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Three Components of Background Knowledge in Reading Comprehension
Abstract
Research in native (English) and nonnative (ESL) reading comprehension has shown that the ability to understand texts is based not only on the comprehender's linguistic knowledge, but also on general knowledge of the world and the extent to which that knowledge is activated during processing. Separate components of background knowledge which have been identified in the literature are: (1) prior knowledge in the content area of the text (familiar vs. novel); (2) prior knowledge that the text is about a particular content area (context vs. no context); and (3) degree to which the lexical items in the text reveal the content area (transparent vs. opaque). This paper reports a study which shows the individual and interactive effects of these three separate variables on the reading comprehension of both native (English) and nonnative (ESL) readers.
Results indicate that, unlike native speakers for whom all three components of background knowledge play a significant role in reading, understanding, and recalling a text, nonnative readers show virtually no significant effects of background knowledge. Further, also unlike native readers, nonnative readers appear not to have a good sense of how easy or difficult a text is for them to understand. These findings are discussed in relation to schema-theoretical views of reading as an interactive process between the text and the reader, and in relation to their implications for ESL reading pedagogy.
... L2 proficiency has been hypothesized to influence the role of topic knowledge in comprehending a text on that topic. Carrell (1983) claimed that advanced L2 learners whose L2 proficiency is above the upper end of threshold would rely less on prior knowledge than intermediate L2 learners. Al-Shumaimeri (2006) argued that high L2 proficiency would enable L2 learners to rely more on reading strategies and skills than prior knowledge. ...
... Most studies on the relationship between prior knowledge and L2/FL reading development have included secondary or postsecondary students (e.g., Al-Shumaimeri, 2006;Carrell, 1983;. , , and reported the positive role of prior topic knowledge in comprehending a text about that topic in a target foreign language among college students. ...
... That is, regardless of language status students who had stronger general knowledge about topics such as trains, planes, and firemen (Rock et al., 2002) measured at the beginning of schooling were likely to develop reading achievement more throughout the elementary years than those who had less general knowledge. According to the upper-end-threshold hypothesis, the relationship between general knowledge and reading growth would become weaker or non-significant (Carrell, 1983) in students who are ELs, presumably because their L2 proficiency is likely to be improved in later grades. There was no evidence in this study that students who were ELs benefitted less from general knowledge in reading development in later grades. ...
Reading development in students who are second language learners (SLLs) has been a concern of many educators. It is important to understand reading development in students who are SLLs to effectively support their reading development. The dissertation consists of two studies, presented in two stand-alone manuscripts, that aimed to deepen our understanding in the role of general knowledge and reading motivation in reading development in students who are SLLs, along with students who are monolinguals (MLs). Students who were MLs were also included in the studies to explore how similar or different the role of general knowledge and reading motivation are in reading development of students who are SLLs and students who are MLs. In the first study of this dissertation, I explored the contributions of kindergarten general knowledge and third-grade reading motivation to reading growth from first through fifth grade in U.S. students, using the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of 1998-99. The longitudinal associations of the predictors with reading growth were examined because the findings can contribute to understanding reading difficulties emerging in later grades. The main statistical approaches included factor analysis to identify motivational constructs and multi-group latent growth modeling to examine how the two predictors simultaneously predict reading growth, while controlling for early decoding skills and demographic covariates. The results indicated that early general knowledge predicted reading growth to a similar extent between the two groups (approximately beta = .20 on a growth slope). In addition, third-grade reader self-perception explained reading growth similarly in both groups (approximately beta = .09 on a growth slope), even after accounting for early general knowledge. In the second study of this dissertation, I investigated the role of fourth-grade science knowledge (a proxy for general knowledge) and reading motivation in fourth-grade reading comprehension of informational and narrative texts. The study used three merged international datasets (PIRLS 2011, TIMSS 2011, and the combined dataset of TIMSS and PIRLS 2011). By using the international datasets, the study was able to investigate reading development in fourth-grade students from five countries. Factor analyses were used to identify motivational constructs for reading, and the associations of reading comprehension of each genre with science knowledge and reading motivation were examined with multi-group multilevel regression, controlling for demographic covariates. The results indicated that science knowledge, reader self-perception, and reading attitudes predicted informational and narrative reading comprehension to a similar extent between students who were SLLs and students who were MLs (approximately R2 = .40). The concurrent and longitudinal association between general knowledge and reading development suggests that enhancing knowledge at the beginning of schooling and in the middle grades may support reading development in students who are SLLs as well as students who are MLs. However, policies related to reading development (e.g., the U.S. No Child Left Behind Act) have often focused on enhancing reading skills apart from knowledge development. It is important to convince policy makers that enhancing students’ knowledge has the potential to support reading development not only in students who are MLs but also students who are SLLs. Additionally, the two studies revealed that reader self-perception significantly predicted reading development concurrently and longitudinally for both language groups. Professional development for teachers to enhance reader self-perception of students may benefit students’ reading development, regardless of language status.
... Perdebatan tentang skemata bukanlah perkara baru. Istilah skemata dikatakan mula digunakan oleh Bartlett sebagai suatu pengaturan aktif yang berlaku dalam minda seseorang tentang reaksi atau pengalaman lepas (Carrell, 1983). Dalam konteks kemahiran membaca pula, konsep skemata dikaji apabila seseorang pembaca menggunakan pengetahuan lampau atau pengalaman lepas untuk memahami teks dan mempelajari sesuatu daripadanya. ...
... Skop kajian dan perbincangan tentang fungsi skemata dalam kemahiran ini pula terlalu luas. Malah, skemata dalam pemahaman teks merupakan bidang yang banyak dikaji oleh sarjana barat seperti Rumelhart dan Carrell yang terkenal dengan penyelidikan tentang pembacaan teks dalam konteks pembelajaran bahasa (Carrell, 1983;Carrell 1987). Skemata dianggap penting kerana menurut Carrell (1983), seseorang itu lebih memahami sesuatu perkara apabila perkara itu dapat dikaitkan dengan pengetahuan sedia ada pada dirinya. ...
... Malah, skemata dalam pemahaman teks merupakan bidang yang banyak dikaji oleh sarjana barat seperti Rumelhart dan Carrell yang terkenal dengan penyelidikan tentang pembacaan teks dalam konteks pembelajaran bahasa (Carrell, 1983;Carrell 1987). Skemata dianggap penting kerana menurut Carrell (1983), seseorang itu lebih memahami sesuatu perkara apabila perkara itu dapat dikaitkan dengan pengetahuan sedia ada pada dirinya. Oleh itu teori skemata dalam konteks pembelajaran bahasa menyatakan, pemahaman terhadap sesuatu yang didengar atau dibaca merupakan proses interaktif yang saling bertindak balas di antara kandungan teks dan pengetahuan lepas pembaca (Carrell, 1983). ...
Tujuan – Walaupun pendidikan tahfiz berkembang pesat mutakhir ini, pencapaian hafazan al-Quran di institusi tahfiz didapati masih kurang memberangsangkan. Salah satu faktor kelemahan pencapaian hafazan dipercayai berpunca daripada kelemahan memahami makna ayat al-Quran dalam kalangan pelajar tahfiz. Walaupun banyak kajian telah dijalankan, namun terdapat jurang pengetahuan tentang faktor di sebalik masalah kefahaman al-Quran. Sementara itu, beberapa sarjana Islam didapati menekankan pengajaran bahasa Arab dalam sistem pendidikan tahfiz. Justeru, kajian ini meneroka kepentingan skemata bahasa Arab dalam meramal pencapaian hafazan melalui kefahaman al-Quran.
Metodologi – Dengan mengambil pendekatan kuantitatif, kajian ini menyelidiki pengaruh skemata bahasa Arab terhadap pencapaian hafazan dalam kalangan pelajar tahfiz yang mempunyai latar belakang pengajian bahasa Arab. Faktor pengantara, iaitu kefahaman al-Quran turut diteliti. Kajian dijalankan terhadap 246 sampel dari empat buah institusi tahfiz di Malaysia yang mensyaratkan pelajar mempunyai skemata bahasa Arab pada peringkat Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia. Pengumpulan data dilakukan melalui teknik ujian bagi mengukur tahap skemata bahasa Arab yang terdiri daripada nahu, saraf dan kosa kata, tahap kefahaman al-Quran dan juga pencapaian hafazan.
Dapatan – Hasil analisis menggunakan Partial Least Square – Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) dan prosedur Bootstrapping menunjukkan bahawa skemata bahasa Arab mempunyai kesan langsung dan kesan tidak langsung terhadap pencapaian hafazan melalui kefahaman al-Quran.
Signifikan- – Dapatan kajian ini menjelaskan bahawa skemata bahasa Arab dan kefahaman al-Quran menjadi faktor peramal yang relevan terhadap pencapaian hafazan.
... General knowledge might have a stronger relationship with the reading growth of bilingual students than monolingual students because it can compensate for still-developing English language proficiency of bilingual students (Chen & Donin, 1997). Alternatively, monolingual students might benefit more from general knowledge because monolingual students can utilize general knowledge more effectively than bilingual students; due to stilldeveloping English language proficiency, utilization of general knowledge might be less effective among bilingual students than their monolingual peers (Carrell, 1983). ...
