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Philosophy of Wolf Policies I: General Principles and Preliminary Exploration of Selected Norms
Conservation Biology
Abstract
We, as philosopher and biologist, here present some preliminary explorations of values and norms of importance in the wolf‐man relationship. The presentation is centered around problems as we see them from the modern wolf range in Norway, where there should be a mhed community of sheep, wolves, and men. At present we have 3.2 million sheep, 4.1 million men, and 5–10 wolves. The wolves are confined to a small area containing small scattered sheep farms. The owners, with local approval, do not accept the wolves. What norms should be considered in the process of changing this wolf/sheep ratio slightly in favor of wolves? How can we work today for a viable population of wolves? This article presents some general principles and philosophical methods for discussion in the spheres of ethical attitudes and opinions in norm conflicts concerning wolves. Important is an understanding of the logical priority of the normative system, and the need for it in a systemic analysis. This should be used extensively as an analytic tool in the many intricate problems of wolf management, some of which go all the way down to the rock bottom of philosopby and political ideology.
... During the late 1990's much research focus has moved away from the ecology of the carnivores and their prey to the social aspects concerning human attitudes and behaviour. The social issues concerning large carnivore conflicts are complex, and range from fundamental aspects of value systems and human rights, through loss of control, to the most visceral of all-fear for personal safety (Naess & Mysterud 1987;Kaltenborn et al. 1998Kaltenborn et al. , 1999Bjerke et al. 2000Bjerke et al. , 2001. ...
... (We do not imply all depicted publications are inferior in focus to ours; many of the topics and publications on them are important and complementary.) Small superscript letters at the bottoms of arrow pathways in the figure correspond to the following sample publications that exemplify the topics identified at those pathway termini: a: (Rozzi, 1999;Sagoff, 2007;Noss, 2007); b: (Robertson and Bruce Hull, 2001;Robinson, 2006); c: (Artelle et al., 2014;Treves, 2009); d: (Drew, 2002;Dayton, 2003); e: (Minteer and Collins, 2005;Varner, 2008;Perry et al., 2012;Boyce et al., 2021); f: (Naess and Mysterud, 1987;Callicott et al., 1999); g: (Perry et al., 2012;Sample, 2018); h: (Jones et al., 2008;Kusmanoff et al., 2020); i: (Seymour et al., 2010;Schuett et al., 2016). logical form known as modus ponens. ...
We uncover a largely unnoticed and unaddressed problem in conservation research: arguments built within studies are sometimes defective in more fundamental and specific ways than appreciated, because they misrelate values and empirical matters. We call this the unraveled rope problem because just as strands of rope must be properly and intricately wound with each other so the rope supports its load, empirical aspects and value aspects of an argument must be related intricately and properly if the argument is to objectively support its conclusion. By characterizing this problem with precision, our study differs from but complements existing studies of value issues in conservation science, in two ways. First, it focuses on key relationships between empirical issues and value issues, relations that have sometimes been obscured by focusing on these issues more independently of each other. Second, it focuses on these relationships within arguments and deploys a method of argument analysis and evaluation honed in other fields but under-utilized in conservation science. By combining our study's novel features, we detail six families of argument defect that exemplify the unraveled rope problem within existing literature. These defects sometimes manifest within basic research stages, rather than just in more applied downstream stages where roles for values are already obvious to many. As scientific reasoning and communication become increasingly important for addressing society's greatest environmental challenges, overcoming the unraveled rope problem will be essential to the success and integrity of conservation research. Therefore, we also outline potential solutions, preventative measures, and useful further work for conservation researchers.
... A substantial minority express strong protectionist views toward the species. The wolf, in particular, has emerged as a powerful symbol for protecting and restoring wildlife and wilderness (Kellert 1996;Naess and Mysterud 1987). Popular books, films, and other media have celebrated the positive attributes and qualities of wolves and bears. ...
