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The Motherhood Mandate
Abstract
The centrality of motherhood to the definition of the adult female is characterized in the form of a mandate which requires having at least two children and raising them well. The processes mandating motherhood are discussed. A direct attack on the motherhood mandate is seen as basic to eliminating sex-role stereotypes, mythologies, and sex-typed behavior. Given the social and cultural forces that propel women into motherhood — either by choice or by chance — a thorough analysis of the purpose of childbearing and childrearing in a changing society is basic to understanding persistence and change in sex-typed behavior.
... The reason for women to be the default person to take on kin work lies in the gendered expectations that exist about family life (see Di Leonardo, 1987). In relation to parenthood, kinkeeping behaviors are more compliant with the normative concept of traditional motherhood (Braverman, 1989;Russo, 1976). This aligns with the literature on the intensive mothering ethos, i.e., the parenting paradigm that a "good" mother should be highly involved in all parts of their children's lives (Johnston & Swanson, 2006). ...
... Although normative expectations about familial roles have been changing toward greater gender equalities over past decades, the parents and stepparents of the current generation of adults grew up and have raised their children within the cultural context of more traditional gender roles (Sigle-Rushton et al., 2013). The normative idea that mothers are the best caretakers of their children (the "motherhood mandate"; Hays, 1996;Russo, 1976), which is expected to underlie the found gendered contrasts, might therefore be more salient for the studied cohort. In future research, scholars should acknowledge how the found gaps in kin work might change over time alongside societal shifts in perceptions of gender and parenthood. ...
A kinkeeper is the person within the household that is involved in the management of family relationships, a position traditionally fulfilled by women. Due to the increased complexity of family life, which resulted from the rise in divorce and remarriage, the kinkeeper role might nowadays be particularly important but also more ambiguous. First, we examined differences in parental involvement in kinkeeping (buying presents, organizing outings, relaying family news, and discussing problems) along the lines of gender, family structure, and biological relatedness. Second, we explored whether the kinkeeping of parents and their partners is effective in the facilitation of intergenerational closeness with adult children. We used the OKiN survey, which includes information on kinkeeping in N = 746 intact, N = 982 mother-stepfather, and N = 1,010 father-stepmother families. Findings indicated a central facilitative role for mothers and stepmothers. Substantial gaps were found between mothers and fathers, married and divorced parents, and biological and stepparents with respect to the (variety of) kinkeeping in which these parents were involved. Yet, the contrasts of biological relatedness and family structure were also found to be gendered, as these gaps were smaller for mothers than fathers. Finally, an association was found between adult closeness with biological parents and the kinkeeping of the spouse, regardless of the nature of the relationship between the spouse and adult child. This implies that a stepmother can be just as effective as a married biological mother in facilitating the ties between a father and his biological children.
... Once you get older, you should probably start thinking about starting a family." Inherent in their talk was the assumption that the natural progression of a young woman's life is finding a partner, likely for marriage and children (e.g., Russo, 1976). It was also conveyed that whether or not they delayed engagement in those practices now, they would need to eventually adhere. ...
... Regarding dating early and dating around, badness and defectiveness were inherent features of participants' talk. Despite important differences between this excerpt and the previous one, both reflect contemporary versions (e.g., school and then a family; Gill, 2007) of the social pressures for marriage and reproduction, which are expectations that have existed and been placed upon women for centuries (e.g., Russo, 1976). Some participants, however, questioned other young women's uptake of these expectations: Patricia Black (23, Black): I feel like some women get into relationships to validate their beauty and that they're worthy, valued, and sought after. ...
Scholars have long explored the expectations of women to maintain intimate relationships and the gendered discourses governing those expectations. Despite the dating landscape changes, having intimate relationships remains important for young women. Amid these changes and the impacts of #MeToo/#TimesUp, investigating the discourses at play within women's talk about intimate relationships produces a current snapshot that contrasts with past literature. Young, heterosexual women of diverse racial, educational/work, and relationship backgrounds aged 18–24 years ( N = 28) attended one of five online videoconferencing focus groups. Using an eclectic theoretical approach informed by feminist post-structuralism and discursive psychology, we analyzed women's talk about doing relationships. Mobilizing a discourse of intimate relationship necessity/importance, young women (a) were positioned as “the silenc(ed/ing) woman,” demonstrating a shared understanding of the necessity of silence when doing intimate relationships; and/or (b) actively took up “the communicative woman,” which they conceptualized as the hallmark of a healthy relationship. Tensions between these subject positions were evident (e.g., needing to be “cool”). Also, women described no-win situations in relationships despite attempts to contend with these contradictions and limitations. These findings may contribute to educational materials and youth programming delivered in high school or college.
... Dopo aver osservato sua madre, Erica comprende che, una volta completato il rito di passaggio, è impossibile costruire un'identità autonoma in un contesto di famiglia patriarcale radicato nella cultura italiana: "The archetype of the powerful, self-sacrificial, possessive, suffering, resilient Italian mother […] is the pillar of the family and demands lifelong exclusive loyalty and affection from her children in exchange for her devotion […]" (Giorgio, 2002: 120). La protagonista, che aveva progettato il suo futuro fuori Matera e aveva determinate ambizioni professionali, vede come la sua vita, da quel momento in poi, sarà segnata dal "mandato della maternità" (Russo, 1976) che riduce la donna al ruolo materno, senza possibilità di realizzarsi autonomamente. ...
La gravidanza, il travaglio e il puerperio, oltre a essere processi fisiologici, sono eventi culturali e sociali carichi di significati. Il parto rappresenta sia la conclusione di un processo naturale sia l’inizio della maternità. Questa transizione è codificata culturalmente nelle diverse fasi che compongono il rito di passaggio della maternità, che non sempre rispondono ai bisogni della madre o al suo benessere fisico ed emotivo. Attraverso il concetto di rito di passaggio di Van Gennep (1909), questo studio analizza la ritualizzazione del parto e del post partum nel racconto “Non tremare” (2009) della scrittrice italiana Dora Albanese. Si esplorerà la transizione della protagonista, Erica, da non-madre a madre, e come i riti hanno contribuito a definire l’esperienza di parto della donna. Il risultato è una maternità alienante, segnata da norme, regole e controlli esterni che allontanano la donna dalla propria esperienza.
... As a result, mothers who deviate from these stereotypes often face criticism and internalized shame for not adhering to the rigid expectations of motherhood. [19] Occupying multiple primaries such as being a spouse, a mother, and a working woman can create conflicting demands and negatively affect women's mental well-being. However, women who manage all three roles often report fewer depressive symptoms compared to those in fewer primary roles. ...
... Carrie and Mary produced and raised children according to the "motherhood mandate" (Russo, 1976) that their generation experienced, and managed careers during middle adulthood around substantial domestic responsibilities. Perhaps as a result of her working-class background, Linda avoided this dilemma by committing wholly to her career, though she did become stepparent to her second husband's children from a previous marriage. ...
We use a comparative case study approach to examine the impact of gender and childhood social class on the life courses of three graduates of the Radcliffe Class of 1964. The three women—similar in being White, heterosexual, and able-bodied—came from different social class backgrounds: one working class, one middle class, and one upper class, affording the opportunity to consider the intersection of gender and class at different ages. Social class origin played a significant role in the women’s gendered experience of the rarefied class atmosphere of the college they attended, and in their adult lives, although its shaping role also appeared to wane somewhat later in life; at the same time, some later life experiences clearly built on earlier ones, so some left lasting impressions and some gender and class-linked pressures differed. We stress the value of adding attention to the intersection of social class with gender, and intersectionality in general, in research relying on the life course approach to adult development.
... Dopo aver osservato sua madre, Erica comprende che, una volta completato il rito di passaggio, è impossibile costruire un'identità autonoma in un contesto di famiglia patriarcale radicato nella cultura italiana: "The archetype of the powerful, self-sacrificial, possessive, suffering, resilient Italian mother […] is the pillar of the family and demands lifelong exclusive loyalty and affection from her children in exchange for her devotion […]" (Giorgio, 2002: 120). La protagonista, che aveva progettato il suo futuro fuori Matera e aveva determinate ambizioni professionali, vede come la sua vita, da quel momento in poi, sarà segnata dal "mandato della maternità" (Russo, 1976) che riduce la donna al ruolo materno, senza possibilità di realizzarsi autonomamente. ...
La gravidanza, il travaglio e il puerperio, oltre a essere processi fisiologici, sono eventi cul-turali e sociali carichi di significati. Il parto rappresenta sia la conclusione di un processo naturale sia l’inizio della maternità. Questa transizione è codificata culturalmente nelle di-verse fasi che compongono il rito di passaggio della maternità, che non sempre rispondono ai bisogni della madre o al suo benessere fisico ed emotivo. Attraverso il concetto di rito di passaggio di Van Gennep (1909), questo studio analizza la ritualizzazione del parto e del post partum nel racconto “Non tremare” (2009) della scrittrice italiana Dora Albanese. Si esplorerà la transizione della protagonista, Erica, da non-madre a madre, e come i riti hanno contribuito a definire l’esperienza di parto della donna. Il risultato è una maternità alienante, segnata da norme, regole e controlli esterni che allontanano la donna dalla pro-pria esperienza
... Examples of this are the lack of female role models, absence of mentoring and women hired in low-productivity positions (Russo, 2010). ...
