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Bilingualism With and Without Diglossia; Diglossia With and Without Bilingualism
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... In sociolinguistic terms, Easter Island is in a situation of diglossia, as was originally defined by Ferguson (1959) and later supported by Fishman (1967). The former argued that diglossia refers to a situation in a territory where two varieties of the same language overlap, one of them generally being relegated to unofficial or domestic contexts in a relatively stable or non-conflictive situation. ...
... The former argued that diglossia refers to a situation in a territory where two varieties of the same language overlap, one of them generally being relegated to unofficial or domestic contexts in a relatively stable or non-conflictive situation. Fishman (1967) supports this with an analysis that, in our opinion, is more appropriate to account for the situation on Easter Island, since he conceives diglossia as a situation in which two or more different languages coexist in the same territory, occupying different functions with one of them sometimes subordinating the other/s in official situations. In such cases, the speakers of the dominant or more prestigious language are often not proficient in the subordinate language, which has usually been the case in colonial and postcolonial scenarios. ...
This first chapter addresses three distinct aspects of Bilingual Intercultural Education (EIB, by the Spanish acronym). The first section provides a brief overview of the recent history of EIB during the last two decades in Chile, outlining its main policies and describing the major milestones and advances, as well as its various challenges, in order to demonstrate the development path that EIB has followed in the country.
... In sociolinguistic terms, Easter Island is in a situation of diglossia, as was originally defined by Ferguson (1959) and later supported by Fishman (1967). The former argued that diglossia refers to a situation in a territory where two varieties of the same language overlap, one of them generally being relegated to unofficial or domestic contexts in a relatively stable or non-conflictive situation. ...
... The former argued that diglossia refers to a situation in a territory where two varieties of the same language overlap, one of them generally being relegated to unofficial or domestic contexts in a relatively stable or non-conflictive situation. Fishman (1967) supports this with an analysis that, in our opinion, is more appropriate to account for the situation on Easter Island, since he conceives diglossia as a situation in which two or more different languages coexist in the same territory, occupying different functions with one of them sometimes subordinating the other/s in official situations. In such cases, the speakers of the dominant or more prestigious language are often not proficient in the subordinate language, which has usually been the case in colonial and postcolonial scenarios. ...
School segregation, especially on the basis of socioeconomic, ethnic, or racial characteristics, is one of the fields of greatest interest for the design of public policies in countries with high levels of inequality in educational opportunities and low social mobility, such as Chile (Núñez and Miranda, Estudios De Economía 38:195–221, 2011; OECD. (2010). PISA 2009 Results: What Students Know and Can Do - Student Performance in Reading, Mathematics and Science (Vol. 1): OECD.). This trend has been accentuated in a global context of educational reforms aimed at improving academic performance through standards-based quality assurance systems (often built on the results of standardized national tests) and strengthening the links between productive development and the quality of education (ECLAC. (2010). La hora de la igualdad. Brechas por cerrar, caminos por abrir. Santiago: CEPAL.). The evidence gathered at the international level conclusively shows the direct negative short-, medium-, and long-term effects of school segregation on these objectives (Gorard and Fitz, Research Papers in Education 15:115–132, 2000; Harker, The effects of Student Composition on School Outcomes, Massey University, New Zealand. College of Education, 2004).
... He further adds that the form of double diglossia can be developed into double overlapping diglossia (like that found in Tanzania where there are various types of languages such as English, Swahili, along with some other regional languages), double nested diglossia (two languages recognized between H and L varieties and both have other varieties or dialects that also given a rank as H varieties and L varieties, mainly in Khalapur-India) and linear polyglossia (such as languages of English speaking Malaysian Chinese living in Malaysia where Malaysian English is H1 and Standard Malaysian is H2 alongside the Low Chinese (L1) and other (L2) Chinese languages. Hogg, et al. [18] have criticized Fasold and Fishmans' broad defi nitions considering their acts eff ectively emasculated diglossia and consequently made it lose its diglossic validity. Pap L [19] suggests that it would be better to reject this expansion or modifi cation made by Fishman, Fasold and others and stick to the original version. ...
... Pap L [19] suggests that it would be better to reject this expansion or modifi cation made by Fishman, Fasold and others and stick to the original version. Ferguson M [20], in her turn, agrees with Hogg et al. [18] and advises against such a terminological mash-up, claiming that it will lead to the term being used for 'stylistic functional variation' masking its distinctive psychological linguistic characteristics. Further, she believes that "diglossia implies suffi ciently similar languages for the speakers to feel that it is the same language, yet remote enough, so that the acquisition of the literary language implies long-term eff orts and can never be fully achieved." ...
The main purpose of this research paper is to explore and assess the challenges and difficulties facing L2 learners of Arabic due to the diglossic situation in the Arab world and whether to learn both codes, standard and dialectal or one of them. The study also tries to understand the nature of the awareness and motivation of L2 learners about the Arabic diglossic situation in Iraq. Therefore, the procedure followed to achieve this assignment is highly based on, and thoroughly examined, enormous references, verified and analyzed some statistical procedures previously used by other scholars related to diglossia along with the debate sessions held with some native teachers of Arabic as a Foreign language who have taught and still teaching this language to non-native speakers. The originality of the study lies in the invaluable information gained, through the discussion sessions as well as
interviews held with these well-experienced teachers and students which definitely added a signifi cant depth to the findings of this study. Further, the study has presented and discussed the perspectives of some scholars, who are prominent in the field of sociolinguistics, as well. This really reflects the practical objective implications of the study. Eventually, the findings reveal that teaching/learning Arabic as a foreign language is not an easy task due to the diglossic situation in the Arab World.
... No obstante, conviene atender un poco más esta realidad en tanto podría estarse presentando lo que Fishman (1967) describe como situaciones donde hay bilingüismo, pero no hay diglosia; valga agregar que no hay una clara separación funcional del uso de las lenguas y la situación no es estable. Si bien es cierto que Fishman (1967) ejemplifica este fenómeno en torno al uso de los inmigrantes en países ricos provenientes de países pobres, con una marcada idea de distinción dialectal, no se debe olvidar lo dicho anteriormente en cuanto a la extrema distribución de la riqueza en Las Bahamas y su gran diferencia de estratos sociales donde la clase alta tiende a utilizar el inglés mientras que los menos favorecidos el dialecto local. ...
