in our collective consciousness. In three archival studies, we examined the attention and interest in leadership as reflected in a variety of publications, in conjunction with national, industry, and firm variations in performance. In a series of experimental studies, we examined the effects of performance outcome levels on the strength of leadership attributions. The results of these studies supported an attributional perspective in which leadership is construed as an explanatory concept used to understand organizations as causal systems; results were interpreted in terms of a romanticized conception of leadership.
[This book examines] empathy from the standpoint of contemporary social/personality psychology—emphasizing these disciplines' traditional subject matter (e.g., emotion, cognition, helping, aggression) and its research techniques (survey research, laboratory experiments).
[The author's] goal was to provide a thorough, readable . . . summary of contemporary empathy research [primarily for advanced undergraduate and graduate students]. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
discuss several promises as well as potential problems with the circumplex model of emotion / while this model promises to organize much of what we know about emotion, it is nevertheless open to misinterpretation / before detailing these particular strengths and weaknesses, we begin by describing how a circumplex model is applied in the emotion domain / by advocating the circumplex model, a claim is made that the majority of emotional experience can be captured by two affect dimensions [positive affect and negative affect]
despite the promise a circumplex model holds for aiding our understanding of emotion, a number of problems need to be understood / one set of problems relates to specific interpretational issues concerning the emotion circumplex: are there basic dimensions in the circumplex and how should the dimensions be named / the second set of problems is broader: what does the circumplex fail to do in describing and explaining the relationships between emotions, and what are the shortcomings of the extant data / we will consider first the interpretational issues and, after that, the broader issues (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Recent interest in the charismatic leadership role of managers in organizations calls for the identification and measurement of perceived behavior characteristics of such leadership. This article reports on the development of a questionnaire measure of the perceived behavioral dimensions of charismatic leadership proposed by the Conger and Kanungo (1987, 1988) model. Data were collected from 488 managers belonging to four organizations located in the U.S.A. and Canada. Analysis of the results revealed sound psychometric properties of the measure with adequate reliability, convergent and discriminant validity coefficients, and a stable factor structure. Implications of the measure for future research and practice are discussed.
This paper explains how multinational enterprises (MNEs) select ownership structures for their foreign manufacturing subsidiaries. It extends the literature on the economics of the MNE and provides new statistical tests of its theoretical predictions. MNEs are found to prefer a joint venture with a host-country firm over a wholly owned subsidiary when: (I) the capabilities of the local firm complement those of the MNE; (2) the contributions of both firms are costlier to transfer contractually than through ownership channels, and (3) costs due to shirking by partners and conflicts between them do not outweigh the benefits of joint ownership.
This paper describes a model (the VAM model) which integrates three of the most significant dimensions of the work experience, work values, attitudes, and moods, into one overarching framework. The VAM model proposes that a rich and more complete understanding of the experience of work necessitates the simultaneous consideration of work values, attitudes, and moods. After describing how work values, attitudes, and moods, each capture key aspects of experiencing work, we discuss three important dimensions along which they vary: time, dynamism, and focus. These dimensions underscore the need for the simultaneous consideration of values, attitudes, and moods for a fuller understanding of the work experience. We then describe how work values, attitudes, and moods have the potential to influence each other. Finally, we discuss the implications of the VAM model for understanding important organizational outcomes including extra-role behavior, job performance, social loafing, absenteeism, and turnover. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] Copyright of Human Relations is the property of Sage Publications, Ltd. and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)
Sumario: Leadership theory and research: modal orientations and emerging trends -- Ethical dimensions in leadership motivation -- Ethical dimensions of leadership influence processes -- Preparing for ethical leadership -- Cultural contingencies of leadership
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