Groeneveld (2009) found that women in the Dutch civil service are slightly more satisfied with their career opportunities than men, in an environment which has become more favorable to them in the recent years. Even if the gender difference found is significant, it is so small that its relevance is questionable. Using her methodology this paper seeks to understand if her findings can be applied cross nationally. Ecuador is an interesting case with a similar changing environment where women seem to be better represented at higher levels of the Ecuadorian civil service and where the wage gap has been significantly reduced in recent years. Contrary to the initial hypotheses that established a similar phenomenon would be observed, there are no statistical significant differences between genders in careers satisfaction even after controlling for socio-demographic variables. However, staff turnover for men is larger. It was found that the main variable to explain career satisfaction is salary and the position within the hierarchies in the state structure. In this context, the public sector employees value more the extrinsic aspects of the job than the intrinsic ones. Differences can also be found in the general level of satisfaction between people coming from different regions within the country.
... These findings might be considered reflective of Russo's 'motherhood mandate' (1976), in that social media serves to expose a voluntarily childless woman's deepest insecurities surrounding her worth and legitimacy within society. If motherhood is considered central to the definition of the female gender (Russo, 1976;De Beauvoir, 2013), it would be reasonable to assume that social media can arouse significant internal struggles concerning the decision to remain childless. Alongside a preoccupation with the dangers of comparison, participant statements concerning social media also highlighted the virtual extension of socially constructed 'in' and 'out' groups (Tajfel, 1978). ...
The concept of women as ‘child-bearers’ and the overarching view of motherhood as a prerequisite for female fulfilment has formed the basis for societal expectations of the female gender for centuries. However, the number of women who choose not to have children is increasing. This research aimed to gain a deeper understanding of millennials’ perception of voluntarily childless women in the UK. It also aimed to explore the extent to which these perceptions are culturally specific and are shaped by societal expectations and the media. Semi-structured interviews were undertaken with participants aged between twenty-three and thirty-eight years. Data were analysed using reflexive thematic analysis informed by a social constructionist epistemological standpoint. Data analysis related to millennial perceptions of voluntarily childless women in the UK revealed three dominant themes: (1) women are expected to behave in accordance with socially constructed gender norms; (2) women are presumed to desire children, as dictated by their gender; and (3) external positive perspectives contrast with internal negative perceptions. Findings indicated that women remain captive to the culture of prevalent gendered expectations that conflate womanhood with motherhood. Millennial mothers displayed external positive perspectives toward voluntarily childless women, but internal prejudices and biases were apparent in the data. Despite the rapidly evolving changes in relation to social norms and gender roles in modern-day life, millennial perceptions in the UK align with the long-standing traditional belief that women must become mothers in order to realise social satisfaction and ultimate fulfilment in their lives.
... Moreover, while both pregnancy and mastectomy have gendered connotations, these gendered meanings vary, thus presenting the opportunity to explore how context shapes the ways in which gender is perceived or deployed. Unlike mastectomy, pregnancy is ultimately gender affirming (even in cases when pregnancy is undesired) because motherhood is culturally framed as the ultimate feminine accomplishment (Martin 1987;Russo 1976). Thus, compared to the threat of cancer, pregnancy is often considered a positive addition to one's gender. ...
There are times when our bodies change in unexpected or undesirable ways, challenging our sense of self. Medical sociologists have largely discussed this phenomenon using the concept of “biographical disruptions.” I argue that this classical framework is insufficient for understanding how individuals' social contexts shape their experiences of disruptions and their ability to rationalize them. Bridging literature on biographical disruption, culture and cognition, saliency, and gender, I explore how individuals’ embodied identities and the social context of particular bodily changes shape when and why physical stimuli are perceived as disruptive. Using content analysis of mastectomy and pregnancy weblogs, I argue that bloggers perceived physical stimuli as salient when they resonated with or were dissonant from their embodied gender identities. Additionally, I identify three discursive scripts shaped by shared gendered schemas bloggers used to rationalize salient bodily changes. These findings illustrate the need for an embodied approach within medical sociology and demonstrate how social identities and cultural schemas shape our experiences of corporeal change.
... We suggest that the motherhood norm might be more central and less susceptible to societal changes than other gender norms because of its essentialist and biological element such that only women can give birth and nurse (Russo, 1976). People believe that the major goal of a woman's life is to raise well-adjusted children (Steinmann & Fox, 1966), and they perceive motherhood as the essential component of being a woman (Chrisler et al., 2013;Holton et al., 2009). ...
Recent conservative political rhetoric support women having careers but emphasize that this should not be an obstacle to having children. We propose that this sentiment reflects the hierarchy of gender norms in today's society whereby motherhood is the ultimate role that women are expected to fulfil and denying such role evokes social penalties, above and beyond other prescribed gender norms. Across five experiments (N = 738), we predicted and found that voluntarily childless women elicit more negative reactions than mothers, and importantly, also more than women violating other gender norms in the realm of occupation (Study 1), power (Study 2) or sexual orientation (Study 3). We demonstrate that these patterns cannot be explained merely by a perceived lack of communal qualities of the non-mothers (Study 4) and also show that involuntary childless women do not receive the same negativity (Study 5). We discuss this, often neglected, gender bias and its resistance to social change.
... An additional ethical issue concerns whether, by way of promoting gestational parenthood, UTx might ingrain certain reproductive social norms that are themselves problematic (O'Donovan et al., 2019). For instance, many criticisms of ART note the 'motherhood mandate', according to which gestating children and raising them well is viewed as a social norm or even a requirement for women (Russo, 1976). By way of enabling both genetic and gestational parenthood, UTx may be critiqued on the grounds that it seeks to develop a particular family, a 'biological nuclear family' (O'Donovan et al., 2019). ...
Women suffering from absolute uterine factor infertility (AUFI) had no hope of childbearing until clinical feasibility of uterus transplantation (UTx) was documented in 2014 with the birth of a healthy baby. This landmark accomplishment followed extensive foundational work with a wide range of animal species including higher primates. In the present review, we provide a summary of the animal research and describe the results of cases and clinical trials on UTx. Surgical advances for graft removal from live donors and transplantation to recipients are improving, with a recent trend away from laparotomy to robotic approaches, although challenges persist regarding optimum immunosuppressive therapies and tests for graft rejection. Because UTx does not involve transplantation of the Fallopian tubes, IVF is required as part of the UTx process. We provide a unique focus on the intersection between these two processes, with consideration of when oocyte retrieval should be performed, whether, and for whom, preimplantation genetic testing for aneuploidy should be used, whether oocytes or embryos should be frozen and when the first embryo transfer should be performed post-UTx. We also address the utility of an international society UTx (ISUTx) registry for assessing overall UTx success rates, complications, and live births. The long-term health outcomes of all parties involved-the uterus donor (if live donor), the recipient, her partner and any children born from the transplanted graft-are also reviewed. Unlike traditional solid organ transplantation procedures, UTx is not lifesaving, but is life-giving, although as with traditional types of transplantation, costs, and ethical considerations are inevitable. We discuss the likelihood that costs will decrease as efficiency and efficacy improve, and that ethical complexities for and against acceptability of the procedure sharpen the distinctions between genetic, gestational, and social parenthood. As more programs wish to offer the procedure, we suggest a scheme for setting up a UTx program as well as future directions of this rapidly evolving field. In our 2010 review, we described the future of clinical UTx based on development of the procedure in animal models. This Grand Theme Review offers a closing loop to this previous review of more than a decade ago. The clinical feasibility of UTx has now been proved. Advancements include widening the criteria for acceptance of donors and recipients, improving surgery, shortening time to pregnancy, and improving post-UTx management. Together, these improvements catalyze the transition of UTx from experimental into mainstream clinical practice. The procedure will then represent a realistic and accessible alternative to gestational surrogacy for the treatment of AUFI and should become part of the armamentarium of reproductive specialists worldwide.
... This concern about Having a history of abortions and the absence of children was a risk factor for depression that may be related to idealised beliefs about motherhood and stigmatised precepts about abortion. Women who have decided to terminate several pregnancies and do not have children may feel selfish or immoral because they perceive that they are challenging family expectations and cultural norms regarding motherhood and womanhood (Kumar et al., 2009;Orihuela-Cortés et al., 2022;Russo, 1976). Stigmatisation provokes a narrative in which women consider it valid to have a single abortion for a justified reason (Amuchástegui et al., 2015). ...
Introduction:
Scientific evidence from the United States and European countries shows that women who have had an induced abortion are not more likely to become depressed and several factors may confound this outcome. In contrast, in the case of Latin America, there are practically no studies in this regard due to restrictive legislation prevailing in the region. This paper aims to determine the prevalence of a probable major depressive episode (PMDE) in women who have legally terminated a pregnancy by way of public service in Mexico City and whether there are any psychosocial factors reported by the international literature associated with this outcome.