... No obstante, conviene atender un poco más esta realidad en tanto podría estarse presentando lo que Fishman (1967) describe como situaciones donde hay bilingüismo, pero no hay diglosia; valga agregar que no hay una clara separación funcional del uso de las lenguas y la situación no es estable. Si bien es cierto que Fishman (1967) ejemplifica este fenómeno en torno al uso de los inmigrantes en países ricos provenientes de países pobres, con una marcada idea de distinción dialectal, no se debe olvidar lo dicho anteriormente en cuanto a la extrema distribución de la riqueza en Las Bahamas y su gran diferencia de estratos sociales donde la clase alta tiende a utilizar el inglés mientras que los menos favorecidos el dialecto local. Sin embargo, estos usos no parecen estar exclusivamente condicionados por el nivel socioeconómico, sino que pudieran estar sujetos a aspectos ideológicos, por lo cual surge la interrogante de ¿hasta qué punto estas ideologías relacionadas con la lengua y el subsecuente e implícito, y sutil, nacionalismo lingüístico que se percibe podrían ser aspectos que habría de ser considerados para reinterpretar ese grado de bilingüismo-diglosia? ...
En Las Bahamas se habla inglés por la influencia de la corona británica que sigue estando vigente a pesar de que hace cincuenta años se declaró en una república independiente; en 2023 la monarquía todavía mantiene su autoridad como cabeza de este estado caribeño. La población bahameña es, esencialmente, afrodescendiente y no británica. Este trabajo, uno de los pocos que se han realizado en lengua española, presenta un recorrido, sensible a las cuestiones ideológicas y semánticas, por los contados, pero excelentes estudios científicos sobre el lenguaje local que se han publicado recientemente a fin de analizar la realidad de este archipiélago del norte del Caribe. Estos apuntes introductorios aportan una mirada glotopolítica, a partir de la interpretación de estudios realizados previamente, para contribuir con el debate en torno a la situación sociolingüística respecto al uso del inglés y del creole bahameño. En esta aproximación se sostiene que, desde una perspectiva glotopolítica, enmarcada en la sociología del lenguaje, la situación local podría interpretarse no solo como una diglosia, deducción común de todos los estudios consultados, sino como una situación de bilingüismo.
... CS is usually considered as an overarching term that involves other linguistic behaviors including diglossia and footing. Diglossia was first introduced by Ferguson (1959) and at a later stage Fishman (1967) refined the concept. Ferguson defined diglossia as the presence of a "divergent, highly codified" variety of language, which is employed in specific situations (1959, p. 336). ...
... Ferguson defined diglossia as the presence of a "divergent, highly codified" variety of language, which is employed in specific situations (1959, p. 336). While Ferguson discussed diglossia in situations where varieties of the same language are concurrently used, Fishman (1967) addressed it in situations where two unrelated languages are present. Given the fact that diagnosis was introduced by the end of 1959s, it is considered as a precursor to the study of code switching. ...
... El concepto de 'diglosia' refería originalmente a "dos variedades distintas de una misma lengua, una de las cuales (la alta o culta) se consideraba de mayor prestigio que la otra (la baja o vulgar)" (Ferguson recuperado de León Jiménez, 2003:39). Al referir a un fenómeno tan significativo de la convivencia social, el concepto de diglosia pronto generó múltiples desarrollos (Platt, 1977;Stevens, 1983;Fishman, 1965;Fasold, 1984), entre los que destaca la reformulación de Fishman, quien lo amplió para llevarlo más allá de la variación estilística que se da al interior de una misma lengua. En su lugar, Fishman vinculó la diglosia con el 37 "This universe is the speech community: any human aggregate characterized by regular and frequent interaction by means of a shared body of verbal signs and set off from similar aggregates by significant differences in language usage", cita original de Gumperz (1971:114). ...
... Este tipo de diglosia corresponde con la propuesta original de Ferguson (1959) y con la modalidad de diglosia sin bilinguismo, según Fishman (1965). Pero, está también un segundo sentido que surgió de la política lingüística colonial practicada por los misioneros españoles (ver apartado 2.1): ...
Esta tesis de doctorado es un trabajo transdisciplinario que aborda una serie de fenómenos distintivos como son: el reconocimiento de los nahuahablantes de herencia, el surgimiento moderno de los repertorios espaciales del náhuatl y el habitar en movimiento que caracteriza a la migración contemporánea de las redes nahuas visibilizadas en este estudio. El conjunto de estos fenómenos me lleva a pronunciarme no por una estimación de la vitalidad en el sentido clásico, sino por un continuum de vitalidades lingüísticas que se encuentran y conviven en los distintos entornos metropolitanos de Jalisco. La diversidad implicada por dicho continuum plantea una forma específica de vitalidad —la vitalidad lingüística urbana— y constituye las raíces móviles en las que descansan los diferentes pulsos del náhuatl contemporáneo.
... As will be explained in the coming sections, though there are signs of the High\Low distinction, the sociolinguistic situation in the Arab World is more complex and more flexible than merely being diglossic. In fact, the notion of diglossia itself has evolved and been extended within several bilingual and multilingual speech communities (see Fishman 1967). ...
This study is a mixed-methods investigation of language attitudes in Saudi Arabia. It investigates Saudis’ attitudes towards three Saudi varieties, namely, Qassimi Arabic (spoken in Central Saudi Arabia), Hasawi Arabic (spoken in Eastern Saudi Arabia) and Jizani Arabic (spoken in Southern Saudi Arabia). While most previous studies focus on the production of Saudi varieties (Al-Rojaie 2021b, p.472; Alhazmi & Alfalig 2022, p.114), the present study focuses on the perception of such varieties. Language perception can lead to the formation of attitudes, which may cause linguistic prejudice or discrimination. Accordingly, this study investigates: What are Saudis’ attitudes towards and experiences with contemporary Saudi Arabic varieties, and what implications can be drawn from them?