... In addition, English language proficiency needs to be considered in investigating the longitudinal contribution of general knowledge to English reading growth because previous studies using different operationalization of prior knowledge have yielded inconsistent results regarding the role of English language proficiency in the relationship between prior knowledge and English reading in bilingual students. Contrary to the study by Hwang and Duke (2020) that indicated a greater advantage for science domain knowledge in English reading development in bilingual students than that in monolingual students, studies on topic knowledge (i.e., knowledge related to the topic of a text) have shown that topic knowledge is not necessarily in the service of bilingual students' English reading development due to their still-developing English language proficiency (Carrell, 1983;Carrell & Wallace, 1983;Hammadou, 1991) or that the positive role of topic knowledge is limited to bilingual students who have already acquired a certain level of English language proficiency (Al-Shumaimeri, 2006;Ridgway, 1997). For example, in a study with older learners, Carrell (1983) found that topic knowledge in college bilingual students did not predict text comprehension on that topic in English, whereas it was a significant predictor for college monolingual students, a finding that is contrary to that reported by Hwang and Duke (2020). ...
... Contrary to the study by Hwang and Duke (2020) that indicated a greater advantage for science domain knowledge in English reading development in bilingual students than that in monolingual students, studies on topic knowledge (i.e., knowledge related to the topic of a text) have shown that topic knowledge is not necessarily in the service of bilingual students' English reading development due to their still-developing English language proficiency (Carrell, 1983;Carrell & Wallace, 1983;Hammadou, 1991) or that the positive role of topic knowledge is limited to bilingual students who have already acquired a certain level of English language proficiency (Al-Shumaimeri, 2006;Ridgway, 1997). For example, in a study with older learners, Carrell (1983) found that topic knowledge in college bilingual students did not predict text comprehension on that topic in English, whereas it was a significant predictor for college monolingual students, a finding that is contrary to that reported by Hwang and Duke (2020). Carrell (1983) argued that still-developing English language proficiency prevents bilingual students from utilizing their prior knowledge, thus resulting in a nonsignificant contribution of topic knowledge to the prediction of text comprehension on that topic in English. ...
This study investigated the role of early general knowledge in English reading growth of bilingual and monolingual students in the elementary years by using the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class data set. The analyses of latent growth models showed that the estimated gap in English reading between students who started school with higher general knowledge and students who started school with lower general knowledge increased throughout the elementary years in both language groups. Early general knowledge consistently predicted English reading growth in the subsample of bilingual students even after accounting for early decoding skills and English proficiency. The findings on the role of early general knowledge in English reading growth are discussed in relation to research and practice.
... Moreover, the role of the cognitive and psychological components in reading comprehension might differ by language status, an important component of Aaron et al. (2008)'s ecological domain for reading comprehension. For example, in a study with college students, Carrell (1983) found that prior knowledge predicted reading comprehension in college students who were ELs, but not in students who were monolingual. Although differences in reading development between students who are ELs and students who are monolingual have been postulated (Hedgcock & Atkinson, 1993;Riddle Buly & Valencia, 2002), little comparative analysis has been conducted to understand whether and how the role of the predictors in reading comprehension differ by language status (Gámez & Lesaux, 2015). ...
... For example, Rydland et al. (2012) found that topic knowledge predicted L2 reading comprehension of that topic even after decoding skills and vocabulary knowledge in L2 were accounted for in fifth-grade students who learned Norwegian as their second language (see also Burgoyne et al., 2013). However, Ridgway (1997) and Carrell (1983) did not find a significant relationship between topic knowledge and L2 reading comprehension of texts on that topic in college students who were learning English as their L2. The discrepancy in findings in this area may be due to differences in the age of the study participants, underscoring the need to study the topic further with third graders, currently an especiallyreading-policy-relevant age-group. ...
... These studies are typical of research on domain knowledge and reading comprehension to date in that they have included only students who are monolingual or have not considered the language status of children one way or the other. Most of L2 studies have been focused on the relationship between topic knowledge with reading development in secondary or postsecondary students (e.g., Al-Shumaimeri, 2006; Barry & Lazarte, 1995, 1998Carrell, 1983;Ridgway, 1997). Thus, we need research that investigates the broader types of knowledge (domain or general knowledge), rather than topic knowledge, in students who are L2 learners, including ELs, particularly in the elementary years. ...
This study examined the role of science domain knowledge, reading motivation, and decoding skills in reading comprehension achievement in third-grade students who are English learners (ELs) and students who are monolingual, using a nationally representative data set. Multigroup probit regression analyses showed that third-grade science domain knowledge and motivation for reading, decoding skills, and early attainment of decoding skills were significantly associated with third-grade reading comprehension in both language groups. Also, using Wald chi-square tests, the study showed that the association between third-grade science domain knowledge and reading comprehension was stronger in students who were ELs than in students who were monolingual. These findings suggest that cultivating science domain knowledge is very important to supporting reading comprehension development in third grade, particularly for students who are ELs.
... schemata) seems to override linguistic knowledge. These results along with myriad of research findings supporting the positive effect of activated schema knowledge on listening comprehension (Mueller, 1980;Carrell, 1983Carrell, , 1987Chaudron, 1983;Markham & Latham, 1987;Anderson & Lynch, 1988;Long, 1990;Chiang & Dunkel, 1992;Cervantes & Gainer, 1992) may lead to this conclusion that, to improve listening comprehension ability, all that is needed is to activate and reinforce the listeners' background knowledge. For instance, Kelly (1991) claims that foreign language learner would find little advantage in practicing the bottom-up features, especially ear training, because it is unlikely for him to ever match the native speaker in this area, and even if he could, this ability is of little value. ...
... Since 1970s, when first language research revealed the positive effect of schema knowledge on comprehension, myriad of studies have been conducted to investigate whether the same results can be obtained in second and/or foreign language reading and listening comprehension. Schema has been operationalized in a variety of ways, such as : cultural knowledge (Kintsch & van Dijk, 1975;Johnson, 1981;Roshkow, 1988;Sasaki, et al. 1991), technical knowledge (Mohammed & Swales, 1984), religious knowledge (Carrell, 1987;Markham & Latham, 1987), topic familiarity (Bernhardt, 1988;Hammadou, 1991;Schmidt-Rinehart, 1994), and contextual visuals (Carrell, 1983;Alvermann & Boothby, 1986). ...
Research on the effects of schematic knowledge on comprehension dates back to the ’70s -- the seminal works in the first language by Bransford & Johnson (1972), Anderson et al. (1977), and Steffenson et al. (1979). Ever since, a great number of studies have investigated the same phenomenon in the context of L2 reading and listening comprehension (Carrell, 1983, 1987; Anderson & Lynch, 1988; Long, 1990; Schmidt-Rinehart, 1994; to name but a few). It is imperative to acknowledge the contribution of these studies to our enhanced understanding of the processes involved in comprehension, yet two issues seem to have received almost no attention: first, the extent of the predictive power of schema, and second, the question of defining schema in terms of its constituents.
The majority of research findings in this area have focused on investigating the effect of existence vs. non-existence of stereotypic schema, making use of conventional and predictable linguistic input. These results, however, may not be generalizable to real language use that often exceeds the limits of pre-established frames. With this in mind, the primary purpose of the current study was to explore the effects of employing nonconventional and atypical input on listening comprehension of EFL learners at different levels of language proficiency.
With regard to the second issue, it should be pointed out that despite the existence of a large body of related literature, schematic knowledge, itself, is still treated as a broad and blurred concept. That is, schema often has been operationally defined in general and fuzzy terms such as cultural knowledge, religious knowledge, technical knowledge, etc. with little attention to its underlying factors. In the present study, nonetheless, it was attempted , as the secondary purpose, to bring schematic knowledge under scrutiny, analyze it into its possible components and determine the informative weight of each and every component in listening comprehension. To this end, Brown & Yule’s (1983) model was utilized, in which speaker, listener, place, time, genre, topic and co-text are supposed to be the features of schematic knowledge.
To provide empirical evidence for the study, the following steps were taken. Two 31-item multiple-choice tests were developed. In both tests, the input was preceded by some pieces of schematic information. In the first test (called compatible), conventional and in the second test (called incompatible), nonconventional situations were incorporated. The items of the two tests were randomly distributed to form one 62-item test which was then pretested with 70 EFL adult learners. It proved to enjoy acceptable psychometric characteristics ( reliability index = .79, averaged item facility = .39, and averaged item discrimination = .41). It was then concurrently validated against the TOEFL with the participation of 100 EFL learners (reliability and validity indices .83 and .77, respectively). The listening section of the TOEFL also served as the no schema part of the project.
Concerning the first purpose of the study, multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) for repeated measurement was applied to the data and all Fs turned out to be significant (98.03 for high and low levels of language proficiency, 446.17 for compatible, incompatible, and no schema tests, and 45.04 for levels by tests, at the p<.01 level). Due to the significance of Fs, Scheffe test was conducted to locate the source(s) of the observed differences. Concerning the second purpose, to check the construct validity of components of schematic knowledge, three varimax rotated factor analyses, and to determine their informative weight, three multiple regression analyses were applied to compatible, incompatible and combinations of the two tests (the 62-item test).