Method:
In a cross-sectional study, 274 women aged 15 years or older were interviewed two weeks after undergoing a medical abortion between November 2018 and November 2019. The Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale 35-item version (CES-D-R35) was used to measure the PMDE in a structured interview.
Results:
The prevalence of a PMDE was 15.8%. Multivariate logistic regression was used for adjusted analysis. Perceived abortion stigma ( OR = 6.74, 95% CI = 3.29-13.82), child sexual abuse (OR = 2.23, 95% CI = 1.01-4.93), and previous childless pregnancies (OR = 6.07, 95% CI = 1.52-24.21) were associated with PMDE.
Conclusions:
The prevalence of PMDE is similar to or lower than that reported in studies with women who continued a pregnancy; post-abortion counseling and clinical considerations should include the impact that stigma and gender-based violence have on women’s mental health.
... While at times this criticism can be constructive, many times it made the mothers feel inadequate and insecure about their parenting styles [40] . These statistics speak to both theory and research on the "good mother" stereotype, which suggests that mothers be selfless, warm, all-knowing, and ultimately to blame for their children's shortcomings [41] . ...
Adolescence is a critical time for the cultivation of life purpose, also known as a meaningful long-term aim focused on contribution to others. Youth with purpose, especially marginalized youth, report a number of positive outcomes. Relationships with caring adults appear to be particularly helpful in guiding young people on their path to purpose, but little work has focused specifically on the role of mothers. This qualitative study, approved by a Institutional Review Board, examines how twenty adolescents from marginalized communities describe their sense of purpose and its relationship to their caregivers. The sample size was determined based on saturation, a process in qualitative research when the researchers begin to observe redundancy in the data. Through content analysis, a major theme emerged: the role of mothers and their impact on purpose development on their children. Results showed that mothers helped their adolescents develop their sense of purpose through serving as a sense of inspiration, providing the adolescents with support, sparking a desire for the adolescents to make their mothers proud, and through the mothers and adolescents in engaging in conversations about one’s future.
... Specifically, some have argued that "abortion is understood as a transgression of physical, moral, and ethical boundaries and social norms around gender" (Hessini, 2014, p. 618). Said another way, abortion challenges beliefs associated with the essentialization of motherhood to women: that women should reserve sexual activity solely for reproduction, that women want to and will have children (also known as the motherhood mandate; Russo, 1976), and that women are naturally nurturing of children (Kumar et al., 2009). ...
Prior to and since the 2022 Dobbs decision, U.S. state laws have endorsed individuals surveilling and punishing those associated with abortion care. This practice presents an urgent need to understand the characteristics of abortion stigma, particularly the perspectives of individuals with stigmatizing beliefs. To examine the concept and characteristics of abortion stigma, we interviewed 55 individuals about whether they thought there should be consequences for getting an abortion and, if so, what the consequences should be. Adults from three states (Michigan, Kansas, and Arizona) were purposively sampled to include a range of abortion identities and levels of religious engagement. We used reflexive thematic analysis to code and interpret the data. Participants imagined consequences including financial penalties, incarceration, and forced sterilization. Three themes highlighted how abortion was described as violating the law, women's gender roles, and religious doctrine; accordingly, abortion was imagined as deserving of negative consequences, although abortion was legal in all states during data collection. We argue that these imagined consequences relied on carceral logics and interconnected sexist, racist, and classist stereotypes that reflect and reproduce abortion stigma. This study deepens the understanding of abortion stigma from the perspective of the stigmatizer, underscoring the danger of legislation grounded in stigmatizing beliefs.
... The desire to be a mother is essential to be labelled as a "good woman". 41 Furthermore, the idea that women should have sex just to procreate reinforces the idea that sex for pleasure is frowned upon for women. Abortion, therefore, supposes that a woman has had "non-procreative" sex and seeks to exercise control over her own reproduction and sexuality, which threatens existing gender norms. ...
Background
Abortion is one of the most common gynaecological procedures. It is related to personal, social, and economic reasons under a legal term that is recognised as a common sexual and reproductive right in most of countries. However, making the decision to abort is complex, because it is politicised and is often framed in public discourse related to moral or ethical issues beyond women’s experiences. Therefore, it is subject to medical criteria, religious evaluations, and sociological analysis.
Purpouse
The aim of this synthesis of qualitative studies was to synthesise the decision-making experiences of women who legally aborted.
Research design and method
The Noblit and Hare’s interpretive meta‐ethnography was conducted, and it was written in accordance with the eMERGe meta‐ethnography reporting guidance. Ten studies met the research objective and inclusion criteria, after a comprehensive systematic search strategy in five databases.
Findings
The metaphor “The wrestling between why and what will happen next” and three themes emerged from the data analysis: (1) Forces that incite the arm wrestling; (2) Facing social stigma; and (3) Defeated by a greater rival. The metaphor provided interpretive experiences of the moral conflict experienced by women who decided to have an abortion and emerged from the confrontation of the reasons why they decided to abort and the social repercussions that making the decision entails. The result of the struggle was loneliness and vulnerability.
Conclusion
The lines of action impact policy makers, the media, and health professionals. Actions should focus on the de-stigmatisation and normalisation of abortion, the use of appropriate language, and the training and sensitisation of health professionals.
... First, attitudes about childlessness are clearly linked to one's own fertility intentions (Koropeckyj-Cox & Pendell, 2007a), which are clearly linked to one's own fertility outcomes (Schoen et al., 1999). Second, attitudes toward childlessness shed light on broader cultural norms, such as the persistence of a "motherhood mandate" (Russo, 1976) or its cultural successor, the "superwoman," who is expected to successfully combine work and parenting (Gillespie, 2001). Relatively low levels of desired childlessness and of acceptance of others' childlessness may reveal the perpetuation of what has been described as a strong pronatalist culture in the United States (Park, 2005). ...
Attitudes toward childlessness have received little attention from social scientists even as childlessness as a family form has become more popular. One key predictor of childlessness attitudes is religious commitment, though few studies have examined this association in-depth. Using data from two recent, national datasets—the National Survey of Family Growth and the Survey of U.S. Catholics and Family Life—we assess the relationships between individuals’ religious characteristics and various attitudes about their own and others’ childlessness, as well as how these factors may vary across gender. We find strong associations between religious affiliation, religious attendance, and religious salience, and each of the outcomes such that religious commitment tends to be associated with more negative attitudes toward childlessness. Interactions across gender were rare and the direction of the interactions was mixed. Religion is a pivotal factor in perpetuating pronatalist attitudes in the United States among both men and women.
... What they long for is to fit in (and compete) with their white suburban neighbours and produce yet another "mini-me". (Tsigdinos, 2009, p. 181) Although these comments do implicitly address feminist criticism around the 'motherhood mandate', the centrality of motherhood to the definition of adult females (Fischer et al., 2007;Russo, 1979), intersectional critiques on white reproductive privilege and entitlement (Rapp, 2019;Ross & Solinger, 2017), and women's use of ARTs (Corea, 1985), they do not address the ART marketing ruses (Gürtin & Tiemann, 2021;Takhar & Pemberton, 2019), problematic financialization of fertility (van de Wiel, 2020) and lack of transparency in the ART industry that are prominent features of Zoll's and Tsigdino's memoirs and their other critical, ART-related publications (Tsigdinos, 2014(Tsigdinos, , 2019Zoll, 2018;Zoll & Tsigdinos, 2013). This deception is a significant source of trauma, argue both authors, for women undergoing assisted reproduction and trying to 'survive', navigate and make sense of a medical process where patients, like them, are/were not fully aware of the risks and perils involved. ...
... However, what became apparent is how "mothering", in both display and practice, is at the core of each of the manuscripts. This focus on mothers is perhaps not surprising given that motherhood has long been theorised as a site of gendered, intersectional inequalities in feminist scholarship in which mothers have assumed primary responsibility for home life and childcare (e.g., Green, 2015;O'Reilly, 2020;Russo, 1976;Weisstein, 1968). Such responsibilities for many mothers became even more pronounced during COVID-19 restrictions (Green & O'Reilly, 2021), indicating the continued and heightened pressures placed on mothers to manage the care and well-being of their families, particularly children, in any circumstances. ...
... Motherhood has typically been equated with womanhood (Russo, 1976) and motherhood is particularly associated with cis, straight women (Averett, 2021). Motherhood is also often equated with birth and pregnancy, and the essentialisation of childbirth to motherhood is evidenced in the legal impossibility of there being two mothers on a child's birth certificate, thus discriminating against birth families with more than one mother or no mothers (Green, 2019). 1 Indeed, it is legally impossible for a child to be born without a mother -a fact recently stated in a court ruling brought forward by a trans man who had given birth, where the court deemed that, despite being a man, he must also be a mother, as motherhood refers to the "biological process of conception, pregnancy and birth" (McConnell & Registrar General, 2020). ...