The primary goal of predator management in Alaska is to increase prey populations for human harvest. Governor Tony Knowles suspended Alaska's wolf control program in late 1994 and stated 3 criteria for the reinstatement of wolf control: it must be based on solid science; it must make economic sense for Alaskans; and it must have broad public support. The Committee on Management of Wolf and Bear Populations in Alaska was asked to evaluate the biological underpinnings of predator control and management in Alaska and assess its economic impacts. Such an evaluation is necessary, but nonetheless not sufficient to satisfy Governor Knowles' stated criteria. In particular, the committee was not asked to assess whether wolf control should be conducted in Alaska nor was the committee asked to design a program that would have broad public support. Both issues are political matters that will be decided by the Alaskan public and their elected officials. The evaluation of the biology and economics of predator management requires understanding of the ecological, economic and political contexts in which the program is carried out because all these components determine which programs are feasible and effective. One must have some measure of how much more prey people feel they need and if they are willing to devote the resources needed to achieve the goal. How long should predator control be in effect, by what methods, over how large an area, and how many animals need to be removed? Finally, any predator management program must be planned in such a way that its impact on the adult prey population can be measured. Thus, the report first describes the socioeconomic and ecological context for wildlife management in Alaska. This is followed by a discussion of the biological aspects of wolf and bear management, a discussion of the kinds of economic analysis that is appropriate to assessing the impact of predator management programs, and an analysis of decision-making processes. The final chapter presents the committee's conclusions and recommendations.
... Samfunnsforskning generelt er et voksende fagfelt, noe som også gjelder forskning på menneskers forhold til store rovdyr (Bath 1996). Sosiale spørsmål som omhandler konflikter med store rovdyr er komplekse, og spenner fra fundamentale spørsmål om verdisystemer og menneskerettigheter, avmakt, og kanskje til det mest følelsesladde av alt -frykt for personlig sikkerhet (Naess & Mysterud 1987;Kaltenborn et al. 1998Kaltenborn et al. , 1999 . I Norge er betydningen av frykt er fremhevet de siste årene etter hvert som bestander av ulv (Canis lupus) har reetablert seg i Skandinavia Zimmerman et al. 2001). ...
... People living in areas inhabited by wolves are becoming increasingly irritated by the animals while those not living in wolf areas support wolf conservation measures [34]. Consequently, wolf management regimes undergo sudden changes [35][36][37] which could obscure any climate links. ...
Migration, especially of indigenous peoples, related to or influenced by climate change continues to gain increasing research and policy attention. Limited material remains for this topic for Scandinavia’s indigenous people, the Saami. This paper contributes to filling this gap by providing a review for the Scandinavian Saami of the possible impacts of climate change on migration. Environmental influences, social influences, and a synthesis through livelihoods impacts, including for reindeer herding, is provided, followed by a discussion of Saami responses to climate change and migration mainly through a governance analysis. Overall, climate change’s impacts on the Saami do not necessarily entail abandoning their traditions, livelihoods, or homes. Instead, the most significant impact is likely to be migrants moving into the Arctic to pursue resource opportunities. Working collaboratively with the Saami, policies and practices are needed to ensure that indigenous interests are respected and that indigenous needs are met.
... During the late 1990's much research focus has moved away from the ecology of the carnivores and their prey to the social aspects concerning human attitudes and behaviour. The social issues concerning large carnivore conflicts are complex, and range from fundamental aspects of value systems and human rights, through loss of control, to the most visceral of all-fear for personal safety (Naess & Mysterud 1987;Kaltenborn et al. 1998Kaltenborn et al. , 1999Bjerke et al. 2000Bjerke et al. , 2001. ...
... For example, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife recovery plan for the Mexican gray wolf (Canis lupus baileyi) specifies semen banking as the only approved assisted reproduction technique (Asa, 2001). Wolf reproduction and subsequent reintroduction into parts of its former range have also met with resistance from local ranchers and many reintroduced wolves have been killed (Naess and Mysterud, 1987). ...
... Naess & Mysterud (1987, 29) suggested that extreme aggression by some sheep farmers against carnivores (wolves in this case) could be explained by feelings of guilt because they 'are physically and economically unable to protect [the sheep] from repeated carnivore attacks'. They called for 'long range global norms directing conservation strategies' (Naess & Mysterud 1987, 27). They largely follow Setreng's argument that small-scale Norwegian farms represent valuable lifestyles well worth taking care of, but conclude that Norway's international obligations and the risk of losing international legitimacy as an advocate of environmental issues, and the fact that it is a rich nation, nonetheless favour strong wolf policies. ...