The study was conducted via three phases, namely, the keywords task (Garrett et al. 2005a) (Phase 1), the verbal-guise task (Dragojevic & Goatley-Soan 2022) (Phase 2) and the semi-structured interviews (Phase 3). Phase 1 elicited spontaneous impressions of the varieties under investigation (N = 148). Subsequently, attitudinal evaluations of the three varieties were elicited from socially-stratified respondents in Phase 2 (N = 411). Extending the study through Phase 3, respondents were interviewed about their attitudes, the factors underlying their attitudes and their experiences of linguistic discrimination (N = 17).
Although preliminary analysis indicated generally positive attitudes towards the varieties, there were significant differences in the attitudes. The respondents’ attitudes were associated with their demographics. The older respondents, the highly-educated respondents and respondents from Central Saudi Arabia consistently expressed more negative attitudes, compared to their counterparts. Furthermore, Social, Personal and Linguistic attitude factors were identified. Finally, the study uncovered narrations of linguistic prejudice and discrimination in Saudi Arabia. The findings can be used to understand and work with the sociolinguistic significance of Saudi varieties. The study produced various theoretical, methodological and practical implications for different domains within Saudi Arabia.
... Ferguson définit la diglossie comme étant une configuration dans laquelle deux variétés, l'une haute, l'autre basse, de la même langue sont en usage dans une société avec des fonctions socioculturelles différentes mais complémentaires (1959). Joshua Fishman (1967) proposera à sa suite une extension du modèle diglossique dans laquelle il convoquera la notion de « diglossie » pour parler de la distribution fonctionnelle complémentaire de deux langues en contact. Un autre modèle permet d'expliquer cette situation linguistique particulière. ...
L'émoji est un élément visuel employé régulièrement par les usagers des dispositifs numériques. En analysant ces usages par le biais de huit-cents-quatre-vingt-quatorze commentaires collectés sur le réseau socionumérique « Facebook » et en les confrontant à une enquête qualitative, cet article propose de comprendre la place qu'occupe l'émoji dans le paysage linguistique créolophone. Dans un contexte d'insécurité linguistique tant dans le monde en ligne que hors-ligne, il serait intéressant de voir si les émojis deviennent un outil de revendication identitaire pour les Réunionnais. Entre symbole fortement connoté affectivement et pictogramme permettant de donner à voir les subjectivités, l'émoji est aujourd'hui un objet d'étude pluridisciplinaire novateur et essentiel à l'heure du numérique.
... While L is the first language of the majority H is mainly acquired via education. This framework has been subject to many extensions and broader applications, most importantly Fishman (1967) who extended the model to bilingual settings. The diglossia framework has been applied to Caribbean ...
The thesis presents an in-depth analysis of language variation in Jamaican radio newscasts and talk shows. It explores the interaction of global and local varieties of English with regard to newscasters’ and talk show hosts’ language use and listeners’ attitudes. The thesis illustrates the benefits of an integrated approach to mass media: The analysis takes into account radio talk and the perception of the audience, it is context-sensitive, paying close attention to variation within and between genres, and it combines quantitative and qualitative approaches to demonstrate the complexity of language in the media. The thesis contributes to our understanding of the dynamics of World Englishes in the 21st century and endonormative stabilization processes in linguistically heterogeneous postcolonial speech communities, and it shows how mass media both challenge and reproduce sociolinguistic stratification.
... What my father introduced me to on that evening was, of course, the concept that we linguists call diglossia (Ferguson, 1959;Fishman, 1967;Gumperz, 1962), where a high language and a low language share social space in a complementary fashion. Hindi, the high language, is used in formal contexts; Hindustani, the low language, is used in informal contexts. ...
... Il cite notamment la Suisse comme un exemple dans lequel l'allemand standard est utilisé pour les situations écrites et officielles, et le dialecte pour les interactions orales du quotidien, bien que nombre d'individus parlant un ou plusieurs dialectes du suisse-allemand insistent sur le fait que la situation est plus complexe que cela. Fishman (1967) l'oppose à la notion de bilinguisme dans laquelle deux langues sont présentes chez un individu, alors que la diglossie prévoit l'utilisation de deux langues dans une société. Nous pouvons alors retrouver quatre variantes de ce modèle allant de l'absence de diglossie et de bilinguisme à des situations de diglossie et de bilinguisme ( figure 15). ...
« Les principaux objectifs des programmes d’immersion réciproque sont d’aider les deux groupes d’élèves à atteindre des niveaux supérieurs de compétence académique et bilingue, de développer l’estime de soi et de promouvoir des attitudes interculturelles positives. » L’enseignement bilingue est considéré comme une approche efficace pour apprendre une langue étrangère. Mais il existe presque autant de manières de l’appliquer qu’il existe de projets dans le monde. L’immersion réciproque est un type de dispositif particulier puisqu’il prévoit un enseignement en deux langues pour des classes composées d’élèves de deux communautés linguistiques distingues. Il en résulte des modalités intéressantes, comme la possibilité d’apprendre par les pairs, et des enjeux didactiques spécifiques, notamment liés à la présence des deux langues dans et en dehors de la classe. Cet ouvrage tente d’éclairer non seulement la question de l’efficacité d’un tel dispositif pour le développement des ressources linguistiques et disciplinaires (en l’occurrence, en mathématiques) des élèves, mais aussi la question d’une didactique spécifique à l’enseignement bilingue, en particulier à l’immersion réciproque.
... Sociolinguistic studies around the world have documented a pattern known as diglossia, whereby several speech varieties used in a given society have unequal social status (Ferguson, 1959). And in colonized states the language introduced by the colonial power tends to occupy a dominant status that endures even after the formal end of colonial occupation (Fishman, 1967). As children grow up in such a society, they learn to differentiate among the speech varieties at play in their environment, and to deploy them in accordance with local social conventions . ...
an historical overview of the rationale, successes and failures of applying measurement to research on early childhood development in Africa.