Within UK society, there are gendered assumptions about mums and dads and what they do. Existing research has explored the experiences of parents who diverge from such assumptions, but limited research has focused on trans and/or non-binary (TNB) parents specifically. Research on non-parent TNB populations suggests that individuals with different gender identities may have different experiences. This study therefore aimed to understand the way in which gendered assumptions about parenting shape the experiences of TNB parents, paying particular attention to the distinct experiences of parents with different gender identities (i.e. trans men, trans women and non-binary parents). Reflective thematic analysis was conducted on interview data from 13 TNB parents within the UK. Three themes were identified: 'Motherhood: essential and exclusionary'; 'Fathers as uninvolved parents: negotiating fatherhood' and 'Mum, Dad and nothing in between: parenting beyond the binary'. Parents with different gender identities were impacted differently by gendered assumptions, and generally, parents negotiated with and transcended restrictive norms. Findings highlight the analytical benefit of distinguishing between parenting identity (e.g. mum/dad/parent) and parenting practice (e.g. mothering/fathering/parenting). The findings expose the limitations of such terms as participants were found to go 'beyond mum and dad', in both their identities and practice.
... First, gender stereotypes play an important role in creating and propagating norms of 'true' maternal roles (Kaźmierczak, 2015). A role often prescribed to women is childbearing, which equates motherhood with womanhood, and increases the perceived importance of having children (Ireland, 1993;Russo, 1976). Empirically, studies have shown that higher levels of hostile sexism predict negative attitudes toward childlessness (Ashburn-Nardo, 2016;Husnu, 2016). ...
Introduction
Religiosity plays an important role in defining social norms and leads to homophobia. We tested whether the perceived importance of childbearing and hostile sexism mediate the relationship between religiosity and homophobia. We also tested the relative importance of two mediators and if they sequentially mediated the religiosity–homophobia relationship. Finally, we tested if gender moderates these effects.
Methods
Data from 49 countries with 70,867 participants collected by the seventh wave of the World Values Survey between 2017 and 2020 were analyzed using mediation and moderation techniques.
Results
The perceived importance of childbearing and hostile sexism explain the relationship between religiosity and homophobia. More specifically, the perceived importance of childbearing mediates the religiosity–homophobia relationship, and it mediates the relationship more strongly than hostile sexism. Additionally, hostile sexism and the perceived importance of childbearing sequentially mediate the religiosity–homophobia relationship. This sequential mediation effect is stronger for men than for women. Similarly, the mediation effect of hostile sexism for the religiosity–homophobia relationship is stronger for men than for women.
Conclusions
The perceived importance of childbearing and hostile sexism explain the likely impact of religiosity on homophobia, which should be considered in psychological interventions and prevention programs.
Policy Implications
Interventions that are targeted at altering the perceived importance of childbearing and sexist attitudes can combat homophobia among religious people.
... First, traditional gender roles reinforce the belief that men are the breadwinners and women should rule the house and raise children (see Eagly et al., 2000;Greenstein, 1996;Knudsen & Waerness, 2007;Lachance-Grzela & Bouchard, 2010)-gender roles that seem to conflict with supporting women's reproductive rights. Second, traditional gender-role beliefs foster unrealistic expectations about women's inherent ability to be a mother (Lindsey, 2016), which elicit a "motherhood mandate" in which adulthood for women is predicated upon becoming a mother (see Russo, 1976Russo, , 1979. Abortion may thus be seen by those who endorse traditional gender-role beliefs as a violation of this mandate and be met with opposition. ...
Despite being a defining issue in the culture war, the political psychology of abortion attitudes remains poorly understood. We address this oversight by reviewing existing literature and integrating new analyses of several large‐scale, cross‐sectional, and longitudinal datasets to identify the demographic and ideological correlates of abortion attitudes. Our review and new analyses indicate that abortion support is increasing modestly over time in both the United States and New Zealand. We also find that a plurality of respondents (43.8%) in the United States are consistently “pro‐choice,” whereas 14.8% are consistently “pro‐life,” across various elective and traumatic abortion scenarios. We then show that age, religiosity, and conservatism correlate negatively, whereas Openness to Experience correlates positively, with abortion support. New analyses of heterosexual couples further reveal that women's and men's religiosity decrease their romantic partner's abortion support. Noting inconsistent gender differences in attitudes toward abortion, we then discuss the impact of traditional gender‐role attitudes and sexism on abortion attitudes and conclude that, rather than misogyny, benevolent sexism—the belief that women should be cherished and protected—best explains opposition to abortion. Our review thus provides a comprehensive overview of the demographic and ideological variables that underly abortion attitudes and, hence, the broader culture war.
... It disrupts conventional cultural notions of social and physical order and challenges people's perception and understanding of themselves (Becker, 1994). In particular, it has an adverse impact on women (Russo, 1976) and their "moral identities" (Kleinman, 1992, 1995as cited in Van Balen & Inhorn, 2002 because in patriarchal societies, it is women who are blamed primarily for reproductive failures. So, even if the biological cause of infertility lies in a man, "it is the woman who fails to become pregnant" (Greil, 2002). ...
In this paper, we explore how women who are unable to conform to age-specific conventions of marriage and childbearing construct their adult identities in socio-cultural contexts that valorize fertility and mandate compulsory marriage and motherhood. Through a detailed ethnography of women’s experiences with menstrual anomalies and reproductive aging, this study examines Odia women’s negotiations with their seemingly “incomplete bodies” and “disrupted identities” in the backdrop of experiencing infertility or anticipating it.
... Por tanto, llegan a plantearse ser madres después de haberse apartado de los roles de género tradicionales, en la medida en que ya habían conquistado su autonomía en el plano laboral, financiero y, sobre todo, psicológico. De este modo, no llegan a la maternidad impelidas por un mandato (Russo, 1976), sino alentadas por el deseo, desde su propia definición de independencia y autonomía, que tiene como base su capacidad para conocer por sí mismas qué desean y perseguirlo hasta alcanzarlo, en el sentido de lo afirmado por Ben-Ari y Weinberg-Kurnik (2007). ...
Se efectúa un análisis de una nueva realidad que cada vez cobra más presencia en nuestra sociedad: las familias de madres solas por elección. Se comentan los principales retos a los que se enfrentan, sus similitudes y diferencias con las madres con parejas, sus principales dificultades y también sus fortalezas más singulares. Asimismo, se expone lo que hasta el momento se conoce del desarrollo infantil y adolescente en ellas, así como las pautas imprescindibles para la intervención con este tipo de familias.
... Both discourses can be seen as protecting cis women from perceived harm or loss of rights. As motherhood has typically been equated with womanhood (Russo, 1976) and pregnancy has been perceived as an exclusively female activity, trans men have been represented as being threatening to women, due to being able to also become pregnant. However, in terms of women-only spaces, trans men are not seen as threatening (either to men/women only spaces), rather it is trans women who are portrayed as threatening. ...
Individuals who are trans and/or non-binary (TNB) – especially those in the life stages of adolescence and parenthood – occupy a marginalised social position and are often the focus of political and public debate. Each of these life stages involves interactions between individuals and institutions: adolescents must attend school daily, and parents must engage with institutions both on the journey to parenthood (e.g. fertility, pregnancy and adoption services) and after becoming a parent (e.g. play groups, nursery and their child(ren)’s school). These experiences are therefore worthy of study from sociological and social psychological perspectives, but such research is limited. This thesis aims to address these gaps by qualitatively exploring the experiences and identities of TNB individuals during adolescence and parenthood. Underpinned by the theoretical framework of structural symbolic interactionism, it is composed of two studies; one that examines the experiences of gender-diverse adolescents (Study 1), and the other that focuses on the experiences of trans and/or non-binary parents (Study 2). The thesis aims to increase understanding of the experiences of adolescents and parents, to explore the way in which inequalities are manifested at individual, interactional and institutional levels for TNB individuals at these two life stages, and to develop recommendations for policy and practice. Study 1 examines the school experiences and identity processes of gender-diverse adolescents (i.e. adolescents whose gender identity does not correspond with the sex category they were assigned at birth), examining the experiences of binary-trans, non-binary and gender-questioning adolescents separately. The data come from a large survey of LGBTQ + young people’s social experiences within the UK. A subsample of 74 adolescents’ (25 binary-trans, 25 non-binary, and 24 gender-questioning) open-ended responses were selected for reflexive thematic analysis. The findings demonstrate gender-diverse adolescents experience discrimination at school from a number of sources, and that a range of strategies, including disclosure negotiation, cognitive structuring and proactive protection, are used to navigate this environment. The findings shed light on the school experiences of gender-diverse adolescents, and suggest that the British school system is not fit for purpose with regards to the educational experiences of non-binary and gender-questioning adolescents. Study 2 explores the experiences of trans and/or non-binary parents in the UK within different parenting spaces, both during and after the transition to parenthood, using an intersectional framework. This study is based upon interviews with 13 TNB parents, and interview data were analysed according to the principles of reflexive thematic analysis. Three main themes were identified, reflecting participants’ experiences within the ‘highly normative world’ of parenting, and the strategies of ‘being a pragmatic parent’ and ‘being a pioneering parent’ used to navigate this. The findings suggest that parenting spaces are not inclusive of TNB identities, and that this is particularly impactful when individuals are being judged on their suitability as parents (e.g. in encounters with fertility clinics and adoption services). The findings of this study increase understanding of the way in which navigation strategies are related to parents’ multiple identities, highlighting the usefulness of an intersectional approach for research on this topic. The findings also have a number of practical implications for increasing the inclusivity of parenting spaces. Taken together, Study 1 and Study 2 make a unique contribution to scholarly understanding of the experiences and identities of TNB individuals within the UK. Theoretically, the thesis points to the usefulness of structural symbolic interactionism as a framework for exploring TNB experiences, and the findings illustrate that extant theoretical frameworks do not adequately attend to the experiences of TNB individuals. There are a number of theoretical, practical and empirical gains from this thesis. Theoretically, several extensions are suggested, for instance, to interactionist theorisations of gender and social psychological conceptualisations of resistance. Practically, implications relate to the need for schools and parenting spaces to assume gender diversity. Empirically, this thesis adds to our understanding of the creative ways in which TNB individuals navigate a normative social world.
