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Effects of Pet Ownership on the Health and Well‐being of Older People
Abstract
Objective: To examine the view that having a pet is good for the health and well-being of older people, particularly those who are socially isolated.
Method: Benefits and disadvantages of owning a pet were explored in two studies. Data from the Health Status of Older People project were used to compare the health, health behaviours and well-being of those who owned and did not own pets. In addition, twenty older people were interviewed in-depth about pet ownership and its impact on their lives.
Results: Few health or well-being outcomes were predicted by pet ownership. Having a pet did not compensate for social isolation. The qualitative data largely substantiate and provide possible explanations for the survey findings.
Conclusion: Pets may have some limited value in promoting health and well-being in older people.
... regardless of pet type) on mental health have found mixed positive, negative and neutral findings. [22][23][24][25][26][27][28] However, most of these studies have been cross-sectional in design, [22][23][24][25][26][27] and two studies found that pet owners reported higher levels of depression than those without pets. 22,23 Others studies have shown that there is a positive association 27 or no association 24,25 between pet ownership and psychological well-being. ...
... regardless of pet type) on mental health have found mixed positive, negative and neutral findings. [22][23][24][25][26][27][28] However, most of these studies have been cross-sectional in design, [22][23][24][25][26][27] and two studies found that pet owners reported higher levels of depression than those without pets. 22,23 Others studies have shown that there is a positive association 27 or no association 24,25 between pet ownership and psychological well-being. ...
... [22][23][24][25][26][27][28] However, most of these studies have been cross-sectional in design, [22][23][24][25][26][27] and two studies found that pet owners reported higher levels of depression than those without pets. 22,23 Others studies have shown that there is a positive association 27 or no association 24,25 between pet ownership and psychological well-being. These inconsistencies in findings and lack of longitudinal investigation suggest that further research is necessary to understand the influence of pets on the long-term well-being of pet owners. ...
Background:
Emerging evidence supports the physical health and social benefits of dog ownership. This study examined the longitudinal effect of dog ownership and dog walking on mental health.
Methods:
Data from a cohort of 1023 participants taking part in the RESIDential Environments project, in Perth, Western Australia were collected over a 2 year period (baseline and follow-up). Self-report survey items measured mental health (stress and depression), dog ownership status and weekly minutes of dog walking. Logistic regression models accounted for potential confounding factors including socio-demographic, self-rated health and baseline mental health.
Results:
Overall, no statistically significant effects were observed over time between dog ownership and stress (adjusted OR: 1.20; 95% CI: 0.79, 1.81) or depression (adjusted OR: 1.51; 95% CI: 0.72, 3.16). There was a small inverse but non-significant association between weekly minutes of dog walking and stress over time (adjusted OR: 0.85; 95% CI: 0.60, 1.22).
Conclusion:
There was little evidence of prospective associations between dog ownership or dog walking and mental health. Further research is required to confirm longitudinal relationships between dog ownership and dog walking and mental health and investigate dog-related factors, such as a person's attachment to their dog.
... The citation reference check produced an additional twelve articles. This resulted in a final list of 70 final articles and 11 literature reviews, published between 2000and 2018(cut off: 25 June, 2018. ...
... Of the 70 studies, we identified 14 studies that either made use of generalized quality of life measures or focused on variables (e.g., activities of daily living, self-care) that influence quality of life. Regarding specific variables, six studies ( Bono et al., 2015;Coleman et al., 2002;Curl, Bibbo, & Johnson, 2017;Friedmann et al., 2014;Kanamori et al., 2001;Wells & Rodi, 2000) investigated the effect of AAI methodologies on daily functionality (activities of daily living). Two studies identified an improvement in regard to activities of daily living (ADL), for instance, Bono et al. (2015) found that AAI with a dog resulted in significant improvements on the Barthel Index scores. ...
... The consistency of this effect suggests that dog ownership provided an avenue to participate in necessary exercise in a more enjoyable way. Despite dogs consistently being able to encourage physical exercise, cats were found to have an opposite effect; cat-owners exercised less and engaged in a more sedentary lifestyle than both dog owners and nonowners ( Rijken & Beek, 2011;Thorpe et al., 2006a;Wells & Rodi, 2000). ...
Objectives. The aim of this systematic literature review (SLR) was to investigate the effect of companion animals (whether simply as pets or used in more formal intervention approaches) on the physical and mental health of older adults (aged 60+).
Methods. The reviewers identified key search terms and conducted a systematic search of the PsycINFO and PubMed databases. The 70 articles reviewed were evaluated through tabular and thematic analysis.