... Sociolinguistic studies around the world have documented a pattern known as diglossia, whereby several speech varieties used in a given society have unequal social status (Ferguson, 1959). And in colonized states the language introduced by the colonial power tends to occupy a dominant status that endures even after the formal end of colonial occupation (Fishman, 1967). As children grow up in such a society, they learn to differentiate among the speech varieties at play in their environment, and to deploy them in accordance with local social conventions . ...
... De ce ne vos prant nule envie meis de tel chose qui vos plaise [Roman de Renart,Branche IV,Prolog,vv. 1ss., Mölk 1969: 77] 3. [Fishman 1967;Lloyd 1991] 177 Vgl. hierzu vor allem die verschiedenen Aufsätze in Wright 1991. ...
... Sociolinguistic studies around the world have documented a pattern known as diglossia, whereby several speech varieties used in a given society have unequal social status (Ferguson, 1959). And in colonized states the language introduced by the colonial power tends to occupy a dominant status that endures even after the formal end of colonial occupation (Fishman, 1967). As children grow up in such a society, they learn to differentiate among the speech varieties at play in their environment, and to deploy them in accordance with local social conventions . ...
Africa has the greatest concentration of young children globally. Yet, the world hears
too little about early childhood education, care and development from the continent.
Stories and perspectives of early education in Africa, and other parts of the world,
are rich, diverse and full of local knowledge and traditions. But that diversity is not
represented and recognized at the global level today.
Sankofa seeks to address long-standing concerns and inequities regarding the missing
voices, data and knowledge in this field from Africa. It aims to tell African stories and
experiences through their own, contextualized understandings of education for their
youngest citizens.
This publication brings together 34 experts and scholars, 85% of
whom are African citizens, to look at this field through African
lenses to better guide future policies. Early childhood care
and education has yet to write and tell its authentic full
story. Sankofa is one step in that direction. By broadening
and decolonizing the discourse on this crucial period of
every child’s life, it sets a way forward for Africa’s future
generations.
... La notion de conflit linguistique renvoie aux développements des linguistes catalans et occitans qui, dès les années 1970, vont s'opposer à la théorie nord-américaine de la diglossie élaborée par Ferguson (1959) et remaniée par Fishman (1967) et Faslod (1984. ...
Les contacts de langues impliquent naturellement des compétitions et des conflits. Si ces aspects sont documentés dans la littérature linguistique à travers les discours épilinguistiques, peu de travaux s'appuient sur la production intellectuelle produite dans le contexte étudiés. Le présent article est une tentative d'approcher la question du conflit linguistique qui ne cesse de diviser la société tunisienne et de provoquer sa névrose à partir d'une nouvelle publiée dans le contexte initial de la querelle sur le rôle des langues dans l'avenir de la Tunisie coloniale. Véritable document historique, le texte nous amène à nous interroger sur la place à réserver à ce type de « support » dans la pratique sociolinguistique. Abstract: Language contact often imply to competitions and conflicts. These aspects have been largely studied in the literature while studying epilinguistic discourse; however
... La notion de conflit linguistique renvoie aux développements des linguistes catalans et occitans qui, dès les années 1970, vont s'opposer à la théorie nord-américaine de la diglossie élaborée par Ferguson (1959) et remaniée par Fishman (1967) et Faslod (1984. ...
... -A différences des contextes d'acquisition -La standardisation et la codification de la variété Haute -Les divergences linguistiques de divers ordres Dans la version étendue par Fishman (1967) puis par Fasold (1984) la conception de la diglossie ne connaitra pas de grands changements et sera également appliqué à des langues sans rapport génétique. ...
Les descriptions de la situation linguistique tunisienne se heurtent souvent aux limites des concepts à travers lesquels nous la saisissons. Ces catégories d'analyse, s'avérant de plus en plus inopérantes, nous invitent sérieusement à réfléchir à une « solution » qui permette de mieux rendre de situation tunisienne, pour le cas qui nous intéresse. Cette étude se veut une contribution au débat récurrent sur les théories proposées, d'une part ; et, d'autre part, une occasion de proposer une piste de réflexion qui permette d'envisager la situation linguistique observée sous un angle différent, en partant du compte-rendu des différentes théories proposées pour décrire les contextes arabes ainsi que leurs limites. Mots-clés : Situation linguistique, Tunisie, Diglossie, conflit linguistique, continuum, variation stylistique. Abstract: Studies of the linguistic situation of modern Tunisia often have to deal with the limits of the concepts proposed in the literature. These categories which are problematic invite us
... Low codes are standardized in the traditional sense, such as advertising and dialect poetry (Schiffman, 1998). The concept of Diglossia, however, was revised and elaborated by many scholars to encompass both genetically and non-genetically related varieties, with each variety used in distinct social contexts, such Guarani and Spanish in Paraguay (Fishman, 1967). Sayahi (2017) also notes that this social distinction is blurred and it is easy to note situations wherein speakers mix between both Arabic and Dariǧa, such as electronic chats, media and social spheres. ...