... Legislation regarding reproduction, such as the restriction of abortion, is an explicit example of how institutions shape reproductive lives. Cultural ideologies that make motherhood an imperative are a less explicit but no less powerful influence on women's reproductive trajectories and lives (Hays 1998;Russo 1976). This is evident in women's use of reproductive technologies, with women who have access to them often having difficulty ending their quest for biological parenthood (Sandelowski 1991), though the cultural meanings assigned to these technologies varies by social group and cultural setting (Inhorn and Birenbaum-Carmeli 2008). ...
Although conservative evangelical Protestants advocate for protecting the embryo in their opposition to abortion and embryonic stem-cell research, they generally support the use of in vitro fertilization (IVF), a procedure that routinely results in embryo loss. This study draws on 42 interviews with Protestant women experiencing infertility—the majority of whom are evangelicals who ascribe personhood to embryos—to examine how these women navigate issues of fertility, religion, and reproductive technologies. In their pursuit of parenthood, these women drew on cultural ideals of femininity, such as nurturance and protection, in forming attachments to embryos. These ideals of femininity were also invoked in the women's moral reasoning surrounding embryo loss, where women emphasized their procreative intention as the creation, not the destruction, of embryos. In doing so, the women described themselves as embracing motherhood. Embryo loss was often understood as a means to create the family formations that God intended. I develop the concept of gendered moralities to show how evangelical women mobilize and enact culturally valued forms of femininity in their reasoning about embryo loss. These findings shed light on larger debates about when and why embryo loss becomes a moral issue. I argue that because embryo loss in the fertility clinic occurs in a space where women are striving to become mothers, the clinic and its largely white, middle-class clientele are shielded from moral condemnation that occurs in other settings. This suggests that the fertility clinic, along with its patients and practitioners, occupies a privileged space within the moral hierarchies of reproduction.
Objective
The current study asks how race, class, and the social pressure to care for children who are not one's own impact how childless Black women experience and make meaning of their parental status.
Background
While much of the existing qualitative research on childlessness has asked how white, middle‐class women experience social pressure to have children, this study shifts this focus to ask how Black women experience social pressure to care for children who are not their own.
Method
The study relied on virtual interviews with 40 class‐diverse childless Black women between 40 and 55. The recruitment strategy utilized a mixed‐method approach, including snowball sampling, online and physical advertising, and targeted outreach within online communities for Black women. Interviews were transcribed and iteratively analyzed to identify thematic codes and categories.
Results
The study identifies and terms “compulsory mothering” as a significant social pressure that leads childless Black women to assume caregiving roles within their kin networks, regardless of their parental status. This pressure is more pronounced among working‐class women, who engage more extensively in these roles compared to their middle‐class counterparts, highlighting how race and class intersect to shape their experiences of childlessness.
Conclusion
The study concludes that race and class influence women's experiences of childlessness. It also finds that childless Black women's relationships with their kin networks shape their experiences of childlessness and their reproductive preferences.
Aiming to investigate and compare self-esteem and perception of quality of life of voluntarily childless and infertile women, we carried out a sequential mixed study. Quantitative data came from an online questionnaire that included sociodemographic questions, the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (EAR) and the WHOQOL-Bref. Participants were 132 women, residents of Greater São Paulo, SP, aged over 50 years, who, regardless of marital status, were not and had not been mothers. From this group, seven women participated in the qualitative stage, which included a semi-structured interview and the use of drawing as an expressive technique. The identified themes were analyzed by applying the theoretical framework of Analytical Psychology. Global quantitative results indicate that there is no statistically significant difference between women who chose not to have children and infertile women, in terms of self-esteem and perception of quality of life, both variables being, on average, at the upper end of the scales. Reports and graphic productions reinforced quantitative findings to the extent that, regardless of the group they belonged to, most interviewees expressed satisfaction with themselves and with their life trajectory. From a Jungian perspective, the set of results points to non-maternity, by choice or infertility, as a condition compatible with one of the many possibilities of being a woman.
Although many people recognize that access to abortion and abortion stigma are connected to systemic and interpersonal sexism, it may not always be clear to all how abortion is connected to other forms of systemic oppression. This chapter situates abortion within equity-based frameworks, such as reproductive justice and intersectionality, to understand how sociopolitical injustices affect abortion experiences. This chapter contextualizes how people’s experiences of accessing abortion may be influenced by pro-natalist messages (e.g., “Having children is your duty”) and anti-natalist messages (“You shouldn’t be having children”), as well as how said messages are targeted based on people’s social positions and identities. Throughout this chapter, the authors provide context for how abortion and pregnancy decision-making may be influenced by systems such as sexism, cissexism, racism, ableism, and ageism/adultism, as well as through wealth inequality. The authors encourage psychotherapists to identify and challenge various biases and stereotypes they may hold so that they can provide compassionate, culturally attuned, and equitable care to all people around their abortion experiences.
This article examines the concept of maternal ambivalence in the Indian cultural milieu through a critical analysis of Avni Doshi’s Burnt Sugar and Zehra Naqvi’s The Reluctant Mother. These novels illustrate how societal glorification of maternal archetypes imposes significant emotional burdens on mothers who defy established norms, leading to inner conflicts laden with guilt, uncertainty, and the struggle to balance personal aspirations with societal expectations. We demonstrate how the novels subvert the entrenched heteropatriarchal order and advocate for a departure from rigid standards of what Andrea O’Reilly calls ‘patriarchal motherhood’. The article focuses on the mother–child relationship, which is characterised by ‘ambiguous intersubjectivity’ and ethical dilemmas linked to maternal discontent. We argue that a phenomenological exploration of maternal ambivalence, in conjunction with cultural norms, offers valuable insights into the complexities of maternal subjectivity and mirrors the conflicts within the maternal psyche. This approach grounds conceptions of gender and motherhood in lived experiences rather than normative ideals, providing a unique lens to examine social realities beyond individual literary works. We show how maternal ambivalence lies at the heart of the motherhood experience and how these narratives vindicate the individuality and autonomy of mothers.
We explored between-country and within-country variability in abortion attitudes, using country-level factors (e.g., gender equality) and individual-level factors (e.g., gender role attitudes) as predictors. Participants from Mexico (N = 215), India (N = 215), the United States (N = 215), and the United Kingdom (N = 206) were recruited via Qualtrics Panels. Regression models and ANOVAs were used to assess whether estimates of gender inequality, gender role attitudes, motherhood norms, belief in big/moralizing gods, and sexual strategy were associated with abortion attitudes. As predicted, individuals living in countries with greater gender inequality, and more restrictive abortion policy, reported more restrictive abortion attitudes and stronger support for banning abortion. Furthermore, individuals who endorsed more traditional gender role ideologies, who reported belief in big/moralizing gods and who used long-term sexual strategies also reported more restrictive abortion attitudes and stronger support for banning abortion. Exploratory analyses highlight how these relationships vary as a function of cultural context. We can conclude that both contextual factors (e.g., local abortion legislation and gender inequality) as well as individual factors (e.g., gender role attitudes and religious/spiritual belief) shape people’s attitudes toward abortion. Implications regarding the bidirectional relationship between attitudes and policy in reproductive health are discussed.
A bstract
Objective
This study identifies five common, cultural beliefs that women perceive as encouraging motherhood in the United States and examines how they impact the parenthood decision‐making and experiences of currently childless women.
Background
Research shows how cultural ideas about “good” motherhood impact women's lives. We know less about the role of cultural beliefs that encourage motherhood despite its well‐known hardships, nor how currently childless women navigate these beliefs.
Method
This study uses 107 interviews with American women ages 35–50 who for varied reasons have not (yet) had children. It identifies five prominent beliefs about motherhood and examines how currently childless women consider and respond to them.
Results
Two beliefs—that motherhood provides fulfillment and that children ensure future security—functioned more as “myths” and were often rejected by interviewees. Three beliefs—that women are “wired” to want children; women are nurturing; and motherhood bestows a unique form of joy —functioned as essentialist “mystiques,” remaining unquestioned or only slightly revised by interviewees. Further, all beliefs, but particularly the “mystiques,” complicated many women's parenthood decision‐making processes and experiences of childlessness.