The results of the Scheffe test indicated that the low proficient group performed quite differently on the compatible and incompatible tests, whereas the difference between these two tests was not statistically significant for the high proficient group. This points to the fact that the higher the level of language proficiency, the less difficulty the learner will have in handling novel and non-conventional situations. Moreover, activation of schema did not prove to be the single most important factor in improving the subjects’ listening comprehension. Overall, the findings indicated a crucial role for linguistic knowledge and cast doubts on recent theories that underestimate the importance of bottom-up factors in comprehension.
The results of factors analyses of the components of schema as proposed by Brown & Yule (1983) were not conclusive enough to either support or reject the psychological reality of those components. While the results of regression analyses indicated that the number of components presented to activate schematic knowledge does not have much to do with their informative weight in listening comprehension.
... A schema is defined as an abstract knowledge structure (Anderson & Pearson, 1984:306). The theory is closely associated with how readers combine their previous knowledge with the text (Alptekin, 2006: 494;Carrell, 1983aCarrell, : 183, 1983b.In cognitive sciences, a schema theory is basically "a theory about knowledge" (Rumelhart, 1980: 33). Sir Frederick Charles Bartlett (1886Bartlett ( -1969 was credited as the first psychologist who used the term in its cognitive sense in the 1920s (Brewer, 2000: 69-89). ...
... By now several empirical studies have been carried out showing the effect of schema, or background knowledge, on language comprehension (Carrell 1983a(Carrell , 1983b(Carrell , 1983c(Carrell , 1981a(Carrell , 1981bHudson, 1982;Johnson 1981Johnson , 1982Kintsch& Greene 1978;Thorndkey 1977;Anderson, Reynolds, Schallert& Goetz 1977,Mandler& Johnson 1977Bransford& Johnson, 1973),supporting the previous studies with the inclusion of reading activities would be worth replicating to have a better account of the issue with the use of a similar design in a different context with different groups. Therefore the aim of this study is to find out to what extent both cultural knowledge and reading activities are effective on the comprehension of short story. ...
... By contrast, formal schemata comprise the language user's knowledge about formal, rhetorical, and organizational structures of different types of texts. Examples of formal schemata include those for poems and advertisements (for further information, see Anderson et al., 1977;Steffensen, et al., 1979;Meyer & Rice, 1982;Carrel, 1983Carrel, , 1987Grabe, 1991;Block, 1992;Wallace, 1992;Day and Bamford, 1998;Nuttal, 2000;Nist and Holschuh, 2000). In addition, there are lower level schemata which represent sentence structure, grammatical inflections, spelling and punctuation, vocabulary, and cohesive structures (Cohen, 1994). ...
... Schemata are cumulative cognitive structures which comprise our knowledge of the universe (Rumelhart and Ortony 1977;Rumelhart 1981;Carrel 1983). They manifest themselves in the form of content, formal, and strategy schemata (Casanave 1988). ...
... The first three written texts cover a poem, a webpage and a newspaper report. Based on schema theory (Carrell, 1983), this scaffolds learners with vocabulary related to environmental issues and expressing opinions, and grammatical structures of conditionals and participle phrases. This exposes learners to a variety of genres, which the Curriculum Development Council (2002) encourages. ...
... This could allow students to use the two grammar items interchangeably in writing and integrate what they have been learning. Connection could be further strengthened with the students' prior knowledge (Carrell, 1983). Since students should have already learnt conditionals Types 0, 1 and 2 earlier, after teaching conditional Type 3, there could be a task requiring students to decide when they should use which type of conditionals. ...
... Prior knowledge is crucial in developing a reader's ability to construct coherence and comprehend text. It serves as a conceptual framework or schema, anchoring the reader's understanding and providing a foundation for text comprehension (Carrell, 1983;Kintsch, 1994). The link between prior knowledge and reading proficiency is theoretically and empirically well-established (Hattan et al., 2024). ...
This longitudinal study explored the reciprocal relations between students’ domain-specific knowledge (science and mathematics) and reading proficiency from kindergarten to Grade 5. We compared these relational trajectories across both domains in the overall sample and examined the domain specificity of these relations within a multilingual subsample with varying language instruction backgrounds. Using latent curve modeling with structured residuals on a nationally representative data set, we identified two key patterns. In the overall sample, higher reading proficiency at kindergarten was associated with greater growth in science and mathematics knowledge, with a particularly pronounced effect in science. The predictive power of science knowledge on reading proficiency strengthened significantly from Grades 2 to 5, while reciprocal relations in mathematics intensified over time. For multilingual students, outcomes varied by the language of instruction. Those receiving English-only instruction showed early correlations between science and mathematics knowledge and reading proficiency; however, initial science and mathematics knowledge did not predict long-term growth in reading proficiency. Conversely, multilingual students who received instruction in their native language showed no immediate correlations at kindergarten. Nonetheless, their early science and mathematics knowledge significantly predicted later growth in reading proficiency. The findings underscore the critical role of native-language instruction in providing an accessible, vital cognitive and linguistic foundation that supports deeper domain knowledge building, highlighting the enduring benefits of native-language scaffolding.
... The following are some specific teaching suggestions: 1) Utilize learners' background knowledge: Teachers can design teaching activities that better meet the needs of learners by understanding their linguistic and cultural backgrounds. This approach can help learners to better apply their prior knowledge to new language learning [9]. ...
This study explores the dynamic interaction and developmental perspectives of transfer theory (TT) in the context of second language acquisition (SLA). First proposed by psychologist Edward Thorndike in 1913, transfer theory focuses on describing how learners utilize existing knowledge or skills to acquire information or skills in new learning situations. Over time, research on transfer theory has deepened from the early behaviorist perspective of unidirectional transfer to the role of bidirectional transfer and situational factors under cognitive and sociocultural theories. This paper explores the complex dynamics of transfer theory in second language acquisition and its impact on language teaching by synthesizing the early and recent research results to provide theoretical guidance and strategic suggestions for teaching practice. By analyzing the phenomenon of language transfer among different learners in diverse contexts, the research aims to reveal the broad applicability of transfer theory and its important implications for educational strategy development. The findings will provide educators and researchers with deeper insights to optimize language teaching methods.
... Scholars believe that "schema is an abstract knowledge structure" used to express the relationship between its components [19]. When the reading content is more closely structured with the "schema" generated by self-cognition, the faster the reading comprehension will be [20], [21]. Therefore, schema theory is often used in language teaching to improve reading ability, as well as to understand the psychological process of reading, and even cultural exploration, [22] and to establish a theoretical framework of emotional schema; furthermore, has produced many studies and discourses [23]. ...
Studies show that there is an increase of college students who prefer reading short summaries rather than long complex texts containing knowledge or theory. Thus, this study focuses on improving first-year students’ reading comprehension in Chinese courses by observing the effectiveness of teaching reading lessons in Chinese courses with the curriculum designed based on “schema theory”. The selected reading materials are extensive texts with certain knowledge or theories. For evaluation purposes, the reading test questions uses the same measure of reading proficiency levels of program for international student assessment (PISA) to assess learners’ reading comprehension, contextual reasoning, integration, and analysis abilities more accurately. By comparing the results and discrepancies of the pre- and post-assessment, the preliminary research found that the teaching practice and curriculum designed based on schema theory effectively improves learners' reading scores and instill habits to increase their tendency to reach a deeper understanding of the reading material. This finding demonstrates the effectiveness of applying schema theory to reading lessons; resulting in potential of immediate and enhanced levels of comprehension.
... In dealing with reading comprehension, EFL students come across with compilation that may hinder understanding of the assigned reading material in curriculum which will impede process of reading comprehension skills improvement (Alkhawaldeh, 2012). Schema or students' prior knowledge are the main components which reputed as the corner stone for reading comprehension (Adams, 1977;Carrell, 1983;Carrell & Eisterhold, 1983;Grabe, 1991;Johnson, 1981;Ulijn & Salager-Meyer, 1998;Weaver, 2002). Murray (1980) and Alderson's (2000) studies also indicated the crucial role of prior knowledge in reading comprehension of EFL learners. ...
The article aim is to shed light on the problem of reading in EFL context and also refer to non-Latin Arabic alphabet learners' challenges. Researcher tried to analyze myriad research articles to explore the common EFL learners' difficulties and problems on the way of English reading and comprehension and bunch together the implemented methods (techniques) and go through generated suggestions and feasible solutions. The marshal factors will provide benefits to educators in EFL context (EFL school teachers, university lecturers, people whose concern is EFL development).
... The lens through which the metacognitively-driven reading act is perceived reveals the pivotal role of working-memory mechanisms and meta-level processing modes in the construction of text comprehension. The latter, which is the resultant outcome of the application of a host of deep-level heuristics, is substantially contingent upon background knowledge and textual content (Alderson, 2000;Carrell, 1983Carrell, , 1984Lin, 2002;Rumelhart, 1980). This evinces the dynamic interaction between the readers, as active agents in the multidimensional reading process, and the written text as the frame of reference encompassing a multitude of conceptions, premises, and epistemologies. ...