Results. In 52 of the studies examined, companion animals positively contributed to the mental and/or physical health of older adults. With respect to mental health, involvement with a companion animal improved participant quality of life and effectively attenuated symptoms of depression, anxiety, cognitive impairment, and the behavioral and psychiatric symptoms of dementia (BPSD). In relation to physical health, marked increases in physical activity and improvements in blood pressure and heart rate variability were the only consistent physical health improvements observed from companion animal interactions.
Conclusions. Animal companionship can benefit the mental and physical health of older adults, although more and better controlled research on this topic is required.
Clinical Implications. Use of companion animals has the potential to be an effective treatment or adjunct therapy to improve the health status and quality of life of older individuals.
... Positive psychological outcomes such as increased feelings of wellbeing, selfefficacy, happiness, cheerfulness and relaxation were reported in almost half the studies reviewed (N = 27; 43.5%), as well as a decrease in depressive symptoms, anxiety and stress levels (Enders-Slegers, 2000;Hecht et al., 2001;Suthers-McCabe, 2001;Becker and Morton, 2002;Likourezos et al., 2002;VanZile, 2004;Mallia, 2006;Motooka et al., 2006;Tatschl et al., 2006;Chur-Hansen et al., 2008;de Guzman et al., 2009;Hargrave, 2011;Culbertson, 2013;Gretebeck et al., 2013;Himsworth and Rock, 2013;Putney, 2013Putney, , 2014Johansson et al., 2014;McNicholas, 2014;Bennett et al., 2015;Mayo Clinic, 2015;Zane, 2015;Branson et al., 2016;Yang et al., 2017). Pets could also decrease the stress associated with grief following the loss of a loved one (Wells and Rodi, 2000;Suthers-McCabe, 2001;Dice, 2002;Hara, 2007;Culbertson, 2013;Putney, 2013;McNicholas, 2014;Anderson et al., 2015). Almost half of the studies (N = 30; 48.4%) also reported benefits relating to the social dimension, such as pets being a source of unconditional love and reducing the feelings of loneliness and isolation by providing companionship and/or fulfilling the need to feel needed (Wells and Rodi, 2000;VanZile, 2004;Hara, 2007;Scheibeck et al., 2011;Shibata et al., 2012;Johansson et al., 2014;McNicholas, 2014;Stanley et al., 2014;Bennett et al., 2015). ...
... Pets could also decrease the stress associated with grief following the loss of a loved one (Wells and Rodi, 2000;Suthers-McCabe, 2001;Dice, 2002;Hara, 2007;Culbertson, 2013;Putney, 2013;McNicholas, 2014;Anderson et al., 2015). Almost half of the studies (N = 30; 48.4%) also reported benefits relating to the social dimension, such as pets being a source of unconditional love and reducing the feelings of loneliness and isolation by providing companionship and/or fulfilling the need to feel needed (Wells and Rodi, 2000;VanZile, 2004;Hara, 2007;Scheibeck et al., 2011;Shibata et al., 2012;Johansson et al., 2014;McNicholas, 2014;Stanley et al., 2014;Bennett et al., 2015). According to Stanley et al. (2014), this was especially true for community-dwelling older adults who lived alone. ...
... Three main outcomes associated with the physical dimension were reported when comparing senior pet owners with senior non-pet owners. First, almost half (N = 26; 41.9%) of the studies reported an increase in physical activity or walking (Wells and Rodi, 2000;Likourezos et al., 2002;Thorpe et al., 2006;Hara, 2007;Rijken and van Beek, 2011;Scheibeck et al., 2011;Shibata et al., 2012;Gretebeck et al., 2013;Johansson et al., 2014). Second, physical health outcomes such as improved cardiovascular health, better functional capacity one year after a myocardial infarction and lower Body Mass Index and blood pressure (Likourezos et al., 2002;VanZile, 2004;Ruzic et al., 2011) were identified. ...