Conclusion
To understand how the institution of motherhood impacts women who have not (yet) had children, it is crucial to account for the role of cultural beliefs that support its appeal. This study highlights the heterogeneous ways that cultural beliefs that encourage motherhood impact women's parenthood decision‐making and their experiences of childlessness. It emphasizes, in particular, the durability and universality of essentialist ideas (mystiques) about motherhood.
Drawing upon 217 in-depth interviews and the concept of the “social imaginary,” we introduce the “abortion imaginary”—a set of shared understandings regarding abortion and abortion patients. We identify four interrelated facets of the U.S. abortion imaginary pertaining to who gets an abortion and why: maternal inevitability, economic decision-making, relationship precarity, and emotional fragility. We then show how shared perceptions of abortion patients diverge into polarized opinions, revealing how those who know someone who has had an abortion differ from those who do not. Centering personal “exemplars,” we integrate conceptual work on social imaginaries with contact theory to illuminate how divergent opinions coexist with shared cultural understandings.
The objective of this study was to explore the personal experience of women with MRKH, a rare condition characterised by congenital abnormalities of the genital tract. There are very few qualitative studies into the lived experiences of women with MRKH. Interviews were conducted with 13 women with MRKH and analysed using interpretative phenomenological analysis. Four superordinate themes are discovered: maintaining a viable female identity; acceptance and coping; normality, secrecy and shame and the isolating impact of a lack of knowledge amongst the medical profession. This study also suggests that societal ideals of a 'normal woman' are influencing how MRKH impacts on the self-experienced psychological health. It is suggested that the psychological wellbeing of women with MRKH could be improved with continued multidisciplinary support beyond the initial diagnosis and alongside any vaginal correction.
This article discusses the influence of a chromosome condition affecting women's reproductive capacity, Turner Syndrome (TS), on affected women's social timing, examining the strategic decisions that are made within families in relation to reproduction, to navigate these disruptions. Based on photo elicitation interviews with 19 women with TS and 11 mothers of girls with TS in the UK, it presents findings from an under-researched topic, TS and reproductive choices. In a social context where motherhood is not only desirable, but expected (Suppes, 2020), the social imaginary of infertility anticipates a future of unhappiness and rejection, an undesirable condition that should be avoided. Accordingly, mothers of girls with TS often expect that their daughter will want to have children. Infertility diagnosed in childhood has a distinctive impact on reproductive timing, as future options may be anticipated for years. This article uses the concept of 'crip time' (Kafer, 2013) to explore how women with TS and mothers of girls with TS experience temporal misfitting based on a childhood diagnosis of infertility, and manage, resist and re-frame this to minimise stigma. The 'curative imaginary' (Kafer, 2013), a social norm where disabled people are expected to desire a cure for their condition, is used as an analogy for infertility, describing how mothers of girls with TS respond to social pressure to plan for their daughter's reproductive future. These findings may be useful both for families navigating childhood infertility and practitioners who support them. This article demonstrates the cross-disciplinary potential of applying disability studies concepts to the context of infertility and chronic illness, where concepts shed new light on the dimensions of timing and anticipation in this context, improving our understanding of the lived experience of women with TS, and how they view and use reproductive technologies.
After sketching the background to British psychology in the early twentieth century, I will describe a sample of the sixteen women who were members of the British Psychological Society in its first two decades. I will then focus on what difference it made being a woman: (a) the challenges they faced in terms of limited access to education and restricted opportunities for employment; (b) their achievements and career paths; and (c) enabling factors such as personal qualities and strategies employed, including the management of their personal lives and support networks.
While there is growing documentation of pregnancy among sexual minority women, little research has focused on their perceptions and experiences of conflict between sexual minority identity and pregnancy. Because of this, this study used Social Identity Theory and qualitative descriptive analysis to explore the following questions: do sexual minority women perceive sexual minority identity and pregnancy as in conflict; and if so, from where does this conflict arise and how do sexual minority women experience it? Participants included 21 lesbian, gay, bisexual, queer and other non-heterosexual cisgender women, a third of whom had previously been pregnant. Themes captured internally located conflict, including participants who saw pregnancy as irrelevant and those who experienced pregnancy as acceptable for sexual minority women; imposed conflict from healthcare contexts, including both health provider assumptions and imposed conflict on reproductive autonomy; and ambivalence. Overall, few participants noted internalised conflict between their sexual minority identity and pregnancy. Instead, sexual minority women experienced ambivalence or imposed conflict between their sexual minority identities and pregnancy from their health providers, although this imposed conflict was not limited to sexual orientation.
Work–life balance is considered to be the top challenge for working women globally. The COVID-19 pandemic catalyzed a worldwide experiment regarding the various components of this challenge and its possible solutions. Because the pandemic forced numerous workers to shift their working lives from the office to their private homes, it created the largest global experiment in remote work in human history, with implications for women’s equality.
As this article wishes to show, the phenomenon of remote work illuminates gender inequality and the difficulty of work–life balance. Since remote work is mainly conducted from the personal residence of the employee, it generates a hybrid private–professional site and brings to the workplace context the private characteristics of the employee. Thus, remote work exposes how women’s traditional role in the private sphere—caregivers—influences their ability to progress at work. The ubiquity of the trend of remote work during the pandemic also revealed what third-wave feminism argued long ago: the feminine experience is not unitary; different women must cope with different difficulties. The pandemic showed that the ability to shift to remote work and successfully balance work with familial duties is not uniform among women. Questions of financial and marital status are also part of this equation.
It appears that working from a distance with the help of technology will become the most prominent way to conduct work in the future. Unless different regulatory models are developed, the current massive telecommuting trend has the potential to strengthen gendered and socioeconomic inequalities in U.S. society. Against this background, this article suggests a model for a solution that considers private–professional hybridity and both employers and governmental authorities. In this way, the article offers broad systemic solutions intended to diminish the effect of an employee’s familial and socioeconomic background on her ability to shift to telework on an equal basis with others and, in doing so, participate equally in the digitalized labor market of the future.
Images and representations of parenting, and particularly mothering, have become commonplace on social media platforms over the past decade. These displays, however, take place in the context of popular contemporary discourses around gender and parenting that are in many ways prescriptive. This paper explores the constructions of mothering online through an analysis of posts about mothers on Mother’s Day from 2018 to 2020. Data were collected from Instagram and Twitter using hashtags such as #mothersday, #happymothersday and #motheringsunday. Both content and thematic analyses were conducted. This paper will consider three main themes that were identified in the data: “Beauty & biology”; “Grief & loss” and “Care (& COVID)”, with a focus on constructions of gendered parenting and family through the explicit celebration of the lives and roles of mothers. The findings provide insight into normative constructions of gender and how these are mediated through the affordances of social media platforms in a neoliberal context.
The Coronavirus disease (COVID‐19) pandemic and society's overdue racial awakening (Worland, 2020) have created distinct needs for mothers, especially mothers of Color (MOC) in the United States (US) (Breman et al., 2021; Liu et al., 2021). Prior to the double pandemic (see Addo, 2020), expectations that mothers devote themselves entirely to their children may support increases in mental health symptomology within this population (Rahman et al., 2013). Based on systemic inequities that reside at the foundation of many institutions (e.g., healthcare, law, education) within the US, MOC experience increased worry, anxiety, stress, and fear during the double pandemic (Liu et al., 2021). In addition, MOC engage in mothering practices (e.g., racial socialization) that are unique to raising children who identify as Black, Indigenous, and Persons of Color (BIPOC) (Hughes & Chen et al., 1997). Based on these facts, the authors investigate the sociocultural forces that impact MOC's mental health during the context of the double pandemic through a review of existent literature on this topic. The authors’ analysis and incorporation of intersectionality theory and Black feminist thought uncovers the ways in which these forces may influence the experiences of MOC. Finally, the authors utilize an intersectional‐based policy analysis framework (Hankivsky et al., 2014) to provide recommendations for social policy, education and training, and directions for future research. These recommendations acknowledge the influence of power and privilege in the US while building upon the protective factors that support MOC.
Stigma toward women who have had an induced abortion was measured in 458 adult Mexicans and was related to the respondents’ place of residence, religiosity, beliefs about motherhood, ambivalent sexism, age, and personal acquaintance with a woman who had aborted. All participants completed a set of questionnaires that were validated in Mexico. The variables that predicted stigma were religiosity, hostile sexism, age, and beliefs about motherhood as giving meaning to life. The results of this study could facilitate designing strategies to reduce such stigma and its negative consequences on the psychological and physical health of women who have aborted.
More than just a medical condition, infertility is mired in a multitude of socio-cultural phenomena that leave indelible impressions on the lives of women and families. A qualitative phenomenological study examined the experiences of infertility for women from low-income families in India, illustrating its impact on well-being. Women’s experiences with their partners, family, community and medical service providers had multiple consequences on their sense of identity and mental health. Motherhood emerged as an inextricable part of being a woman, and the inability to have a child left women feeling incomplete and “defective”. While most women experienced support from their husbands, their encounters with family and society left them feeling victimized, scrutinized and isolated. Reproductive choices were rarely in the hands of the women as they continued with the physically and emotionally ravaging cycles of treatment to fulfill the individual and familial desire to have a child. Women coped by taking care of themselves emotionally, by actively looking for alternatives or by suppressing their feelings and leaving everything to God. The study has implications for professionals working on gender and reproductive health.