Recent studies and literature suggest that negative attitudes towards large carnivores may to a large extent be explained by ignorance and lack of certain aspects of cultural capital. Fear and resistance, it has been argued, can be overcome through spreading information and knowledge about carnivores and how to interact with them. This argument has, on the other hand, been interpreted as an example of inherent arrogance among urban elites, undermining the economic foundation and quality of life in rural areas. The article aims to analyse acceptance of bears in Norway among a representative sample of the population, to describe attitudes towards large carnivores, economic and cultural capital, the importance of physical and geographical closeness, and the extent to which and how these factors are interlinked. The analysis is based on two national quantitative surveys, carried out in 2005 and 2007. The findings show a clear, although small, increase in resistance to the existence of bears in Norway. The increase appears to be most marked among young people who have grown up in rural areas. The authors conclude that there is an increasing urban–rural divide on the issue of conservation policies and carnivore stock management.
Cambridge Core - History of Science and Technology - The Power of the Periphery - by Peder Anker
After many centuries of striving towards the separation from wildness, as a culture we are unprepared to confront the task of coexistence with wildlife. The difficulties we face range from material damages, through emotional strain and symbolic transgressions, through to unsettling of the established traditions. Wildlife management has been commonly used to address these difficulties. However, management is not a value-neutral practice, and, consequently, it always follows certain normative assumptions about how the human-animal relations should be organized. It is environmental and animal ethics that provide the necessary reflection on how coexistence should look like. While much work has been carried out by these two disciplines, they are rather reluctant to analyze constructively the ethical potential of antagonistic relations between humans and animals, often defining the perception of animals as threatening as ‘ecophobic’. This is a too quick dismissal of a very significant domain of human experience. Therefore, a program for a hermeneutic study of moral aspects of human experiences of ecological discomforts is proposed. Such an investigation has a potential to unearth meanings of threatening nature that can be used constructively to develop an ethics for coexistence with wildlife.
This article rethinks John Holloway’s emancipatory theory by “opening” his key concept of “dignity.” It argues that, while Holloway’s use of this concept works well for emphasising the uniqueness of human beings’ ability to both resist and challenge capitalist social relations, due to its underlying Kantian heritage, it is both excessively restrictive and limits the extent to which he can unlock the full potential of his theory, particularly when considering the development of new ecological sensibilities. To this end, the article explores the possibility of supplanting the concept of dignity with that of “Self-realisation.” While not entirely unproblematic, this concept not only reinforces the uniqueness Holloway associates with human agency but also helps unravel a more substantive virtue-orientated approach consistent with his thought.
This article argues that it is necessary to go back to Potter's proposal to rediscover a concept of bioethics wider than medical ethics, and strongly connected to environmental ethics. The two disciplines share, among others, the following dimensions: the consciousness of the sin as a consequence of recent technological developments; the need for a salvation; the need for a science of survival; wisdom as a possible solution. Referring to the latter, the work of Van Rennselaer Potter (father of bioethics) and Arne Næss (father of deep ecology, and in a broader sense, of environmental ethics) are particularly linked: it seems that wisdom should be the virtue providing answers about our way of dwelling the world. Finally, we will argue about the need for a practical wisdom (phronesis) for the future of environmental ethics.
La publicación del libro titulado “Ecología Humana: uma visão global” organizado por los colegas Juracy
Marques, Ajíbola Badiru y Ronaldo Gomes Alvím en 2014 permitió la primera interacción entre numerosos colegas que abrazamos la ecología humana como formación académica y como filosofía de vida. Con la realización del II Seminario Internacional de Ecología Humana en Paulo Alfonso, Bahía, en primavera de aquel mismo año, se reforzó esta relación y fuimos conociendo a más personas y personalidades que trabajan este maravilloso y desafiante campo disciplinar en el mundo.
En esas interacciones surgió la idea de publicar un segundo libro que, siguiendo la visión integradora y holística propia de la disciplina que nos convoca, aborda grandes temas que preocupan a la humanidad en contexto de desarrollo. Es así que hoy presentamos “Ecología Humana contemporánea: apuntes y visiones en la complejidad del desarrollo”, obra en la cual se reúnen aportes de distintas latitudes, culturas e idiomas.
Durante la preparación de este material participamos en varios eventos que permitieron enriquecer las relaciones y las visiones de los autores de distintos países: Brasil, Chile, España, Italia, México, Paraguay y Portugal, a quienes agradecemos el haberse unido a este desafío, a la dedicación puesta en cada capítulo y
a la paciencia en esperar a que finalmente esté disponible en línea y en versión impresa.