The current study, being part and parcel of my unpublished doctoral dissertation which is entitled "Moroccan EFL Students' Learning of Cognitive and Metacognitive Reading Strategies: Rabat FLHS Semester One Students as a Case Study" (defended in 2015), is intended to unravel the conceived impact of comprehension-monitoring strategies instruction (self-monitoring, self-questioning, and rereading) on the first-semester English Department learners' reading comprehension scores. It is a manifestation of the extended depth and scope of the conducted explicit training in monitoring strategies, as high-order metacognitive heuristics, in the promotion of the learners' text-processing mode and reading performance in English (L3). With a view to achieving this stated goal, 113 first-semester university students (Control Group: N= 50; Experimental Group: N= 63) undertaking their studies in the English Department took part in this quasi-experimental study. The data were gathered through the implementation of the strategy training, a select range of 'experimental' reading comprehension texts (i.e., narrative, expository), and narrative and expository reading tests (pre-tests and post-tests). The research findings reveal that instruction in L3 comprehension monitoring strategies resulted in positive reading achievement gains at post-testing among the experimental group. As to the control group, it did not exhibit any developmental progress at the level of the reading scores across the pre-post-test continuum. Thus, some action-oriented recommendations and implications relative to the undertaken research study, as well as a few limitations, are plausibly brought forth.
Keywords: metacognition, comprehension-monitoring strategies, metacognitive experience, monitoring strategy training, self-efficacy
... The lens through which the metacognitively-driven reading act is perceived reveals the pivotal role of working-memory mechanisms and meta-level processing modes in the construction of text comprehension. The latter, which is the resultant outcome of the application of a host of deep-level heuristics, is substantially contingent upon background knowledge and textual content (Alderson, 2000;Carrell, 1983Carrell, , 1984Lin, 2002;Rumelhart, 1980). This evinces the dynamic interaction between the readers, as active agents in the multidimensional reading process, and the written text as the frame of reference encompassing a multitude of conceptions, premises, and epistemologies. ...
The current study, being part and parcel of my unpublished doctoral dissertation which is entitled "Moroccan EFL Students' Learning of Cognitive and Metacognitive Reading Strategies: Rabat FLHS Semester One Students as a Case Study" (defended in 2015), is intended to unravel the conceived impact of comprehension-monitoring strategies instruction (self-monitoring, self-questioning, and rereading) on the first-semester English Department learners' reading comprehension scores. It is a manifestation of the extended depth and scope of the conducted explicit training in monitoring strategies, such as high-order metacognitive heuristics, in the promotion of the learners' text-processing mode and reading performance in English (L3). With a view to achieving this stated goal, 113 first-semester university students (Control Group: N = 50; Experimental Group: N = 63) undertaking their studies in the English Department took part in this quasi-experimental study. The data were gathered through the implementation of the strategy training, a select range of 'experimental' reading comprehension texts (i.e., narrative, expository), and narrative and expository reading tests (pre-tests and post-tests). The research findings reveal that instruction in L3 comprehension monitoring strategies resulted in positive reading achievement gains at post-testing among the experimental group. As to the control group, it did not exhibit any developmental progress at the level of the reading scores across the pre-post-test continuum. Thus, some action-oriented recommendations and implications relative to the undertaken research study, as well as a few limitations, are plausibly brought forth.
Keywords: metacognition, comprehension-monitoring strategies, metacognitive experience, monitoring strategy training, self-efficacy
... Research on schema theory abroad started relatively early, with a history of over two hundred years (3). Initially, German philosopher Immanuel Kant discussed the philosophical significance of schemas in his works, emphasizing the connection between new knowledge and inherent knowledge. ...
Developing students' reading ability is one of the primary tasks in senior high school English reading teaching. Experimental evidence suggests that the effective application of schema theory in English reading instruction has a significant impact on whether students' reading ability can be rapidly improved. This paper explores the importance of cultivating students' reading ability in senior school English teaching and emphasizes the analysis of the application of schema theory in English reading teaching and its notable influence on enhancing students' reading ability. The article first introduces the definition, development process, and theoretical foundation of schema theory. Subsequently, through case analysis and comparison with traditional senior high school English reading teaching, it reveals the application effects and existing problems of schema theory in senior high school reading comprehension teaching. Finally, the article proposes corresponding feasible solutions, aiming to provide references for the future application of schema theory in senior high school English reading comprehension teaching. It is anticipated that these insights will enhance students' interest and ability in reading comprehension, thereby maximizing the effectiveness of schema theory in senior high school English reading comprehension teaching.
... As a metacognitive planning strategy used in coping with the EFL textual input, the activation of the background knowledge (schemata) forms a great part of the attainment of a thorough understanding of the writer's/author's stated perceptions and ideas. This view is supported by many researchers who maintain that the readers' prior knowledge plays an important role in reading comprehension (Adams, 1990;Carrell, 1983;Grabe, 1991;Lin, 2002;Msaddek, 2015;Ulijn & Salager-Meyer, 1998;Weaver, 1994). It assists learners to predict the content and infer what the author/writer intends to reveal via the text, for the fact of relating what is presented in the written discourse to what they already know helps learners identify the intended meaning and strengthen their understanding of the content (Msaddek, 2015). ...
The present study investigates the extent to which EFL university learners engage in metacognitive planning strategies for conducting the multifaceted process of reading in an effectual, self-regulated manner. Addressing this set objective, this exploratory study, which is part and parcel of my unpublished dissertation (defended in 2015) dealing with the interplay between metacognition and EFL reading, targeted 113 Moroccan English department students (Group 1: N=50; Group 2: N=63) pursuing their English Language Studies at the first-semester level. The data were elicited from the respondents employing two advanced-level EFL reading comprehension texts (i.e., narrative, expository) and a retrospective questionnaire. The attained results indicate that the targeted EFL groups (Group 1 & Group 2) did have recourse to their background knowledge as an efficient platform for making sense of the assigned written discourse without setting explicit, self-directed goals prior to processing the textual content. Thus, some pertinent recommendations falling within the parameters of pedagogy and research as well as a few limitations are presented.
... Another plausible theory regarding the role of visuals in enhancing L2 listening comprehension relates to Schema Theory, which argues that individuals' background knowledge or schemas can aid in comprehension (Carrell, 1983). According to this theory, visuals not only can offer context but also non-linguistic input that triggers top-down processing (Vandergrift, 2007). ...
Numerous studies have compared the effect of input mode (video‐based vs. audio‐only) on the listening comprehension of adult second language (L2) learners. However, there is a notable absence of research regarding how various types of audio‐visual input in a listening test affect young learners' listening comprehension. To address this gap, this study examined the effects of audio‐visual input type and text listenability on the listening comprehension performance of 50 English language learners (ELLs) in Grades 3–5 in the U.S. In this study, participants completed a computer‐delivered English listening test comprising three test forms, each containing six passages. These passages included a combination of three video passages and three audio‐only passages. The video passages were carefully designed to balance two key variables in a counter‐balancing manner: the listenability of the text, assessed using Lexile Audio Measure, and the nature of visual elements, which encompassed speaker‐only visuals, visual‐only elements, and a combination of speaker‐and‐visuals. This study found that students performed equally well on both video‐based and audio‐only passages, and the type of visuals accompanying the content did not have a statistically significant impact on students' listening comprehension scores. However, the listenability of the text significantly influenced students' listening scores, especially in the context of audio‐only passages. Furthermore, responses to a post‐test questionnaire revealed that students had a positive perception of all three types of audio‐visual input. This study contributes to our understanding of how audio‐visual input types and text listenability affect the listening comprehension performance of Grades 3–5 ELLs.
... To what extent the background information increase reading comprehension is under investigation. By contrast, according to Carrell, background knowledge plays a significant role among native speakers, but the level of background knowledge showed little influence on ESL students [10] . To what extent the prior knowledge and background information facilitate reading comprehension was under discussion, and it did not reach an agreement. ...
... The first stage was one of 'replication'. In this stage, researchers would use the same material used in L1 reading studies, but with participants who were L2 English speakers (Carrell, 1983;Carrell & Eisterhold, 1983). The second stage has focused on the 'construction' of the Second Language Acquisition (SLA) field. ...
In recent years, reading comprehension studies have followed a componential approach aimed at determining the way in which variables interact. However, in L2 academic reading comprehension, this progress is still in its initial stages. With this context in mind, this paper aims to explore the relationship between prior knowledge and L2 reading comprehension by proposing a mediation model that considers L2 vocabulary knowledge and metacognitive awareness as mediating variables. A final sample of 75 Chilean university students with an intermediate level of English was used for the study. The variables measured were prior knowledge, vocabulary breadth, metacognitive awareness of reading strategies, and reading comprehension. Among the findings of this study, we propose a simple mediation model in which vocabulary knowledge functions as a mediator between prior knowledge and reading comprehension. Unexpectedly, the impact of metacognitive awareness was not found to be statistically significant.
... A large body of research within the schema-theoretic view of reading comprehension has acknowledged the active role of background knowledge and the extent to which that knowledge is activated during the reading process (Anderson & Pearson, 1984;Carrell 1983, Carrell & Wallace, 1983Rumelhart, 1980). Accordingly, efficient comprehension requires readers to relate the material to their background knowledge. ...
This study investigated the effects of two pre-reading activities (class discussion and vocabulary definitions) and a control condition on the reading comprehension of 57 Moroccan college freshmen. It also investigated the differential facilitative effect of the two pre-reading activities on the students' comprehension. Each student read an expository text under one of the three conditions and immediately afterwards answered a 9-item short-answer test designed to measure comprehension of the text. A one-way ANOVA and a post-hoc comparison test were applied to the results. This revealed that the two pre-reading activities produced significantly higher comprehension scores than the control condition. Vocabulary definitions activity resulted in increased comprehension compared with the control condition, but was significantly less effective than the class discussion activity. Results of the study were interpreted in relation to the schema-theoretic view of the reading process, and to their implications for EFL reading instruction.