The extensive Arabic-Berber contact gave rise to new social aggregations and ethnic networks of different types across various social hierarchies in Batna community, Algeria. Using a modified version of Milroy’s Social Network Model, called ‘the Syncretic Social Network Model’ (SSNM), this study set the task to examine the association between interethnic contact, ethnic network strength and patterns of dialect change among Chaoui speakers in Batna community. In essence, it seeks to: a) investigate the extent to which lexical change in Chaouia correlates, systematically, with speakers’ ethnic network density, b) examine how Arabic lexical borrowing in Chaouia operates, its mechanisms and sociocultural and ideological motives, and c) explore the embodiment of ethnic identity formation in the linguistic habits of friendship networks. Framed within sociolinguistics, and informed by social constructivist views, this ethnic network study integrates methods and concepts from variationist sociolinguistics, sociology and anthropology. It incorporated a variety of research tools, including social network questionnaires, participant-observations, note taking and ethnographic interviews. Thus, ethnic network questionnaires of 1003 Chaoui informants were examined in relation with their lexical choices. In addition, intensive ethnographic observations were conducted to explore two ethnically based friendship networks, which vary on several sociocultural grounds. A set of Network-based analyses and field-observations were carried out to gauge both networks’ ethnic cohesiveness, dynamics of lexical change and linguistic practices. The main result indicates that ethnic strength and cohesiveness co-vary, significantly, with dynamics of lexical change in Chaouia dialect. Respondents who contract strong Chaoui ties are more likely to adopt Chaoui words, whilst respondents who contract weak ties are less immune to Arabic influence and, hence, are more prone to use Arabic loanwords. The ethnographic study of Chaoui youngsters in Batna ville elucidated that ethnically dense friendship networks support dialect stability and maintenance, whereas weak and multiethnic friendship networks promote lexical change. In urban interethnic settings, migrant Chaoui youngsters use various Chaouia linguistic practices, stylistically, as a socioindexical function of membership, Ethnic loyalty, bi-ethnic identity, and urbanity. Sedentary, urban youngsters, in contrast, cross into salient Chaouia dialect norms to mark distance from their Chaoui counterparts. The results, also, demonstrated the major role of weak ethnic ties, Brokers and geographically mobile speakers in the dissemination of Arabic loanwords into different social groups and rural landscapes. The extended Syncretic Social Network Model was discussed at the end of the thesis, along with its practical considerations and guidelines.
Keywords: Arabic, Chaouia, Ethnic network, Ethnic ties, Lexical borrowing, lexical change, Identity construction, Milroy’s Social Network Model
... A defining feature of small-scale multilingualism is that language ideologies that rank the status of languages in a hierarchy are absent. The practice of ordering languages in a hierarchy is referred to as diglossia or polyglossia and is often assumed to be an integral part of stable societal multilingualism (Ferguson 1964;Fishman 1967). Some languages are accorded higher status in society (such as national languages), while others are accorded lower status (such as more localised languages, often Indigenous languages). ...
... Domains in which the language is used are particular official settings where one language, or variety of languages, is likely considered suitable compared to others. Fishman (1966Fishman ( , 1967Fishman ( and 1972) conducted a major study on the domains of language use. The concern of the study was predominantly with the question: what language is spoken, when, by who and to whom? ...
This article aims at investigating how isiZulu speakers residing in Soshanguve report on the use of their ethnic language, isiZulu, and to use the outcomes to confirm how their language continues to be powerfully maintained in Soshanguve. Today in South Africa, there are numerous studies that have investigated the role of English as a dominant language. Other studies have investigated the awareness that there is an extensive shift from using native languages to English. The argument in this article is that in other communities, this shift is counterbalanced by a number of factors. The study adopted a mixed-methods approach, and the data were solicited through questionnaires and semistructured interviews. The sample population in this study comprised 20 participants who were sampled purposively. A purposive sampling technique was used because it suggests that the sampled population should have certain characteristics, and it should be people who will provide information that will assist in achieving the objectives of this study. Language ecology theory and the ethnolinguistic vitality model were incorporated as lenses of analysis. Participants were confident that living in a neighbourhood with a majority of amaZulu provides social unity among them and contributes positively towards using and maintaining their language. The findings confirm that the use of the language in different domains, is the reason why isiZulu continues to be powerfully maintained in Soshanguve as a viable language despite living side by side with other dominant languages for centuries.Contribution: This study contributes to research on language maintenance and shift by exploring the application of Haugen’s theory of language ecology as well as Giles’s model of ethnolinguistic vitality. It demonstrates how IsiZulu can be studied with the aid of these theories and how observing this language in its context could be regarded as an extension of this theoretical framework. It shows that the speakers of indigenous languages in Soshanguve, such as isiZulu, maintain language attitudes and exercise linguistic choices, similar to speakers of dominant languages. This article also demonstrates how language attitudes can play a decisive role in maintenance and shift outcomes.
... aRtigo | linguística, línguas indígenas e temas de análise sob uma ótica foRmal | linguistics, indigenous languages, and analysis fRom a foRmal peRspective Hamel (1988) e Albuquerque (1999Albuquerque ( , 2016. Como embasamento teórico, no que diz respeito ao Bilinguismo, destacamos Fishman (1967) e Grosjean (1982). E para o levantamento e descrição de dados, os estudos de Fishman (1967de Fishman ( , 1980, Muñoz (1991), Braggio (1992, Abreu e Albuquerque (2018, 2020 e Albuquerque (1999Albuquerque ( , 2008Albuquerque ( , 2015 serviram de subsídios. ...
Os Krahô habitam entre os rios Manoel Alves Grande e Manoel Alves Pequeno, afluentes da margem direita do Rio Tocantins. A Terra Indígena Kraholândia foi homologada pelo Decreto-Lei nº 99.062, de 07 de março de 1990 e fica localizada entre os municípios de Goiatins e Itacajá, no noroeste do Estado do Tocantins. O objetivo consistiu em descrever a situação sociolinguística dos Krahô da aldeia Pedra Branca, observando a facilidade linguística em Língua Krahô e em Língua Portuguesa. Para isso, realizamos um levantamento sociolinguístico que descreveu aspectos da situação sociolinguística dos Krahô de Pedra Branca, observando a atitude e o conhecimento dos Krahô com relação às duas línguas, Krahô e Português. A pesquisa é do tipo etnográfica, utilizando-se do método fenomenológico e da abordagem metodológica quali-quantitativa. O estudo foi realizado com base na pesquisa de campo, que teve como instrumentos a observação participante, o diário de campo e a aplicação de questionário, este último elaborado com base em pesquisas de Fishman (1967, 1980), extraído de Braggio (1992) e de Muñoz (1991), e adaptado por Albuquerque (1999). Os resultados apontam que a sociedade Krahô, mesmo diante da situação de conflito linguístico e intercultural em que se encontra, tenta resistir às influências culturais e linguísticas, mantendo sua língua, suas atividades culturais e seus saberes tradicionais.