El lector podrá apreciar la diversidad de temas que abordamos en esta publicación que, a nuestro entender, ayuda a la comprensión del amplio campo de estudio de la Ecología Humana en el mundo. El orden en el cual se ha organizado la obra es indicativo, dejando a voluntad de cada lector hacer un pasaje de propia elección.
Compartimos este trabajo conjunto esperando que pueda constituirse en un aporte a la discusión acerca de la disciplina de gran actualidad, así como en una contribución más a su difusión.
Buena lectura.
Los organizadores
N
orwegian philosopher Arne Naess is the founder of the Deep Ecology movement, which he describes as “a process of reflection leading to action.” Naess was a philosophy professor at the University of Oslo from 1939 to 1969, then went on to a second career as an environmental activist. In contrast to what he calls the “shallow ecology” movement, which concentrates on fighting pollution and resource depletion primarily for the benefit of people in the developed countries, Naess offers a set of principles that emphasizes biospherical egalitarianism, diversity, classlessness, decentralization, and personal commitment and action. Naess’s eco-philosophy has gained a small but growing number of proponents in the United States, most notably writers such as George Sessions, William Devall, and Dolores LaChapelle.
En este artículo se argumenta que es necesario volver a la propuesta de Potter para redescubrir una idea de bioética más amplia de la sola ética médica, y fuertemente vinculada a la ética ambiental. Las dos disciplinas comparten, entre las otras, las siguientes dimensiones: la conciencia del pecado surgida como consecuencia de los recientes desarrollos tecnológicos; la necesidad de una salvación; la necesidad de una ciencia de la supervivencia; la sabiduría como una posible solución. Con referencia a este último aspecto, la obra de Van Rennselaer Potter (padre de la bioética) y la de Arne Næss (padre de la ecología profunda, y, en un sentido más amplio, de la ética ambiental) están particularmente vinculadas: la sabiduría parece ser la virtud que puede todavía ofrecer respuestas sobre nuestra manera de habitar el mundo. Por último, vamos a tratar de argumentar sobre la necesidad de una sabiduría practica (phronesis) para el futuro de la ética ambiental.
‘This world’s divided into two kinds of people: The hunter and the hunted,’ big-game hunter Rainsford says in The Most Dangerous Game (1932) and self-assuredly continues, ‘Luckily, I’m a hunter. Nothing can ever change that.’ Well, he will discover that in the manhunt movie even the hunter can become prey. The manhunt movie is a subgenre of the Hollywood thriller which joins two elements: big-game sport hunting and hunting humans. Sport hunting stirs up themes of nature and culture, morals and ethics, masculinity, and, finally, civilisation. Here, we will ask what happens when the subgenre is used in the Nordic thriller. The chapter has three aims. First, it establishes the central generic traits of the manhunt movie. Second, it sets up a theoretical framework of sociobiological and ecological theories with hunting as a reference point. And, third, it examines the Nordic version of the manhunt movie focusing on the themes of hunting, nature, social standing and civilisation. I look at the Danish drama The Hunt (Thomas Vinterberg, 2012), the Norwegian thriller-heist-comedy Headhunters (Morten Tyldum, 2011) and the Swedish thrillers The Hunters (Jägarna, 1996) and False Trail (Jägarna 2, 2011) by Kjell Sundvall.
This essay includes a review of major strategies for preservation of earth's biodiversity including the biodiversity "hotspots," "Wildlands Project," and the "consensus" strategy. The essay includes a review of reasons for protecting biodiversity including the deep ecology, inherent value argument, and a review of philosophies and organizations that place low value on preservation of biodiversity. Local, national and international organizations working for protection of biodiversity are discussed. The paper concludes that preservation of significant portions of the global biodiversity is cost-effective, reasonable, and prudent. The paper calls for international organizations, national governments, and regional and local communities to focus attention and resources on preservation of biodiversity as a high priority of action because to do otherwise could cause irreversible harm to the diversity of life on the planet.