... This knowledge is cognitively organized in structures or schemata, which people use to comprehend any message. Carrell (1983aCarrell ( , 1983b and Johnson (1982) cited many studies which indicated that researchers have used different labels for the concept of background knowledge; such as, schemata, frames, scripts, event-chains, and expectations. Hudson (2007) used the term 'schemata' to refer to two different types of prior knowledge. ...
This study was proposed to explore the place of schemata or background knowledge in the university Libyan students reading English as a foreign language. The terms schemata, background knowledge, and prior knowledge are used
... One of the main reasons that L2 learners have difficulty in comprehension of spoken and written discourse is when they have no prior knowledge (i.e., background knowledge) of the topic (Carrell, 1983;Connor, 1984;Vandergrift & Cross, 2018). Considering this, prior research has indicated that background knowledge is a vital factor in L2 communication and assessment (Banerjee, 2019;Purpura, 2017;Rost, 2011). ...
Research has indicated the importance of vocabulary knowledge and background knowledge in second/foreign language (L2) listening comprehension. However, previous studies treated these two factors separately, and no study has examined the simultaneous contribution of these two factors to L2 listening comprehension. Therefore, the aim of this study is to examine whether background knowledge moderates the relationship between vocabulary knowledge and L2 listening comprehension. To this end, one-hundred and fifty-one L2 learners participated in this study and completed instruments measuring constructs of vocabulary knowledge (breadth and depth of vocabulary knowledge), background knowledge, and listening comprehension. Results of the study indicated that, first, measures of both breadth and depth of vocabulary knowledge contributed to the listening comprehension while vocabulary breadth was a stronger predictor. Second, findings of the moderation analysis revealed that background knowledge moderated the relationship between vocabulary knowledge and listening comprehension. These findings suggest that background knowledge can help language learners to have a better performance in listening comprehension tests only if they have high levels of vocabulary knowledge.
... theory (Carrell, 1983), this may help excavate learners' prior background knowledge and enhance their learning motivation with a specific goal. And the arrangement of content in the teaching material take account of the nature of the language and learners' learning purposes and information . ...
This article seeks to explore how teaching materials can greatly facilitate students’ learning effectiveness. To do this, it takes the textbook recommended by the Education Ministry as an example. The article first critically analyze the material’s strengths and weaknesses, and then to propose some adaptations and supplementations to improve the material and teaching methods.
... Schemata are employed in the process of interpreting sensory data (both linguistic and non-linguistic), in retrieving information from memory, in organising actions, in determining goals and sub-goals, in allocating reasons, and generally, in guiding the flow of processing in the system' Anderson & Pearson (1984:255). Carrell (1983) distinguishes different types of schemata into formal schemata and content schemata. By the former, she means knowledge of language and linguistic conventions, including knowledge of how texts are organised, and what the main features of particular genres are. ...
p>This experimental research investigates the effects of strategy instruction on the English reading proficiency and strategy use of Thai students. The subjects were 74 first year science students at King Mongkut's Institute of Technology North Bangkok (KMITNB), Thailand from June to September 1999. A programme of strategy instruction was introduced to an experimental class of 37 students, while the same number of students were taught as a control group through traditional English reading instruction. A mixed research approach using both quantitative and qualitative techniques was adopted to investigate the impact of the introduced programme on students'reading achievement and strategy use. A test of reading achievement and a strategy questionnaire were administered to all subjects before and after the course. Six students from each group were also selected for a think-aloud and diary study. These twelve subjects were asked to verbalise their thoughts while reading English texts, and to keep diaries about their reading activities at home for ten weeks.
The results indicated that while both groups improved their reading test scores and strategy use in the course of the study, the experimental group showed a significantly higher gain in reading ability and reported more frequent strategy use than the control group. The findings also indicated a significant correlation between strategy use and reading proficiency. The results of this study lead to a better understanding of the impact of activating metacognitive awareness, and suggest that explicit instruction in reading strategy use can override the effect of language proficiency limitations on readers' use of effective reading strategies.</p
... Text processing does not deny the importance of a command of vocabulary and structure, but requires that the learner focus such elements on meaning as well as on form within a context. Research in reading (Bernhardt, 1984;Carrell, 1983;Carrell, 1984;Johnson, 1970;Meyer, 1977) suggests that readers approach a text with preconceptions of passage structure and sequencing of information related to text presentation, a top-down process. In other words, the reader's background interacts in a major way with the text itself in the establishment of meaning for that text. ...
This article presents the rationale behind a model for the use of the computer in the development of reading comprehension. Basic assumptions concerning reading are delineated. The model is explained as having three basic components: intake (text processing and text comprehension), personalization, andextension. The operationalization of the model is also described.
... The assumption in the field was that "[foreign language] reading will follow from knowing the structure of the [foreign] language and knowing how to read in the first language" (Weber 1991, 45). Beginning in the early 1980s, investigators recognized that, in addition to knowledge of the foreign language in which a passage was written, awareness of such factors as the content and structure of a text was also necessary for understanding (Bernhardt 1983;Carrell 1983;Davis, Lange & Samuels 1988). Perhaps the most comprehensive view of the types of knowledge essential in foreign language reading was proposed by Bernhardt (1990). ...
In this article, we argue that software developers should use a combination of methodologies to determine the reading difficulties of lower-level foreign language students. During the pre-production phases of our program, ClearText, we asked students of third-semester French at Pennsylvania State University to read a passage in French. One group circled all the unknown words and expressions in the passage; other students wrote the definitions of words we had underlined in the text; the last group wrote recall protocols based upon what they remembered from their reading. We demonstrate that each of these assessment instruments was necessary in product development in order for us to identify the different types of foreign language reading problems encountered by students at this instructional level.
... Because the video game was embedded within a complete learning unit plan, the students were able to build on prior knowledge in the focal content area in engaging in the video game. The students participated in various background building activities prior to playing the video game, including engaging in both print text and multimedia about bullying, to become familiar with the anti-bullying email campaign that they then read, thereby supporting reading comprehension (Carrell, 1983). While playing the game, students had opportunities to discuss strategies and various questions with a partner. ...
... The expansion text presumes a certain level of background knowledge, some of which the students will have acquired from the foundational text. The activation of this background knowledge prepares students to more readily acquire new information based on the building blocks in place (Anderson et al., 1977; ARTICLE Carrell, 1983;Fisher & Frey, 2009;McCarthy et al., 2018). Furthermore, having a familiarity with key vocabulary and phrases introduced in the foundational text may enable students to feel at ease when writing about and discussing the expansion text. ...
College students are expected to comprehend, analyze, and respond to texts that are often challenging, complex, and specialized. While the importance and value of reading in higher education is hardly disputed, postsecondary literacy frequently revolves around the reinforcement of rudimentary skills. Furthermore, the demands of writing instruction often push reading instruction to the side, leaving students to navigate texts on their own. Challenging texts necessitate a degree of background knowledge, without which active and robust engagement cannot be expected. By scaffolding texts in a way that progressively builds background knowledge, instructors can prepare students for complex texts and subsequently, academic discourse. The authors propose a four‐tiered approach to reading instruction for adult learners that consists of four text types: foundational, expansion, opposing point‐of‐view, and expert’s point‐of‐view. While designed for integrated reading and writing courses, the proposed model has implications for faculty across the disciplines.
... Findings from O'Reilly and colleagues demonstrated that low levels of background knowledge were insufficient to support comprehension, as deep background knowledge was related to stronger reading comprehension. Additional research demonstrates the importance of background knowledge for reading comprehension, which includes both vocabulary and content knowledge (Ahmed et al., 2016;Carrell, 1983;Hattan, 2019;Hirsch, 2006;Talwar et al., 2018). ...
Informed by theories of reading comprehension and prior reviews of reading comprehension intervention, this meta-analysis uniquely contributes to the literature because it describes the relative effects of various approaches to comprehension intervention for struggling readers in Grades 3 through 12. Findings from 64 studies demonstrate significant positive effects of reading comprehension intervention on comprehension outcomes (g = .59, p < .001, 95% confidence interval [CI] [0.47, 0.74], τ 2 = .31). A metaregression model indicated significantly higher effects associated with researcher-developed measures, background knowledge instruction, and strategy instruction, and significantly lower effects associated with instructional enhancements. Grade level, metacognitive approaches, and study quality did not moderate effects. Findings support the use of background knowledge instruction and strategy instruction to support comprehension of struggling readers in upper elementary and beyond.
... Although the schema-based research in ESL/EFL reading comprehension is to partly limited in scope, the findings of the current research are consistent with that literature in schema-based research in EFL reading comprehension (Widdowson, 1977;Carrell, 1983;. In addition, the findings of this research support studies dealing with the effect of rhetorical consciousnessraising activities to play their part as metacognitive strategies within discoursal and genre-based pedagogy in ESP/EMPP reading comprehension (Tian, 1990). ...