... Overall, the language situation in Manila and other Tagalog-speaking regions appeared to roughly correspond to diglossia (Fishman, 1967), where the High language (in this case Spanish) operated as the written/formal-spoken code and the Low language (Tagalog) as the vernacular, with no interaction between the two. The cases of Spanish-Quechua and Spanish-Otomí contact also indicate that in a diglossic situation where speakers of the Low language are sociopolitically subdominant to speakers of the High language, the latter typically becomes a source of active borrowing into the former (Bakker and Hekking, 2012;Gómez Rendón, 2008). ...
This research study examines the types and functions of code-switching observed in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classes among Thai students enrolled in an Intensive English Program Primary school. Through the use of video-recording and semi-structured interviews, a purposively selected group of seven fifth-grade students were analyzed. The findings reveal four types of code-switching: extra-sentential switching, tag switching, inter-sentential switching, and intra-sentential switching, Furthermore, six functions of code switching emerged: referential, expressive, directive, phatic, metalinguistic, and poetic (The latter not being present in this particular study). The study concludes that code-switching plays a pivotal role in fostering diverse and meaningful interactions within the classroom, serving various essential purposes.
There is an emerging perspective in the discipline of linguistics that takes expressivity as one of the key components of human communication and grammatical structure. Expressivity refers to the use of grammar in natural languages to convey sensory information in a creative way, for example through reduplication, iconicity, ideophones and onomatopoeia. Expressives are more commonly associated with non-European languages, so their presence in European languages has so far been under-documented. With contributions from a team of leading scholars, this pioneering book redresses that balance by providing copious, detailed information about the expressive systems of a set of European languages. It comprises a collection of original surveys of expressivity in languages as diverse as Hungarian, Finnish, Turkish, Scots, German, Greek, Italian, Catalan, Breton and Basque, all with the common goal of challenging structuralist assumptions about the role of syntax, and showing how expressivity is both typologically diverse and universal.
This chapter describes literacy in Morocco’s multilingual environment. Schooling is in standard Arabic, but Moroccans are native speakers of various forms of spoken Arabic and of Amazigh (a language better known outside Morocco as Berber). French and Spanish are also present in the Moroccan school system as languages of instruction; they came to the country with the French and Spanish Protectorates (starting in the early twentieth century and ending with Independence in 1956). Arabicization of education and of public life, a major policy of the 1980s, included all primary and secondary education and was completed in 1989. Since then, the presence of these two European languages in Morocco has significantly decreased, though they are still present, especially French, in STEM higher education and in business and economics. English as a language of wider communication and of science and technology is slowly becoming more prominent, particularly in the school system. The result of these historical and educational policy developments is a societal multilingualism that seems to be impacting education negatively. The question of language choice has dominated Moroccan politics and national strategy ever since Independence. As recently as 2011, a revision of the constitution included the Amazigh language as a co-official language of the state with Arabic. What seems to have been missing in these changes is how to manage the impact of the changing language of education. The Moroccan school system has been ranked toward the bottom in international tests of educational achievement. This chapter details the issues and argues that there is a direct relationship between the language of literacy and the quality of education.KeywordsMoroccoArabicAmazighLiteracyMultilingualismEducation quality
In many language classrooms in multilingual nations, standard dialects are associated with and promoted in formal domains. Through classroom pedagogical processes that reify standard language use, other dialects are relegated to informal domains and therefore devalued in classroom settings. Informed by critical pedagogy, this article challenges the reification of standard dialects and examines their relationship with learners’ language use through an analysis of a Yorùbá‐language classroom in southwestern Nigeria. Findings from ethnographic data—classroom observations, instructor interviews, educational language policy, and curricular documents—show that learners’ social, linguistic, and cultural experiences interacted with and sometimes contradicted classroom expectations. I argue that the expectation of standard dialect use stifles fluid interaction in the classroom but, paradoxically, triggers learners’ linguistic creativity. To bridge the gap between classroom expectations and learners’ experiences, I call for an alternative pedagogy that privileges language users’ multilingual realities for optimizing standard language use in the classroom context. The article also contributes to ongoing conversations in applied linguistics about standard dialect use and the lack of affirmation of learners’ linguistic creativity in educational contexts.
Tajikistan, at the heart of Central Eurasia, had a population of 7,563,687 in 2010, estimated recently to be almost 10,084,935. Named for its majority nationality, Tajikistan has many other nationalities, most with their own language. This article explores what is known about the historical, development and current status of multiple languages in Tajikistan’s linguistic tapestry. We provide a tentative overview of Tajikistan’s evolving language ecology from earliest times when a range of Eastern Iranian languages were dominant, to the reduced use of Eastern Iranian languages following the entry of Arabic and New Persian (a western Iranian language) into the ecology with the Arab conquest, and the subsequent entry of Turkic languages, and more recently the entry of Russian under the late Russian empire and its spread under the Soviet Union. Following independence in 1991, a shift in balance among domains of use of Tajik and Russian has been ongoing at the same time as international languages, especially English, have entered Tajikistan’s language ecology. We review the current state of knowledge about contemporary sociolinguistic dynamics, monolingualism and plurilingualism in society, where the titular language, Tajik/Persian, is in interaction with local, regional and global languages. Against the background of changing post-independence language and language-in-education policies, we discuss the prospects for monolingual, multilingual and plurilingual education in Tajikistan among efforts to promote the official language, Tajik, and to provide minority language education, while also developing proficiency in foreign languages in Tajikistan, through initiatives such as English-medium instruction.
This paper shows the results obtained by the implementation of a methodology used in the ethnography of speech within the Arabic speaking community of Maicao in la Guajira, Colombia. It proves that this community represents a case of emerging Arabic diglossia given by the complementary functional distribution of two varieties of the same language in specific contexts of communicative usage. This situation of Arabic diglossia in Colombia highlights the relation between the codes and the longstanding texts, the events and the structure of social practice that make the approximately two thousand members of the Arabic speaking community
perceive their social and communicative interactions as belonging to an Arabized context and reproduce with vitality the Arabic language and culture within the national context.
Keywords: migration, bilingualism, diglossia, classic Arabic, Lebanese Arabic.