Although community services support ageing-in-place, older adults often report feelings of loneliness and social isolation. Unmet emotional needs are associated with poorer health, reduced functional abilities and increased mortality in this population. Pet ownership is an avenue worth exploring to reduce these adverse outcomes. This scoping review maps main findings and identifies key gaps with respect to the pros and cons of pet ownership in community-dwelling older adults pertaining to psycho-social, physical and functional outcomes. Scientific and grey literature published from January 2000 to July 2018 was searched. Data selection and extraction were performed by the first author and a sub-sample was co-validated by two co-authors. A total of 62 sources were included for descriptive and thematic analysis. A variety of pros (increased physical activity, wellbeing) and cons (grief, risk of falls) pertaining to psycho-social and physical outcomes were identified. Not many functional outcomes (support for daily routines) were mentioned, and few studies explored the simultaneous balance between the pros and cons of pet care. Further research exploring both clinicians’ and older pet owners’ perspectives is needed to deepen our understanding of the importance of considering companion animals in older adults’ daily lives and to strike a balance between perceived risks and benefits.
... And, while rarely considered, pet loss may trigger severe grief for some pet owners, to the extent that their lives lose meaning (Adams, Bonnett, & Meek, 2000;Morley & Fook, 2005). Older adults with pets have also been reported to experience more boredom and to have poorer mental health than their nonpet-owning counterparts (Enmarker, Hellzén, Ekker, & Berg, 2015;Parslow, Jorm, Christensen, Rodgers, & Jacomb, 2005;Wells & Rodi, 2000). Taken together, these studies point to the complex ways that relationships between pets and older adults may manifest in both improved and diminished health outcomes. ...
... The definition of social participation remains broad, subsuming various forms of engagement in social, recreational, and formal group activities that may include, but are not limited to, cultural, educational, spiritual, and volunteer activities and events (World Health Organization, 2007). Conceptually, social participation is also relevant to understanding roles that pets play within the context of aging-in-place, given underlying concerns that pets may disrupt relationships with other people (Beck & Katcher, 2003;Chur-Hansen, Winefield, & Beckwith, 2009;Wells & Rodi, 2000). These concerns, however, also contradict growing evidence that positions pets as contributing to social engagement and to a positive sense of community for older adults (Gardner, 2014;Mahalski et al., 1988;Rogers, Hart, & Boltz, 1993;Toohey et al., 2013;Wood, Giles-Corti, Bulsara, & Bosch, 2007). ...
... We also observed that pet owners who experienced structural barriers related to cost, accessibility, and a shortage of nearby opportunities had significantly lower life satisfaction, which was not the case for nonowners. Further investigation is needed to understand why pet owners disproportionately experience these barriers, yet it is possible that these findings may reflect situations where pet-related responsibilities are prioritized over social opportunities (see, e.g., Wells & Rodi, 2000), especially for participants who have no one in their lives available to provide short-term relief from pet care. This suggestion underscores the need to ensure that ample opportunities for social participation are available in all communities, do not hinge on existing social networks, and are subsidized so as to be affordable. ...
RÉSUMÉ
Des données de référence nationales et représentatives de l’Étude longitudinale canadienne sur le vieillissement (ÉLCV) ont été utilisées pour évaluer si la possession d’un animal de compagnie était associée à la participation sociale et à la satisfaction de vivre des personnes âgées (≥65 ans, n= 7,474). Des statistiques descriptives ont permis de distinguer les modalités de la possession d’animaux dans la population canadienne plus âgée, et des modèles de régression logistique ont été utilisés pour estimer les associations entre la participation sociale et la satisfaction de vivre de personnes âgées possédant ou non des animaux. Un tiers des personnes âgées de l’échantillon ont rapporté posséder des animaux. En moyenne, les personnes possédant des animaux avaient une satisfaction de vivre inférieure (OR=0,73, p<0,001) et participaient à moins d’activités sociales, récréatives et culturelles sur une base régulière (OR=0,73, p<0,001) que les personnes sans animaux; cependant, les personnes avec animaux n’étaient pas moins satisfaites de leur niveau actuel de participation sociale que celles sans animaux. Pour les propriétaires d’animaux dont la participation sociale était compromise, les animaux semblaient constituer un facteur de protection dans certaines circonstances. Des caractéristiques individuelles et des facteurs structurels liés au cadre conceptuel des Collectivités amies des aînés de l’Organisation mondiale de la Santé ont permis de mieux comprendre ces résultats.
... Depending on the circumstances, such consequences can be softened by the support of a pet. Studies with older adults have found that pets can reduce anxiety, depression, and loneliness as well as enhance social support and general wellbeing (Wells and Rodi 2000;Johnson and Meadows 2002;Nagasawa and Ohta 2010;Watt and Pachana 2007;Hara 2007;de Guzman et al. 2009;Chur-Hansen et al. 2009;Connell et al. 2007). However, despite the benefits of pet ownership, the experience of caring for an animal may lead to challenges, including physical, emotional, and financial hardship (Wells and Rodi 2000;Parslow et al. 2005;Chur-Hansen et al. 2009). ...