Palabras claves: EMPP, enseñanza, ESP, metodologíaResumen. Con el Nuevo milenio ha crecido y ha devenido urgente la necesidad de desarrollar las capacidades para entender y comunicarse con sus semejantes. El intercambio internacional de ideas ha devenido algo vital. Para cubrir esta necesidad un número creciente de personas buscan mejorar sus capacidades lingüísticas para lo cual el método ESP se ha convertido en un medio adecuado.Key words: EMPP, ESP, methodology, teachingAbstract. Entering a new millennium, we have to feel that the ability and the need to understand and communicate with each other has become increasingly important, at times even urgent. An international exchange of ideas seems to be not only essential but also vital. To meet these communication needs, more and more individuals have highly specific academic and professional reasons for seeking to improve their language skills particularly ESP which holds particular appeals to adults.
... Kala's report is related to Hirsch and Nation's (1992) work, which showed that students need to have a minimum command of vocabulary to access a text. Her report is also related to Carrell's (1983b) work, which has shown that when students are presented with texts beyond their ability, the students may remain linguistically tied to the text, unable to access other features that would normally help them process the material.One informant, Dan, also reported that he felt vocabulary in context was influenced by logical organization. He explained that he had trouble fully understanding the concepts freedom and security when he first came across them in the title of the "Freedom and Security" essay, but that he was later able to understand them because of the essay's logical contrast organization. ...
The facilitative benefits of genre-specific reading have often been cited as a truism in the field of writing education. In line with this, writing center self-access libraries typically provide a selection of composition texts, including rhetorics (anthologies of model paragraphs and essays). Readability formulae (e.g., the Lexile Readability Formula) are often used to determine whether these texts will be a good fit for potential readers, and although the Lexile Formula reliably and validly assesses two features (i.e., semantic and syntactic), it does not consider other contributing features during the text selection process (e.g., rhetorical organization). To address this, this sequential, mixed-methods study explored the effects of rhetorical organization on undergraduate English language learners’ perceptions of difficulty when reading exemplars (i.e., essays) excerpted from rhetorics. The results indicated that rhetorical organization influences readability both as (a) a primary (i.e., an isolated feature) and (b) a conjoined feature (i.e., comprising two or more associated entities where the second impacts the first). The article also provides a suggestion for writing education professionals and the publishing industry: Readability formulae should be administered in a hybrid fashion, where additional features such as rhetorical organization are subjectively considered when assessing the difficulty of exemplars.
... The specificity of the argumentative essay in terms of field, mode, and tenor might be a new genre for L2 learners, which would enable them to recognize the language features and patterns. As Carrell (1983Carrell ( , 1987 has pointed out, background knowledge of the content is likely to be more important than the textual organization or rhetorical structure in different genres. ...
... Words in continuous speech are reduced and assimilated both within and across word boundaries and, therefore, noticing the beginning and ending of a given word is not an easy job for a listener. Lack of prior knowledge is another factor affecting comprehension; if the presumptions made in the text do not match the listeners' prior knowledge, the listeners may face difficulty in comprehending the text (Carrell, 1983;Chiang & Dunkel, 1992;Connor, 1984). Personal factors such as high levels of anxiety may also lead to difficulties in listening comprehension (Aneiro, 1989;Chang, 2010Chang, , 2016Elkhafaifi, 2005;Kimura, 2011;S. ...
Listening has long been recognized as a challenging skill for teachers, students and researchers working within the ESL/EFL contexts. Moreover, up until the recent past, it was the least researched of the four language skills in second language acquisition studies. One of the issues regarding the skill that has not been sufficiently investigated is EFL teachers’ views on listening difficulties their students face. This study, therefore, investigates 208 teachers’ views on listening difficulties among Iranian EFL learners. A mixed methods approach, integrating a questionnaire and an interview, was employed. Results from the questionnaire suggested that the top ten identified difficulties ranged from practical issues such as poor quality audio materials to content-based impediments such as unfamiliar topics. Furthermore, ANOVA tests revealed that there was no significant relationship between either the teachers’ educational or professional background and the gravity of the difficulties they reported. Among different components of the questionnaire, the input and process components were highly correlated, indicating that learners’ problems with input perception could lead to problems in listening comprehension. Moreover, based on the results of the interviews, it was concluded that the teachers believed that the learners’ listening difficulties belonged to three categories, namely pronunciation-based, individual-characteristics-based and content-based difficulties. This study suggests that overcoming listening difficulties without listening strategies, though not impossible, seems to be much more time-consuming. Therefore, there are many benefits to both students and teachers if some class time is dedicated to acquaint learners with the strategies.
... Interactive models can be divided into two types. The first type is based on the interaction of componential cognitive processes of reading, while in the second the interaction focus is on the product of the interaction of readers' background knowledge (schema) with the text information in the process of comprehension (Stanovich, 1995;Carrell, 1983;Grabe, 1991, as cited in Hudson, 1998. Schema theory, 28 as it will be defined below, is based on the process of combining textual information with the background information that readers bring to the text (Stott, 2001). ...
This study investigated the effects of reading comprehension strategy awareness and use on main idea comprehension and recall in first and second languages for Arabic-speaking Libyan university students. The research examined the effects of general reading proficiency, text difficulty and topic interest and familiarity on main idea comprehension. The study also examined whether there is a facilitatory relationship between awareness of reading comprehension strategies and their effective use. Participants were all university students majoring in Teaching English as a Second Language (TESL). There were 112 participants from Libya and 16 English speaking control participants from Canada. Reading comprehension strategy awareness was assessed via Mokhtari and Sheorey's (2002) Survey of Reading Strategy. The CanTEST was used to assess the English as a second language reading proficiency of the Arabic-speaking group, while the Nelson-Denny Reading Test served to assess L1 reading proficiency for the English-speaking group. An English reading text was administered to both groups and an Arabic reading text to the Arabic group only. The texts served as the basis for examining the English group's L1 and the Arabic group's L1 and L2 reading comprehension strategy use through their recall of the main ideas of these texts. A reader assessment questionnaire was employed to assess text difficulty, topic interest and familiarity. In addition, semi-structured reading strategy interviews were conducted individually with participants from the control and the experimental groups. The interviewees were randomly selected from within different reading proficiency groupings. Results revealed that reading comprehension strategy awareness had no effect on main idea comprehension in both L1 and L2 for the native Arabic group. The native English group had higher awareness of the three categories of reading strategies (Support, Global and Problem-solving) than the native Arabic group. The Problem solving strategy category was the most familiar to the native Arabic group. Results indicated that general reading proficiency did not affect the recall performance of main ideas for either group. Text difficulty and topic interest did not contribute to the comprehension and recall of main ideas, while topic familiarity was a factor in the recall performance of the native Arabic group. Qualitative analysis of the results indicated that the native English group effectively used more reading strategies than the native Arabic group, and that the native Arabic group did not actually use the strategies which they claimed the highest awareness of. Futhermore, they tended to misapply the strategies that they did use. These findings indicated that simply knowing about reading strategies does not necessarily result in being able to use them appropriately. We concluded that reading strategy awareness alone is not sufficient for the comprehension and recall of main ideas and that awareness needs to be accompanied by effective strategy use in order to have a positive impact on main idea comprehension and recall.
... Introduction. Rationale, scope, and structure Contextual or background knowledge performs an important function in second language learning and reading comprehension, as a number of theoretical and empirical studies have shown (see, for instance, P. L. Carrell, 1983Carrell, , 1982. 1 To the extent that Ancient Greek and Latin are verbal codes too, they constitute no exception to the aforementioned principle. Indeed, contextual knowledge is particularly relevant to reading comprehension in Classical Languages, given the time, material, and cultural gap between their original context of use during antiquity, on the one hand, and the context of the contemporary learners of these languages, on the other. ...
Contextual or background knowledge performs an important function in second language learning and reading comprehension, as a number of theoretical and empirical studies have shown (see, for instance, P. L. Carrell, 1983, 1982). To the extent that Ancient Greek and Latin are verbal codes too, they constitute no exception to the aforementioned principle. Indeed, contextual knowledge is particularly relevant to reading comprehension in Classical Languages, given the time, material, and cultural gap between their original context of use during antiquity, on the one hand, and the context of the contemporary learners of these languages, on the other. Addressing and integrating this type of knowledge into Classical Latin courses is, therefore, expected to aid student comprehension of both original and adapted classical texts.
... In ELT it is often said that there are two types of schema: formal and content. Formal schemata [5] are described as abstract, encoded, internalized, coherent patterns of metalinguistic, discoursal, and textual organization (e.g., rhetorical patterns, story grammar, narrative scripts) that guide expectations in our attempts to understand a meaningful piece of language. Content schemata are less abstract and must presumably be about the physical world of discernible objects and actions. ...
... Según la teoría de los esquemas (Schank y Abelson 1977), y los modelos de comprensión lectora que derivaron de ella (Rumelhart 1980;Carrel 1983), los textos no trasmiten información directamente, sino más bien ofrecen al lector una serie de indicaciones o pautas que le permiten construir el significado tomando como punto de partida sus conocimientos previos. ...