This study aims to specify the definitions of two terms, bigraphia and digraphia, and examine how these phenomena appear in post-socialist countries. It is currently a global phenomenon to use two or more writing systems in one country, due to the spread of English and the Internet. Bigraphia means when the function and prestige of two writing systems (or two varieties of one system) are equal. On the other hand, when there is a difference in the function and/or prestige between two writing systems, it is defined as digraphia. The paper examines the combination of writing systems in post-socialist countries such as Russia, Belarus, Serbia, and Uzbekistan. In-digraphia refers to a situation in which variations of one writing system coexist, and out-digraphia refers to a situation in which two different writing systems coexist. A narrower sense of digraphia is observed in Belarus today: Belarusian Cyrillic-Т(BC-T) is used to write Tarashkievitsa and Belarusian Cyrillic-N (BC-N) is used to write Narkamaŭka. Out-digraphia is observed in Serbia and Uzbekistan. In these countries, Cyrillic and Latin scripts are used to write Serbian and Uzbek. Out-digraphia is also confirmed in Russian texts: It is commonly thought that only Cyrillic letters are used to write Russian, but recently the use of the so-called “macaronic alphabet,” which is a mix of Cyrillic and Latin letters, has become common.
Hervé Lieutard é professor titular de linguística occitana na Universidade Paul-Valéry – Montpellier 3 desde 2001. Sua pesquisa concentra-se na análise da variação dialetal do occitano a partir de uma perspectiva fonológica, mas também sobre o lugar social do occitano ao longo de sua história, desde a época medieval até os dias de hoje, estudada através da vasta documentação escrita disponível neste idioma. Nesta entrevista, ele faz um breve panorama das dificuldades da pesquisa em occitano ligadas ao declínio social do occitano, mas também mostra como os processos de revitalização contribuíram para mudar a imagem da língua e para desenvolver novamente sua transmissão e socialização. Hervé Lieutard est professeur titulaire de linguistique occitane à l’Université Paul Valéry – Montpellier 3 depuis 2001. Ses recherches portent sur l’analyse de la variation dialectale en occitan dans une perspective phonologique mais également sur la place sociale de l’occitan à travers toute son histoire, de l’époque médiévale à l’époque contemporaine, étudiée à travers la vaste documentation écrite disponible dans cette langue. Dans cette interview, il fait un bref panorama des difficultés de la recherche en occitan en lien avec le déclin social de l’occitan, mais montre également comment les processus de revitalisation ont contribué à changer l’image de cette langue et à développer à nouveau sa transmission et sa socialisation.
This study investigates the meaning-form interface in the Balkan Sprachbund (BS), by researching five different languages: Italian, Russian, Bulgarian , Romanian, and Greek. I consider two models that account for recurring properties of the relevant languages in the Sprachbund : convergence and diglossia. If convergence is the cause behind shared features typical of the BS, that predicts that Bulgarian and Romanian would be more transparent than Russian and Italian. Under the diglossic analysis, Koine Greek is assumed to be the source of shared features, which predicts that the BS languages, Romanian, Bulgarian and Greek, would be similar. To compare the two models, I investigate twenty-four opacity features, divided into five categories: Redundancy (one-to-many), Fusion (many-to-one), Discontinuity (one meaning split in two or more forms), Form-based Form (forms with no semantic counterpart: zero-to-one), and a group of typical BS features. The results are consistent with the diglossia model: Romanian, Bulgarian and Greek manifest similar features, which points in the direction of diglossia as the underlying cause of language similarity.
Chile is the only Latin American country that has territory in Oceania, Easter Island or Rapa Nui Annexed by the country in 1888 and with a history of troubled relations between the native population and the Chilean administration the island is a meeting point between two very different cultures with the growing imposition of one upon the other in relatively recent times.
Notre article vise à déterminer les conditions nécessaires pour qu’une loi et des politiques linguistiques puissent avoir un effet réel sur la vitalité d’une minorité. L’article comprend trois parties. Premièrement, nous concluons que la Loi sur les langues officielles (LLO) a eu peu d’effet sur la vitalité des minorités de langue officielle. En deuxième partie, nous distinguons trois acteurs essentiels qui agissent sur la vitalité linguistique : la communauté d’intimité, la société civile de la minorité et l’État. De ces analyses, nous dégageons deux principes sociolinguistiques que toute législation linguistique devrait respecter si son objet est de favoriser la vitalité/revitalisation d’une minorité. Enfin, nous focalisons sur la partie VII de la LLO, la plus susceptible de favoriser la mise en oeuvre d’un aménagement linguistique planifié et global capable de respecter les deux principes sociolinguistiques, de coordonner une synergie d’action des acteurs essentiels et d’avoir un effet réel sur la vitalité des minorités.
Drawing on ethnographic fieldwork carried out in Galicia between 2012 and 2016, in this chapter I look at why and to what effect new speakers often invest in delineated minority languages rather than in poly- or translingualism, and can be seen to adopt monolingual ideologies despite their multilingual repertoire. I firstly discuss the new speaker concept itself and situate it within some of the broader debates concerning multilingualism in the twenty-first century. I also look more specifically at how the concept has been used in the context of language revitalisation and the paradigmatic shift which has taken place within the field. This, I argue, while prompting a rethinking of existing models of language revitalisation, also needs critical reflection so as to understand why multilingual practices are not always desirable, and in some instances are even seen as dangerous, within certain socio-political contexts. The chapter looks inside spaces of new speaker interaction and examines how Galician new speakers construct safe discursive havens, recreating themselves as viable speakers and in the process, constructing new, future-oriented, though not entirely unproblematic, subjectivities.
This paper focuses on the two main concepts related to Language Policy & Language Planning, namely, Official Language (OL) and National Language (NL). As such concepts apply to bilingual, multilingual and diglossic situations, we will first define these concepts, de facto and de jure, then give an overview of these concepts around the world and finally describe their applications in the Moroccan situation.