We explore abortion access, abortion experiences, and abortion stigma. We emphasize global perspectives on abortion diversity and the relationship between pregnancy norms and expectations, abortion stigma, and practical constraints on reproductive freedom. Evolutionary psychological, clinical psychological, and social-psychological perspectives illuminate how abortion decisions are shaped by strategies to optimize survival and success, support services that emphasize the costs and risks of pregnancy termination, and pronatalist norms and punishment of departures from those expectations. We call for future abortion research that integrates multiple subfields in psychology and is rooted in an intention to effect public policy and social change that promotes reproductive autonomy.
This analysis of three in vitro fertilisation (IVF) memoirs, by Pamela Tsigdinos, Miriam Zoll and Jessica Hepburn asks what can be gleaned through this literary genre about the singular consumer journey around in vitro fertilisation experiences and ‘IVF survivorship’. I endeavour to show how these critical narratives serve to a) promote fertility awareness and education among consumers; b) showcase infertility as a feminist issue; and c) represent crucial sources of reproductive activism in the context of assisted reproductive technology (ART), markets and consumption. Overall, I demonstrate how the IVF memoir, an overlooked genre of ‘life writing’, is one that has much to teach marketing scholars about unpredictable consumption trajectories, consumer self-transformation and embodied health activism.
Investigated the relationship between attitudes toward child rearing, the quality of childhood experiences, and agreement with women's liberation. A self-report measure of these variables was administered to 101 male and 117 female undergraduates and to 42 women in a continuing education program (CEWs). Results show that (a) CEWs had the most positive attitudes toward child rearing and males had the least positive; (b) no relationship was found between desire to have children and having a father who was home during most of childhood or a working mother; (c) Ss with positive attitudes toward children ranked child rearing as more creative and of more value to society and remembered more nuturant mothers and fathers; (d) males had the least favorable attitudes toward women's liberation, while CEWs had the most; (e) the most child-oriented men had more favorable attitudes toward women's liberation than males with moderately or unfavorable attitudes; and (f) proliberation women were less eager to have children, remembered less attention from their parents, and had more positive feelings toward mothers than fathers. (27 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This article examines some persistent paradoxes in the definition of the male role, and proposes a distinction between traditional and modern male roles. Four current perspectives on the problems of the male role are distinguished: individual-level sex-role identity, cultural-level sex-role identity, contradictory socialization role strain, and inherent role strain. Finally, sources and forms of change in the male role are analyzed in terms of a distinction between the male role in relationship to women and the male role in other areas of life experience.
Every society prescribes the timing of critical events in the life cycle, such as those attending motherhood. Patterns of role transition at variance with social prescriptions should produce role stress. Thus, when the adult roles associated with motherhood are activated too early in a woman’ life cycle, stress and resultant social pathologies should be generated in the family. This study employs national survey data, finding that early motherhood, a form of accelerated role transition, is closely associated with high incidence of marital dissolution, poverty, and truncated education.
Canadian society and social norms are generally pronatalist proparental. The perceived meanings of parenthood and the nature of parents in Canadian society are compared with the perceived meanings of childlessness and the nature of childlessness. Having children is considered to be so-called "natural" behavior. Parents masculinity and feminity are proven by their childbearing. Parenthood is also considered to be the meaning of marriage. Even Zero Population Growth members advocate 2-child rather than childless families.
A structural analysis of the parental role cycle pinpoints the factors which make the transition to parenthood more difficut than marital and occupational adjustment in American society: (1) lack of the cultural option to reject parenthood or to terminate a pregnancy when it is not desired, (2) the shift from marriage to the first pregnancy as the major transition point in adult women's lives, (3) abruptness of the transition at childbirth, and (4) the lack of guidelines to successful parenthood in our society. It is also suggested that every social role has the two independent axes of support and authority and that, contrary to expectation, the balance between expressive and instrumental activities is tipped toward a greater instrumental focus to the maternal role and to an excess of expressive activities in the paternal role, with the result that neither sex is adequately prepared for parenthood.
Every society prescribes the timing of critical events in the life cycle, such as those attending motherhood. Patterns of
role transition at variance with social prescriptions should produce role stress. Thus, when the adult roles associated with
motherhood are activated too early in a woman' life cycle, stress and resultant social pathologies should be generated in
the family. This study employs national survey data, finding that early motherhood, a form of accelerated role transition,
is closely associated with high incidence of marital dissolution, poverty, and truncated education.
In a longitudinal study of the career planning of college women, attention is focused on career-oriented girls who choose male-dominated occupations. A "deviance hypothesis" suggesting that these women are different from non-career oriented women who choose traditionally feminine occupations, in terms of dating, extra-curricular activities, relationships with parents, and work values receives only limited support. An alternative hypothesis stressing the effects of broadening and enriching experiences on career planning is well supported when data on the mothers' work histories, the students' own work experience and the influence of occupational role models are taken into account.
During the next century, societies will have to plan their populations along with other national resources. The success of this objective will depend, in large part, on the reproductive ambitions of women and the availability of effec tive substitutes for maternity. These broad developments will necessitate a reorganization of national priorities, as well as changes in family, household and work patterns. Among the foreseeable consequences are: reduced occupational sex typing, lessened emphasis on marriage and maternity as su preme goals for women and greater participation of women in all spheres of the labor force. As a result, we must expect and prepare for both new forms of socialization and self- images by gender. Concluding the paper are suggestions for steps society might take to help ease the transition into the new era.
Students in the women's college of a coeducational professionally-oriented university were studied longitudinally to assess types and amount of change in career aspirations over the four years. Trends evident from the results were: (1) planning for graduate school increased each year; (2) occupational choices became more definite, but by senior year 36 per cent still felt undecided; (3) occupations chosen were predominantly in professional fields, for all four years; (4) occupations typically held by women were chosen most often; (5) the view of work as integral to adult life (or career salience) was not predominant but some conversion to career salience occurred among juniors and seniors; (6) motivation to work was strongset for conditions involving familial convenience or need, thus, few would work with young children at home, while with school age children work motivation rises steadily over the four years. Much shifting in the career aspirations variables occurred, but greater career orientations emerged only for some. For most of the study class a flexible pragmatic approach prevailed, i.e., to incorporate work at some stages in adult life, but a potent career orientation held only for a few.
Zero population growth (ZPG) is viewed as a mandatory goal of modern man and the feasibility of achieving this goal through fertility limitation rather than through mortality increase is discussed. It is estimated that all women in the United States would have to start immediately having no more than 2.1 live births in a lifetime to achieve ZPG in the United States within 70 years and by then the countrys population would have reached 280 million. This low average birth rate would have to be maintained without baby booms and regardless of marriage rates or age and implicitly pronatalist government policies. Merely eliminating unwanted births by effective and widespread birth control rather than by consciously changing family size desires is rejected as not as readily attainable as is claimed and inadequate to make more than a fractional reduction in the countrys rate of natural increase. Implicit government policies and societal norms encourage and support pronatalist actions and explicit antinatalist policies are needed to reorient reproductive behavior in a controlled rather than disorganized manner.
Explored the upper and lower limits of family size deemed socially acceptable, and the kinds of social pressures brought to bear on couples whose family size intentions or performance fell outside this "acceptable" range. A series of questions was included in the July 1972 Opinion Research Corporation Caravan survey, a national probability sample survey of Americans aged 18 and older living in the continental US. The sample included 311 ever-married men and 412 ever-married women. Data demonstrate the existence of limits to acceptable family size and, particularly at the lower limit, the anticipated occurrence of social pressures to bring family size intentions into the acceptable range. Women expected greater social pressure than men (perhaps due to sex role differences). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This paper reports on some recent data which deal with attitudes toward sex role as held by male and female, black and white college students. Its purpose is to describe rather than to test hypotheses, but some general conclusions can be drawn from the results. The data were obtained from the questionnaire responses of 300 college students attending Howard and American Universities in Washington. The results support several general conclusions: (1) With respect to the effects of sex and race on the criterion variables of interest, evidence suggests the prevalence of a "cultural lag" in egalitarianism among males as compared with females. Although blacks are more traditional as measured by the Role Conception Inventory, when it comes to personal preferences, race has little effect and blacks are not more traditional than whites; (2) Attitudes toward housework and child care remain relatively traditional for the 4 groups while attitudes toward what could be called career related categories are relatively more liberal, especially on the part of white females. (RK)
This study investigated the relative rewards and costs of parenthood and working as perceived by 63 professional and 60 nonprofessional women between the ages of 28 and 39 who were childless, had small families, or had large families. A social exchange theory was suggested as the general theoretical framework for the study. The overall pattern of results suggested that women with different numbers of children and occupational statuses showed different relative costs and benefits of parenthood and work. In particular, women with larger families had a higher general satisfaction with parenthood than those with small or no families. Those who were childless saw higher general costs associated with parenthood than those with small or large families, and professional women also saw greater costs of parenthood than did the nonprofessional women. General motivation for work was found to be higher among the professional women. Other significant differences were found between subgroups of women who differed in work status or family size in terms of their responses to both openended and structured questions regarding their motivation for parenthood and working. (Author)
Summarizes findings of maternal employment studies of the past decade, noting the lack of clear-cut differences in adjustment of preschool, elementary school, and adolescent children of working vs nonworking mothers. Quality of mother-child interaction and of caretaking arrangements are seen as more significant determinants of adjustment. A review of research methodologies emphasizes the need to control for mediating variables such as social status, conditions of employment, influence of paternal attitudes, and family intactness. Observational techniques should supplement the traditional reports from children, teachers, and mothers. Recent advances have included longitudinal studies assessing long-term effects of maternal employment and studies of black families. The need to further refine methodology in this field is stressed. (41/2 p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
An explanation is presented for differential career achievement in women and men. The analysis proposed is based on social psychological theories, such as role theory and social comparison and attribution theory, rather than on the genetic or personality theories which have been advanced in the past. The paper focuses on the situational factors which operate on women to shape their domestic and professional choices and behavior. These factors are analyzed from the perspectives of traditional housewives and mothers; career women; and women who attempt to combine the responsibilities of housewife, mother, and professional.