There is broad consensus that a reader's background knowledge on a reading topic affects both their reading processes and comprehension in their first language and also in a second language. However, it is unclear whether a reader's background knowledge specifically affects reading comprehension accuracy and reading rate. The extent to which background knowledge facilitates second language reading when compared to a reader's L2 linguistic knowledge is also unclear. Moreover, the mental process accounting for the interaction between general background knowledge, type of linguistic knowledge such as vocabulary or writing system, and L2 reading abilities also need to be identified. Using texts in Mandarin Chinese, this paper investigates these problems with an eye‐movement study administered to 40 L2 Chinese learners with Indo‐European L1s. Results illustrate that an L2 reader's background knowledge about the text can positively impact both their reading comprehension and reading rate; however, the influence on the latter could be topic‐dependent. In more challenging topics, the contribution of background knowledge to reading comprehension could outweigh any single type of linguistic knowledge, even if the target language uses a more cognitively demanding writing system. The connectionist account proposed by the construction–integration theory is suggested to be currently the best theoretical explanation for the mental process behind developing second‐language reading abilities. Pedagogical implications are also considered based on these findings.
The present study tested the postulation that “knowledge begets reading, which begets knowledge.” Using Random Intercepts Cross‐Lagged Panel Models (RI‐CLPM), we analyzed a U.S. nationally representative data set to examine the directionality and magnitude of the longitudinal relation between domain knowledge (operationalized as science domain knowledge) and reading throughout the elementary years (from kindergarten to fifth grade), while accounting for important covariates, such as working memory, cognitive flexibility, English language proficiency, basic literacy skills, and demographic information. Moreover, we conducted multi‐group RI‐CLPM analyses to examine whether language status (being bilingual or monolingual) moderates the longitudinal relation between domain knowledge and reading. The results showed that the relation between domain knowledge and reading is bidirectional and positive throughout the elementary years, providing empirical evidence that domain knowledge and reading may mutually enhance with each other. In addition, language status did not moderate the relation between domain knowledge and reading, suggesting that the directionality and magnitude of the relation were similar between bilingual and monolingual students. Taken together, the results have important implications for integrating content knowledge and English language arts core instruction in elementary grades.
The idea that genre-specific reading benefits apprenticing writers is a concept that the field of teaching writing values as an underlying constant. Following this, writing center directors select rhetorics (anthologies of writing exemplars) for their self-access library shelves from the over 200 rhetorics presently in print. To choose these texts, quantitative readability formulae (e.g., the Lexile Readability Formula) are often employed. However, such formulae only measure two (i.e., semantic, syntactic) of the many features that impact readability. Other important features that require qualitative exploration are not considered (e.g., interest). To address this, this article reports the findings of a sequential, mixed-methods study conducted in a Taiwanese university writing center setting. The study found that interest influences the readability of rhetorics both as (a) a primary (i.e., an isolated feature) and (b) a conjoined feature (i.e., consisting of two or more associated entities where the second impacts the first). The article also makes a recommendation for teachers, writing center staff, and the publishing industry that interest be considered when considering the difficulty of exemplars in rhetorics.
As the literature strikes interest and arouses the curiosity of learners, it is widely acknowledged that it has an undeniable impact on language education. In this sense, a lesson plan was developed focusing on the reading skill and vocabulary, and aimed at getting learners to discuss and make a critical analysis of a story. Accordingly, Virginia Woolf's one of the well-known short stories, ‘The Mark on the Wall’ was incorporated into the plan as an intensive reading resource. In light of constructivism theory and eclectic method, this plan was designed for the instructors teaching English to learners enrolled in the English philology department and taking one-year compulsory preparatory education at schools of foreign languages. As it is grounded upon synchronization, orchestration and symbiotic existence of the language teaching techniques, this short course plan would stimulate students’ self-discovery, creativity, learner-centeredness, and reading analyses via pair-work and group activities.
This research paper reports an experimental study geared to examine the effect of teaching reasoning fallacies on the critical thinking ability of a group of Moroccan university students. In a random assignment post-test design, 40 subjects took part in study-treatment. While the subjects in both experimental groups (n 20) received a treatment on how to avoid and spot fallacies in arguments, the control group was involved straightway in taking the pre-test and the post test (with no prior assistance) for comparison purposes. After the treatment -which consisted in having the experimental group (n 20 subjects) receive a training on the meaning of 15 reasoning fallacies and reinforcements tasks on how to identify them in statements and how to avoid them when they speak or write - all the subjects answered a twenty item multiple-choicetest and 5 of them responded to structured interview to identify their attitudes. The final scores were then subjected to descriptive as well as referential statistics (independent and paired samples T-test) for between group comparison purposes. The results reveal a significant facilitative and positive effect of reasoning fallacies training understudy and particularly so when compared to the control condition. A follow-up investigation through an independent samplest-test) attested to the fact that the training resulted in an increased critical thinking ability as measured by the receptive and productive and this is particularly so when compared to the control condition. The study concludes with the main finding together with their interpretation. Some practical implications related to critical thinking instruction, lesson planning and material development, in general, brings the paper full circled.
KWL is a pre-reading strategy used to improve reading comprehension. This paper aims to discover the effectiveness of the Know-Want-Learn (KWL) strategy in improving year-4 pupils’ reading comprehension is one of the elements assessed in the UPSR Examination in Malaysia. This study reports quasi-experimental research on the use of a KWL chart (graphic organizer) on year 4 pupils’ reading comprehension in an ESL setting. Thirty pupils were chosen using purposive sampling in a primary school at Kuala Lumpur. The test was conducted with 30 ESL pupils of the same age group. A pretest of reading comprehension was then administered to evaluate the participants’ comprehension skills. The Quasi-experimental research design used to carry out this study. Participants were separated into two different groups: an experimental group and a control group. The participants of the experimental group used the KWL Chart to answer comprehension questions; the control group received the conventional method of teaching to answer reading comprehension questions. At last, all the participants answered a post-test on reading comprehension. This innovative strategy can be used to develop pupils’ reading comprehension not only for pupils in year-4 but also for pupils at other levels.
Malgré une importante demande de recevoir des informations diagnostiques sur les difficultés en lecture des élèves, il existe très peu d’outils d’évaluation conçus spécifiquement pour cet usage. Plusieurs recherches en approche diagnostique cognitive (ADC) utilisent donc les résultats d’épreuves à grande échelle pour fournir de la rétroaction diagnostique fine et fiable sur les forces et les faiblesses des élèves. Les modélisations de données permettent de s’éloigner des scores ou
des rangs percentiles habituellement obtenus, et de fournir des pistes d’intervention appropriées. Cette étude vise à vérifier la faisabilité d’appliquer des modélisations à visée diagnostique aux résultats de 4762 élèves canadiens ayant fait le cahier 13 du test du PIRLS de 2011. Les résultats suggèrent un potentiel de recevoir de la rétroaction diagnostique détaillée de leurs forces et faiblesses sur les habiletés sous jacentes du test.
Using international large-scale datasets, this study investigated the role of science domain knowledge and reading motivation in L1 and L2 reading comprehension of informational and narrative text in fourth-grade students in five countries. The results of multi-group multilevel regression showed that science domain knowledge was the strongest predictor for informational and narrative reading comprehension in students who were second language learners and students who were monolingual across the countries. Overall, the coefficient of science domain knowledge was similar between the two language groups for each genre, indicating that science domain knowledge might play a facilitative role in reading comprehension to a similar extent between L1 and L2. Reading self-efficacy was also a significant predictor for L1 and L2 reading comprehension of the two genres across the countries, whereas reading attitudes were not. The findings are discussed with respect to research and practice.
This demonstrates the approach of Linguistic-Stylistics in the analysis of political speeches by examining post-appeal court victory speeches of selected Governors in Nigeria with the objectives of identifying and analysing prominent linguistic features; relating the identified linguistic features to the message of the speeches; and determining the way the linguistic features mark out the victory speeches as a unique stylistic genre. The data for the study were drawn from the victory speeches of the governors delivered between 2003 and 2009. These were the governors that challenged the outcome of the elections in their states and had their victory restored in the appellate courts without a rerun before 2010. The data were collected from the national dailies, such as Daily Independent, The Guardian and The Hope. The speeches were carefully studied, with close and cautious attention paid to the syntactic features. The identified predominant syntactic features are the pronominal references and structural parallelism, which the governors used to convey their messages and foreground the theme of their speeches. The study concluded that the identified features were basically used by the governors to convey their messages and intentions. The features were also used to achieve cohesion in their respective addresses. Again, with various sentential repetitions in the speeches, the governors reinforced their thematic focus as they sought to legitimize their administrations. These features thus marked out the speeches as a unique political genre.
Bibliography: leaves 42-44 Supported in part by the National Institute of Education
Thirty physical education students and 30 music education students read a passage that could be given either a prison break or a wrestling interpretation, and another passage that could be understood in terms of an evening of card playing or a rehearsal session of a woodwind ensemble. Scores on disambiguating multiple choice tests and theme-revealing disambiguations and intrusions in free recall showed striking relationships to the subject’s background. These results indicate that high-level schemata provide the interpretative framework for comprehending discourse. The fact that most subjects gave each passage one distinct interpretation or another and reported being unaware of other perspectives while reading suggest that schemata can cause a person to see a message in a certain way, without even considering alternative interpretations.