When applied to language, The polysemic notion of threshold (seuil) refers to a transitional space where any linguistic stage is linked to preceding and following statements, to the before and the after. Unlike structural linguistics which studies language in a diachronic way, spoken languages do not show distinct linguistic stages and cannot thereby be studied in the perspective of an extended diachrony. They are only studied in a synchronic method especially when it becomes to study the speech of people before the invention of new technologies of recording. While linked with the precedent stage, a spoken language seems to be a variation resulting from it which announces the very future phase. In this way, they show continuously aspects of language change, which can be studied in the perspective of the Labovian "apparent time". In the Tunisian context, the changes observed are, in part, "contact-induced" and seem to be reflected by the generalized practice of code-switching. But, this practice, while motivated by communicative pressures, is intimately linked with the history of language contacts and with the ideologies (attitudes and representations) supporting their conflicting relations. In Tunisia, the language conflict results in paradoxical identities which muzzles speakers, and which does not enable us to indicate the orientation that language change will choose.
This dissertation is a study of the cross-linguistic influences of the Arabic language (L1) in the learning of the English (FL) tense and aspect system by the undergraduate students of Sana‟ a University in Yemen. Through an analysis of the use of English tenses and aspects, this study endeavors to examine the learning and comprehension of English tenses and aspects by Yemeni students in the different levels of Undergraduate Program of English Department in Sana‟a University. This study also shows the English tense and aspect categories that the Yemeni students find difficult to learn and hence commit errors in these categories. Arabic and English differ in the expression of temporality. In this study, we made an attempt to show whether these errors committed by Yemeni learners in the use of English tenses and aspects were the result of influences from Arabic (L1).
This chapter offers a sociolinguistic overview of the diglossic situation in Switzerland. Since diglossia plays a role in shaping language attitudes and policies, it is a key element in understanding the mechanisms of language contact and change. The chapter which is a theoretical one, aims to explicate the features of the Swiss context by addressing the unique aspects of diglossia that fall within the scope of sociolinguistics as they relate to the functional allocation of two language varieties within one society. Charles Ferguson mentioned diglossia in Switzerland in his seminal article to illustrate his original formulation of the phenomenon. Ferguson’s article attracted justified attention but also provoked some criticism, particularly as regards the degree of matching of the theoretical criteria with his Swiss example of the diglossic context. The analysis of the diglossia focuses on German-speaking Switzerland, particularly by pinpointing the circumstances of language acquisition and the differences between standard language usage and dialect. As part of the diglossic communication, there is also the matter of literacy, which involves the relationship of reading and writing to spoken language. Literacy activities are always peculiar to a specific community. In German-speaking Switzerland the choice between written and spoken language goes beyond the basic choice of the medium and generates clear implications for the language’s function, prestige and acquisition, which are realized in a variety of domains. It is concluded that the language situation in German-speaking Switzerland presents a sociolinguistic challenge and defies clear-cut classifications.KeywordsDiglossiaBilingualismDialectSwitzerlandSecond language literacy
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A paper prepared for the “Conference on the Teaching of the Bilingual Child,” University of Texas, Austin, Texas, June 8–10, 1964. Dr. Fishman was a Fellow, 1963-64, Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences, Stanford, California.
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the spread of features within a speech area. Furthermore, historically oriented structural linguists confine their research to historical linguistics or internal language history, the formal reconstruction of hypothetical parent varieties from a series of distinct languages or dialects, in contrast to external language history, the study of linguistic change in relation to the social currents which affect it. The great body of 19th and 20th century research on speech variation within single speech communities has as yet evoked little interest among either structural linguists or social scientists in the United States. Yet, much of this work is of central relevance for the studies of complex civilizations or "intermediate societies" as they have recently been termed (Casagrande 1959), which are becoming more and more common in modern anthropology. In contrast to many modern American linguists who, because of their concern with methodology, have often found it difficult to communicate with other students of culture, dialectologists-and especially those trained in the European tradition-tend to think of themselves primarily as cultural geographers, folklorists, or social historians. They regard linguistic analysis not as an end in itself but rather pursue it for the information it provides about the history and culture of a region. Thus, of the earlier work, the investigations of the German scholars Fischer, Haag, and Wrede have produced convincing evidence for the relationship between present-day dialect isoglosses and certain
Thesis, Columbia university. Typewritten manuscript. Bibliography: l. 501-536.
The users and uses of language The Linguistic Sciences and Language Teacl: ing. London: Longmans-Green
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Inveynikste tsveyshprakikeyt in a skenaz biz der haskale
- Max Weinreich
WEINREICH, MAX. Inveynikste tsveyshprakikeyt in a skenaz biz der haskale;
Language Loyalty in the United States. The Hague: Mouton Varieties of ethnicity and language consciousness
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Linguistic and social interaction in two communities Hindi-Punjabi code-switching in Delhi On the ethnology of linguistic change
- John Gumperz
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Folklore and Linguistics. Publication 36
- Joshua Fishman
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FISHMAN, JOSHUA A. Yiddish in America. Bloomington, Ind. : Indiana University Research Center in Anthropology, Folklore and Linguistics. Publication 36, 1965c. (Also: International Journal of American Linguistics, 1965a, 31. Part 11, (Z).) FISHMAN, JOSHUA A. Bilingualism, intelligence and language learning. Modern Language Journal, 1965b, 49,227-237.
Types of multilingual communities, a discussion of ten variables. Sociological Inquiry, 1966, 36. NADER, LAURA. A note on attitudes and the use of language
- Heinz Kloss
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Communal dialects of Baghdad Some social determinants of verbal behavior. Unpublished paper presented at the annual meeting of The
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Unpublished paper presented at SSRC Conference on Language Problems of Develoing Nations, 1966 (to be included in National Bilingualism in Paraguay. The Hague: Mouton
- Joan Rubin
Some social determinants of verbal behavior
- Jan-Peter Blom
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Language maintenance and language shift; The American immigrant case within a general theoretical perspective
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Varieties of ethnicity and language consciousness
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Billingual sequences at the societal level
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Inveynikste tsveyshprakikeyt in a skenaz biz der haskale; faktn un bagrifn. [Intragroup bilingualism in Ashkenaz until the enlightenment; facts and concepts]
- Weinreich
Multilingual dialectology and the new Yiddish atlas
- Weinreich