Top predators have often been persecuted because of their supposed negative effects on species of economic concern on which they feed. In some cases, however, they may actually benefit their prey through intraguild predation on other smaller predators that share the prey. In each of two representative situations, in one of which lynx were present and in the other absent, we (1) estimated gross number of rabbits taken by lynx and Egyptian mongooses (smaller predators that are themselves preyed upon by lynx; (2) simulated size-structured rabbit populations of different densities, taking into account the reproductive value of the individuals taken by predators; and (3) estimated actual rabbit densities. Numbers of rabbits taken by predators during a year were found to be between 4.8 and 9.5 times greater when lynx were not present. After a year, rabbit population growth for an initial rabbit density of 15/ha was between 12% and 22% lower when lynx were not present. For lower initial rabbit densities, the positive effect of lynx presence on rabbits was greater. Actual rabbit densities in the areas used by lynx were 2–4 times higher than in areas not used by lynx, even though these areas were similar or identical in habitat composition. These results support the suggestion that removal of top predators may sometimes have a negative effect on prey populations of human economic concern.
Historians of natural history often point to the emergence of mathematical and mechanical reasoning in the early-modern period as a pivotal episode in scientifi c understanding of the organic world. This paper visits the natural philosophy of one of the chief supporters of this view of nature, the first curator of plants at The Royal Society, Nehemiah Grew. It sets his work within the material world of patronage, medical and mathematical tools, laboratory life, and his views on human virtues, health and the role of women. The view taken is of Grew as a religiously informed natural philosopher whose understanding of the economy of nature acknowledges the wisdom of the Creator and the possibility of gaining spiritual and bodily health from studying the language of the book of nature. The quest to understand nature's language consisted in tempering human will and arrogance so that one could appreciate the Lord's creative power in the world. As representative of The Royal Society's promotion of empirical and mechanical research, Grew mobilized excitement for natural history and botany with an ethos of showing respect to nature's economy.
This article serves as a case study of how contemporary residents of the Upper Great Lakes states debate the ethics and meanings of living with wolves. An overview of the challenges facing Minnesota wolf management is provided, and the results of a Q-methodology study are presented. The study revealed three primary factors, or shared belief systems, about wolf management in Minnesota. The idealist perspective tells a redemption story of sin and atonement, the institutional perspective endorses scientific management and rationality and the localist perspective promises justice, respect and acknowledgement for its champions. The factors are interpreted as narratives or latent myths that provide a set of tacit directions to its adherents about understanding the complexities of living among carnivores. The intricacies and unique logic of each of the three factors are discussed, and themes of consensus and disagreement are briefly highlighted.
Practice of conservation biology that does not actively and continuously question the values that shape it is self-defeating: Conservation biology is inescapably normative. Advocacy for the preservation of biodiversity is part of the scientific practice of conservation biology. If the editorial policy of or the publications in Conservation Biology direct the discipline toward an “objective, value-free” approach, then they do not educate and transform society but rather narrow the focus to the “object of knowledge” (be this species, gene pools, landscapes, or ecosystems). To pretend that the acquisition of “positive knowledge" alone will avert mass extinctions is misguided. Conservation biologists should reflect on the constitutive values (especially contextual, but also methodological and bias) underlying their research programs and policy recommendations. Such reflection is itself an inherent element of scientific objectivity and takes into account the social nature of scientific knowledge. Without openly acknowledging such a perspective, conservation biology could become merely a subdiscipline of biology, intellectually and functionally sterile and incapable of averting an anthropogenic mass extinction.
This paper examines the ideal of community as imagined by Arne Naess and the Deep Ecology Movement. In particular the authors address such questions as: Is pluralism of lifestyles reconcilable with the main ideas of the biocentric community? Is liberal justice possible within it? And how realistic is the proposal of education towards a 'biocentric identity'? The analysis shows that, while the deep ecological vision is by no means 'fascist' as some of its critics insist, its inconsistencies, silences and omissions point to an incomplete project which has a dystopian conclusion written into its scenario.
Populations of wolves were estimated for the states of Gujarat and Rajasthan, India, based on interviews and surveys. The wolf range is continuous. The total number of wolves in Gujarat is between 190 and 270 and in Rajasthan is between 253 and 350. Recommendations for a wolf conservation strategy include: (1) encouraging public support and education, (2) enforcing legal protection, (3) paying compensation for wolf-killed livestock, (4) conducting surveys of wolf populations and research on the dynamics of select populations, (5) protecting breeding habitats, and (6) eradicating feral dogs from wolf conservation areas. It is not too late to save the wolf if such a conservation strategy is implemented immediately.