This study of 200 senior college women investigates the relationship between non-sextypical occupational choices (Role Innovation) and background, personality, and college experience. Role Innovators are more autonomous, individualistic, and motivated by internally imposed demands to perform to capacity. Rather than cross-sex identification, there is some evidence of role modeling of more educated working mothers. The Role Innovators' career commitment is greater, yet they have as many romantic and friendship relationships with men as do Traditionais. Faculty and female college friends provide role support, but a supportive boyfriend may be more important at this stage. A four-part typology is suggested in which role modeling and the type of maternal model are related to motivational patterns and occupational choice.
Consensus about the differing characteristics of men and women exists across groups differing in sex, age, marital status, and education. Masculine characteristics are positively valued more often than feminine characteristics. Positively-valued masculine traits form a cluster entailing competence; positively-valued feminine traits reflect warmth-expressiveness. Sex-role definitions are incorporated into the self-concepts of both men and women; moreover, these sex-role differences are considered desirable by college students and healthy by mental health professionals. Individual differences in sex related self-concepts are related to sex-role relevant behaviors such as achieved and ideal family size. Sex-role perceptions also vary as a function of maternal employment.
Papers based on the discussions of a work group that met at Stanford University, 1962, 1963, 1964, sponsored by the Committee on Socialization and Social Structure of the Social Science Research Council. Annotated bibliography, compiled by Roberta M. Oetzel.
Estudio sobre cómo los patrones de desarrollo social y económico influyen en los procesos de planificación familiar, a la inversa de otros trabajos que presentan el desarrollo como consecuencia de los proyectos de control del crecimiento demográfico. El autor argumentaba que en un creciente número de países en desarrollo, con un ingreso per cápita relativamente bajo y a los que habían arribado recientemente los programas de planificación familiar, el índice de natalidad había disminuido a inicios de la década de 1970, gracias a que un sector mayoritario de la población había participado previamente en beneficios socioeconómicos como los servicios de salud y educación o el empleo.
http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/50888/1/111.pdf
In order to understand why women are relatively poor contraceptors before their first pregnancy, and to answer some other related questions, a survey of 408 black and white native American women (aged 15-29), who lived in 3 boroughs of New York City (Brooklyn, the Bronx, and Queens) and had their first child in July of 1970, 1971, or 1972, was conducted by the National Opinion Research Center during January 15-March 14, 1973. 56% of the respondents stated not having planned their first births; only 6% were consistently using contraception during the month that they became pregnant. 81% of the births to teenagers were unplanned. One third of the mothers never used contraception prior to pregnancy. After the first birth, younger mothers were more likely to attend a clinic for contraception than older mothers. Nonuse of contraception was related to knowledge, accessibility and motivation, as well as interpersonal barriers such as the husband not wanting it, etc. Policy aimed at the period preceding motherhood should be given priority.
PIP
Canadian society and social norms are generally pronatalist, proparental. The perceived meanings of parenthood and the nature of parents in Canadian society are compared with the perceived meanings of childlessness and the nature of childlessness. Having children is considered to be so-called "natural" behavior. Parents' masculinity and feminity are proven by their childbearing. Parenthood is also considered to be the meaning of marriage. Even Zero Population Growth members advocate 2-child rather than childless families.
For prevention of unwanted conceptions, the data indicated that there was a decline from the 1951-1955 to the 1961-1965 marriage cohort of 10.4 percentage points in all, of which 5.5 points was attributable to the shift to the pill, and 4.9 points to the general improvement in method specific efficacy. For delay, there was a decline, from the 1951-1955 to the 1966-1970 marriage cohort, of 16.6 percentage points in all, of which 9.5 points was attributable to the shift to the pill, and 7.1 points to the general improvement in method specific efficacy. In summary, 53% of the decline in prevention failures and 57% of the decline in delay failures between the cohorts of 1951-1955 and 1961-1965 were attributable to the adoption of the pill. The results of this analysis indicate that the shift to the pill was the primary factor in the decline in contraceptive failure, although the contribution of other changes was by no means negligible.
The position of women in highly developed countries is examined. Before the Industrial Revolution the members of the family all contributed economically. The Industrial Revolution caused the men to be increasingly independent of the economic contribution of the family while it caused the women and children to become more economically dependent on the extrafamilial occupations of husbands and fathers. Step by step the womans sphere shrank to the household only. The assumption that the percentage of women working has risen strikingly in the postwar period has not been borne out by the censuses. The number of women in the workforce has increased somewhat from 1950-1970 mainly because of the increased tendency of married women to work. Women typically participate in economic activity only as a supplement to their primary status inside the home. Genuine alternatives are now being offered to women however and it is probable that women will choose these alternatives primarily for positive reasons such as satisfying their best talents and drives rather than for negative reasons such as not wanting to be "a mere housewife".
Delinq'uency rates in two-wage earner v. single-wage earner families
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Kendall, L. Delinq'uency rates in two-wage earner v. single-wage earner families. In Anatomy of the residential mortgage. Washington, D.C.: United States Savings and Loan League, 1964.
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Sex role stereotyping: Kids learn their lessons early and learn them well
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T h e myth of the egalitarian family: Familial roles and the professionally employed wife. Paper presented at the meeting of the
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Population and youth Psychological perspectives on population Basic Books, 1973. Ryder, N. Contraceptive failure in the United States
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Russo, N. F., & Brackbill, Y. Population and youth. In J. T. Fawcett (Ed.), Psychological perspectives on population. New York: Basic Books, 1973. Ryder, N. Contraceptive failure in the United States. Family Planning Perspectives, 1973, 5, 133-142.
Women's rights and fertility Etaugh, C . Effect of maternal employment on children: A review of recent Greene, G. A vote against motherhood. Saturday Evening Post Social pressure on family size intentions. Family Planning Perspec-tives
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Dixon, R. Women's rights and fertility. Studies in Family Planning, 1975, Etaugh, C. Effect of maternal employment on children: A review of recent Greene, G. A vote against motherhood. Saturday Evening Post, January 24, Griffith, J. Social pressure on family size intentions. Family Planning Perspec-tives, 1973, 5, 237-242.
welfare, and mother's motivation. Manpower, Sep-Muller, C. S. Feminism, society and fertility control. Family Planning Perspec-Peck, E. The baby trap h e male sex role: Definitions, problems, and sources of change
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Mason, P. Employment, welfare, and mother's motivation. Manpower, Sep-Muller, C. S. Feminism, society and fertility control. Family Planning Perspec-Peck, E. The baby trap. New York: Bernard Geis Associates, 1971. Pleck, J. H. T h e male sex role: Definitions, problems, and sources of change. Journal of Social Issues, 1976, 32(3).
Relative costs and benefits of work and children to professional and non-professional women. Paper presented at the meeting of the American Psychological Association
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Beckman, L. J. Relative costs and benefits of work and children to professional and non-professional women. Paper presented at the meeting of the American Psychological Association, New Orleans, August 1974.
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Keith-Spiegel, P., Fidell, L. S., & Hoffman, D. Choosing thesex of offspring: Possible implications for feminist goals. Paper presented at the meeting of the American Psychological Association, New Orleans, August 1974.
A review of the actual and expected consequences of family size. Calspan Report N o . DP-5333-C-1 Career salience and atypicalityof occupational choice among college women Bacon, L. Early motherhood, accelerated role transition, and social patholo-gies
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Terhune, K. W. A review of the actual and expected consequences of family size. Calspan Report N o. DP-5333-C-1, July 31, 1974. REFERENCES Almquist, E. A., & Angrist, S. S. Career salience and atypicalityof occupational choice among college women. Journal of Marriage and the Fami/y, 1970, Bacon, L. Early motherhood, accelerated role transition, and social patholo-gies. Social Forces, 1974, 52, 333-341.