... Studies with older adults have found that pets can reduce anxiety, depression, and loneliness as well as enhance social support and general wellbeing (Wells and Rodi 2000;Johnson and Meadows 2002;Nagasawa and Ohta 2010;Watt and Pachana 2007;Hara 2007;de Guzman et al. 2009;Chur-Hansen et al. 2009;Connell et al. 2007). However, despite the benefits of pet ownership, the experience of caring for an animal may lead to challenges, including physical, emotional, and financial hardship (Wells and Rodi 2000;Parslow et al. 2005;Chur-Hansen et al. 2009). As such, it is imperative that gerontologists and other professionals understand the human-animal bond (HAB) which could help older adults offset potential negative consequences and maximize the benefits of pet ownership. ...
... Four studies found that pet ownership had no significant relationship with degree of loneliness (Eshbaugh et al. 2011;Rijken and van Beek 2011), depression (Simmons et al. 2000), social support (Simmons et al. 2000;Winefield et al. 2008;Rijken and van Beek 2011), and life satisfaction (Simmons et al. 2000). Two studies found that pet ownership was significantly related to an increase in boredom, loneliness, and depression scores (Wells and Rodi 2000;Parslow et al. 2005). In contrast, four studies found a significant positive relationship between pet ownership and psychosocial wellbeing for older adults based on reported sense of life purpose (Wells and Rodi 2000;Johnson and Meadows 2002;Nagasawa and Ohta 2010), social support (Johnson and Meadows 2002;Nagasawa and Ohta 2010), and emotional attachment (Watt and Pachana 2007). ...
Understanding the Human-Animal Bond: Implications for Practice with Community-Living Older Adults begins with an examination of research on why older adults own pets. Research in this area provides insight into what older adults expect to gain from pet ownership. Then the most recent research designed to explore the effects of pet ownership will be systematically reviewed for more robust conclusions. This review is followed by research that clarifies why pets are retained and the conditions under which pets are surrendered for a broader understanding of the potential implications of pet ownership for older adults. The chapter ends with an overview of basic information about pet care which provides gerontologists and other professionals with the knowledge necessary to support the benefits of pet ownership in their work with older adults.
... Some researchers have recently suggested that there is little or no relationship between companion animals and psychological well-being (Wells & Rodi, 2000), while others have reported negative mental health outcomes associated with companion animals. These include the exacerbation of psychological symptoms (Wisdom, Saedi, & Green, 2009), which include higher reports of depression (Antonacopoulos & Pychyl, 2010;Fritz et al., 1996;Garrity et al., 1989), ...
... This finding is consistent with prior research showing that human-animal relationships are associated with increased reports of psychological symptomatology (Antonacopoulos & Pychyl, 2010;Fritz et al., 1996;Parslow et al., 2005;Wisdom et al., 2009). However, it is inconsistent with findings that suggest either no association between living with a companion animal and well-being (Raina et al., 1999;Wells & Rodi, 2000) or findings linking strong human-animal bonds with positive mental health outcomes (Garrity et al., 1989;McNicholas & Collis, 2006). The discrepancy between the research findings of the present study and those of other studies can be interpreted in a number of ways. ...
... First, a key difference with this study is the comprehensive measurement of attachment to a companion animal. Essentially, researchers who have relied on the assessment of ownership versus nonownership (Raina et al.;Wells & Rodi 2000) have often failed to identify a relationship between human-animal interactions and psychological well-being, possibly indicating that emotional attachment might be a moderator that could account for the absence of significant associations found in their studies. This study adds to the body of evidence that suggests that to understand human-animal relationships and their impact on well-being, it is pivotal to assess what the relationship symbolizes for an individual rather than simply assessing ownership status (Chur-Hansen, 2010;Chur-Hansen & Winefield, 2005;Crawford et al., 2006;McNicholas et al., 2005;Parslow et al.). ...
Because of the contradictory nature of findings and methodological weaknesses identified within current human-companion animal bond research, there is a need to further explore the connection between human-animal bonds and mental health.
The purpose of this survey questionnaire study was to explore the relationship of attachment to companion animal and human psychological distress after controlling for demographic variables, and to investigate whether the relationship between social supports and psychological distress would be moderated by attachment to a companion animal.
Results highlight the psychological vulnerability of individuals reporting a strong bond with their companion animal.
These findings are discussed in terms of their implications for mental health services designed to anticipate and address client-related companion animal needs.