Resumen: Sobre la base de entrevistas y encuestas, se estimaron las poblaciones de lobos en los estados de Gujarat y Rajasthan, en la India El rango de distribución de los lobos es contínuo. El número total de lobos en Gujarat es entre 190 y 270, y en Rajasthan, entre 253 y 350. Las recomendaciones para una estrategia de conservación de los lobos incluyen: 1) fomentar la educación y el apoyo del públíco, (2) hacer cumplir las leyes sobre la proteccion, (3) pagar compensación en casos de matanzas de ganado por lobos, (4) llevar a abo encuestas de poblaciones de lobos e investigación sobre la dinámica de poblaciones seleccionadas, (5) proteger los lugares de cría, y (6) erradicar los perros ferales de las zonas e conservacidn de lobos. Si se implementa esta estrategia de conservación immediatamente, aún podría salvarse el lobo.
The recovery of the gray wolf ( Canis lupus ) in the western Great Lakes states is an exciting environmental success story. Changing social constructions are an essential part of the story of wolf recovery in the western Great Lakes region (Herda-Rapp and Goedeke 2005) . In this chapter, I will examine the changing social construction (attitudes, beliefs, and perceptions) of wolves that set the stage for and facilitated the wolf’s recovery across northern portions of Wisconsin, Michigan, and Minnesota. I focus on a social constructionist approach of how groups and individuals create and maintain various meanings concerning aspects to the world, in this case the wolf. Social construction refers to the notion that beliefs, understandings, and values about the world are actively and creatively produced by human beings. Social constructionists hold that the world is made or invented, as opposed to merely given or taken for granted (Marshall 1998) . Consequently, in the constructionist paradigm a “Wolf” is a socially constructed creature because certain cultural attitudes, social perceptions, and beliefs are assigned to it. The attitudes, beliefs, and ideologies that make up various social constructions of the wolf become as real as the teeth, bones, and fur that make up the biological mammal. In fact, these social constructions of the wolf are as important to the recovery and continued survival of wolves as are the biological and ecological factors that involved in their recovery. People’s perceptions of wildlife shape their approval for policy and management. If policy goals or management techniques conflict with people’s views of a species, they will ignore sanctions and incentives or actively attempt to undermine policy goals and the actions of managers. As Manfredo and Dayer (2004) put it, it is the thoughts and actions of humans that ultimately determine the course and resolution of human–wildlife conflict. I begin this chapter with a brief discussion of the earliest Euro-American cultural constructions of wolves and the consequences of those constructions. Then I discuss the social scientific literature that documents human’s perceptions and attitudes of wolves in the western Great Lakes region (Table 16.1 ). I conclude the chapter with an argument for the importance of using social attitude research in the management of wolves. I use the term “Great Lakes states” to refer to Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota.
The paper assumes as a general abstract norm that the specific potentialities of living beings be fulfilled. No being has a priority in principle in the realizing of its possibilities, but norms of increasing diversity or richness of potentialities put limits on the development of destructive life‐styles. Application is made to the mixed Norwegian communities of certain mammals and humans. A kind of modus vivendi is established which is firmly based on cultural tradition. It is fairly unimportant whether the term ‘rights (of animals)’ is or is not used in the fight for human peaceful coexistence with a rich fauna.
This research sought to identify the dimensional structure of values, their relationship to perceived QOL, and to examine cultural differences in value systems. A sample of 200 respondents was asked to provide direct, indirect, and importance ratings of a range of values. It was found that these could be adequately represented by seven dimensions, and that comparable dimensions were obtained from all three sets of value measures. This finding was replicated by alternative analyses, and also replicates previous research, providing strong evidence for the generality of the structure.
Some inconsistent differences in values were found between the three ethnic groups (European, Maori, and Polynesian) that comprised the sample, but it was concluded that there were no clear cultural differences in values. No cultural differences were found in QOL measures also. Some possible explanations of these results are discussed.
Value dimensions for direct and indirect value measures were found to be useful predictors of QOL, with close, personal dimensions generally being the best predictors. Value importance dimensions were not found to be useful QOL predictors, and it is proposed that future research should focus on aspiration measures.
Holdningerti1 mennesker, dyr og planter (Attitudes towards men, animals and plants)
- Naess A.