Some characteristics of story schemata and their role in encoding and retrieval of stories are briefly described. Story schemata are described in terms of the story grammar outlined in Mandler and Johnson (1977). Using the rules of the grammar, canonical two‐episode stories were generated as well as versions whose surface structure violated the posited underlying structure by interleaving the events of the two episodes. Predictions were made concerning the quantity, quality, and temporal sequencing of recall for the standard and interleaved versions. Recall by second‐, fourth‐, sixth‐grade, and adult subjects was studied. Quantity of recall was less for the interleaved stories but more marked differences were found in the quality of recall; many more distortions and repetitions occurred in recall of interleaved stories. The most pronounced effects were found in sequencing of recall. Subjects hearing interleaved stories showed a strong tendency to recall stories in their canonical form rather than in the correct input order. This tendency was more pronounced for children. It was suggested that children are more dependent on familiar schemata for retrieval than are adults.
An analysis of the underlying structure of simple stories is presented. It is claimed that this type of representation of stories is used to form schemata which guide encoding and retrieval. A type of tree structure containing basic units and their connections was found to be adequate to describe the structure of both single and multi-episode stories. The representation is outlined in the form of a grammar, consisting of rewrite rules defining the units and their relationships. Some transformational rules mapping underlying and surface structures are discussed. The adequacy of the analysis is first tested against Bartlett's protocols of “The War of the Ghosts.” Then a developmental study of recall is presented. It is concluded that both children and adults are sensitive to the structure of stories, although some differences were found. Finally, it is suggested that the schemata used to guide encoding and recall are related but not identical and that retrieval is dependent on the schemata operative at the time of recall.
Some of the aspects of the author/reader relationship that make communication possible are discussed in this paper. The paper begins by describing the most important components of that relationship. Next, through an analysis of two readings of one of Aesop's fables, it illustrates the way the author and the reader must depend on these components. It then focuses on three kinds of knowledge that the author and reader must use for successful communication to take place: conceptual knowledge, social knowledge, and story knowledge. Finally, it discusses implications of this work for reading education. (FL)
Research was supported by the National Institute of Education; National Institute of Child Health and Human Development program project grants to the University of Minnesota's Institute of Child Development, and Center for Research in Human Learning; and by a grant from the National Science Foundation. US-NIE-C-400-76-0116 NIE-G-77-0018, 5 PO1 HD05027 HD 01136 GB-17590 Includes bibliographical references (p. 23-24) Research was supported by the National Institute of Education; National Institute of Child Health and Human Development program project grants to the University of Minnesota's Institute of Child Development, and Center for Research in Human Learning; and by a grant from the National Science Foundation. US-NIE-C-400-76-0116 NIE-G-77-0018, 5 PO1 HD05027 HD 01136 GB-17590
Bibliography: leaves 44-48 The research reported herein was supported in part by the National Institute of Education under Contract No. US-NIE-C-400-76-0116
This chapter discusses some of the contributions made by listeners while comprehending and remembering. The ability to understand linguistic symbols is based not only on the comprehender's knowledge of his language but also on his general knowledge of the world. Much of the extralinguistic knowledge affecting comprehension and memory may come from visually presented information. The chapter presents a number of studies that illustrate some of the interplay between linguistic inputs and extralinguistic knowledge. It highlights various implications of these studies with respect to the problem of characterizing the thought processes involved in comprehending language, and of characterizing the role of comprehension factors in learning and memory. The results of the studies reported do not dictate a detailed model of comprehension, but they suggest a general orientation toward the problem of linguistic comprehension that places it squarely within the domain of cognitive psychology, and that generates questions for future research. The aspects of the comprehension process may involve mental operations on knowledge structures and the realization of the implications of these operations. Information about the consequences of such operations—rather than information only about the input itself—may be necessary for comprehending subsequent inputs and may be an important part of what is available in memory tasks.
The present study investigated the effects of the complexity of the English language and the cultural origin of prose on the reading comprehension of 46 Iranian intermediate/advanced ESL students at the university level. Half of the subjects read the unadapted English texts of two stories, one from Iranian folklore and one from American folklore; the other half read the same stories in adapted or simplified English. The subjects were tested on reading comprehension through the use of multiple choice questions on explicit and implicit information in the texts. The recall questions on the stories were also given to 19 American subjects for comparison purposes. Multivariate analysis of variance indicated that the cultural origin of the story had more effect on the comprehension of the ESL students than the level of syntactic and semantic complexity, adapted vs. unadapted. For native English readers, however, both the level of syntactic and semantic complexity of the text and the cultural origin of the story affected comprehension. The native language readers were better able to understand un-adapted English and the story based on American folklore. Implications of this study for teaching and for materials selection and design are discussed.
An abstract is not available.
The author presents his discussion of experimental design with emphasis on the understanding of basic principles in the text and in study exercises following each chapter the student can apply the principle to specific experimental situations selected from the literature of psychology and education. The first chapter presents fundamental concepts such as measures of precision, testing hypotheses, and randomization. Chi square,
t, and
F distributions are discussed in chapter 2. Chapters 3 to 16 deal with simple and complex designs, and methods of analysis of data. The mathematical level does not assume formal training beyond high school algebra. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Recent research in L2 reading has indicated that language proficiency in L2 places a limit on transference of L1 reading skills. The research reported here was developed to provide information on the possible application of L1 “schemata” theory to the nonlinguistic elements of L2 reading. The “schemata” based learning theory indicates that readers process meaning which has been presented through print by using prior knowledge of the world to produce representations of anticipated meaning. Further, this knowledge and representation can either aid or impede comprehension. In the experiment, a repeated measures design was used to present Ss with reading passages using three types of intervention. In the first method, Ss read a passage, took a test, reread the passage, and took the test again. In the second method, Ss were presented with a vocabulary list prior to reading and being tested. In the third method, Ss were shown pictures relating to the general topic of the passage and were asked to make predictions about the passage content. The results of the study indicate that schemata production is involved in the short circuit of L2 reading, that the effectiveness of externally induced schemata is greater at lower levels of proficiency than at higher levels, and that induced schemata can override language proficiency as a factor in comprehension.
The research discussed here attempted to determine if (a) pycholing-uistics could explain the reading behaviors of adult Spanish speakers reading in Spanish and in English, and (b) if theme readers transferred their skills to English. The results of two studies are presented. In the first study, twenty-one adult Spanish-speaking ESL students took cloze tests in Spanish and in English. In the second study, the Spanish and English reading performances of a good L1 reader and a poor L1 reader were analyzed according to established oral miscue procedures. The results of these studies confirm the psycholinguistic perspective of reading for Spanish speakers reading in Spanish. However, it appears that language competence exerta a powerful effect on the reader, thereby reducing the good reader's advantage over the poor reader when their performances in English are compared. It is concluded that a language competence ceiling effectively prohibits the complete transfer of L1 reading skills to the second language. It is suggested that limited command of the language produces a “short circuit” effect on good readers, forcing them to revert to “poor reader strategies.” Theoretical, pedagogical and methodological implications are discussed.
The effects of structure and content variables on memory and comprehension of prose passages were studied in two experiments. The experimental passages exemplify a class of simple narrative stories that is described by a generative grammar of plot structures. A comprehension model is proposed that assumes a hierarchical organizational framework of stories in memory, determined by the grammar, representing the abstract structural components of the plot. The quality and characteristics of subjects' memory for stories were tested on a variety of experimental tasks in which story organization was manipulated. Comprehensibility and recall were found to be a function of the amount of inherent plot structure in the story, independent of passage content. Recall probability of individual facts from passages depended on the structural centrality of the facts: Subjects tended to recall facts corresponding to high-level organizational story elements rather than lower-level details. In addition, story summarizations from memory tended to emphasize general structural characteristics rather than specific content. For successively presented stories, both structure and content manipulations influenced recall. Furthermore, repeating story structure across two passages produced facilitation in recall of the second passage, while repeating story content produced proactive interference. The implications for a model of memory for narrative discourse are discussed.
The present paper presents a series of studies showing that relevant contextual knowledge is a prerequisite for comprehending prose passages. Four studies are reported, each demonstrating increased comprehension ratings and recall scores when Ss were supplied with appropriate information before they heard test passages. Supplying Ss with the same information subsequent to the passages produced much lower comprehension ratings and recall scores. Various explanations of the results are considered, and the role of topics in activating cognitive contexts is discussed.
Bibliography: leaves 28-30 Supported in part by the National Institute of Education ... and in part by the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development
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Mandler, J.M.. and N.S. Johnson. 1977. Remembrance of things parsed: story structure and recall. Cognitive Psychology 9: I I 1 -I5 I, Nezworski, T.. N.L. Stein. and T. Trabasso. 1979. Story structure versus content effects on children-s recall and evaluative inferences. Technical Report No. 129. Champaign-Urbana: Center for the Study of Reading, University of Illinois. Rumelhart. D.E. 1975. Notes on a schema for stories. In Represenration and Understanding: Srudies in Cognitive Sc,ience. eds. D.G. Bobrow and A.M. Collins. New York: Academic Press. Rumelhart. D.E. 1980. Schemata: the building blocks of cognition. In Theoretical Issues in Reading Comprehension, eds. R.J. Spiro, B.C. Bruce. and W.F. Brewer. Hillsdale. N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
The Role of Schemata in L2 Comprehension
- P.L. Carrell
Theoretical Issues in Reading Comprehension
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