... Furthermore, some evidence suggests that pet ownership may impede owners from engaging in other activities that may reduce feelings of loneliness and enhance well-being (Luhmann & Kalitzki, 2018). For example, a participant in an Australian qualitative study reported that she chose to spend Christmas alone rather than with her family because she did not want to be away from her pet dog (Wells & Rodi, 2000). In addition, coping with the death of a pet or relinquishing a pet that has failed to live up to expectations can negatively impact on emotional wellbeing (Gilbey, McNicholas, & Collis, 2007;Hewson, 2014). ...
... For example, in a community sample of 945 Australian pet-dog owners, Franklin (2006) found that 82% of participants reported owning their dog for companionship. Furthermore, in a qualitative study by Wells and Rodi (2000), a participant exemplified the theme of dogs as companions when she described the pleasure she derived from sitting in the garden with her dog and taking walks with him. Moreover, the terms pet and companion animal are used interchangeably in the literature, with the latter term favoured in some arenas because it connotes a mutual relationship and psychological bond (Walsh, 2009). ...
Loneliness is prevalent in contemporary Western society and although it is commonly believed that pets can buffer owners against the effects of loneliness on emotional well-being, empirical research is limited. This study addressed the question of whether loneliness positively predicts the strength of the human-dog bond, and whether the human-dog bond mitigates the deleterious effects of loneliness on emotional well-being. A community sample of Australian pet-dog owners ( N =639: 123 men, 516 women) aged 18-80 participated in the study. Loneliness was conceptualised as a tri-dimensional construct comprised of social-, family-, and romantic-loneliness, while emotional well-being was operationalised in terms of positive and negative affect. Higher social-loneliness and family-loneliness predicted higher negative affect, and higher levels of all three types of loneliness predicted lower positive affect. Higher levels of family-loneliness and romantic-loneliness predicted a stronger human-dog bond, which in turn predicted higher positive affect. No relationship was evident between the human-dog bond and either social-loneliness or negative affect. The human-dog bond mediated the relationship between family-loneliness and positive affect as well as the relationship between romantic-loneliness and positive affect. These mediating effects were of the suppressor-type, indicating that the human-dog bond mitigated the deleterious effects of family-loneliness and romantic-loneliness on positive affect. These findings demonstrate the importance of conceptualising loneliness as a multi-dimensional construct in future studies regarding loneliness and human-animal relationships.
... Of particular interest is the impact of veterans having a companion animal, specifically a dog, prior to residing at the residence, and the linkage of this to reminiscence during the therapy dog visit. Second, there is a need to recognize the importance of the environment in which AAIs occur, and differences that may result from community culture, behaviours and relationships, socio-economic status and health, different pet populations, and regimes of care (Herzog, 2011;Siegel, 2011;Wells & Rodi, 2000). And third, considerations need to be made for animal welfare on the same level as human health in AAIs, including disease transmission as well as physical and mental health. ...
Current health care practices do not adequately meet the health needs of older adult war veterans. Increasingly, animal assisted interventions (AAIs) are being identified as potentially beneficial for this population. To explore this, this study, informed by a One Health framework, measured the outcomes of the St. John Ambulance ( SJA ) Therapy Dog Program on the wellbeing of older adults at a Veterans Affairs Canada residence in Saskatchewan, Canada. Over a 13 week period, two groups of veterans, of 8 and 10 in number respectively, who were living at the residence were purposively selected to participate in weekly individual and group therapy dog visits. The type of visit varied according to the level of cognition of the veteran, with lower level individuals visiting in a group format. A modified instrumental case study design was applied incorporating both quantitative and qualitative approaches, including questionnaires, focus groups, case history, and observation. Quantitative measures were analyzed descriptively, and qualitative measures were analyzed thematically. The findings revealed a positive influence of therapy dogs on memory recollection and reminiscence among veterans; positive health impacts on veteran wellbeing as understood through the significance of the therapy dog team encounter; and, perceived meaningful support from the therapy dog handlers and love and support from the therapy dogs. The analysis is contextualized within the growing literature on AAIs and contributes important insights to adequately meeting the needs of older adult war veterans, and potentially for the increasing population of recent war veterans. Additionally, key policy, practice, and research recommendations are proposed, including further investigation of therapy dog visits.
... 17 Conversely, the negative effects of pets for humans have been reported, but far less frequently. These negative effects include, for example, increased depression, poorer physical health, 18 increased boredom and loneliness 19 and decreased life satisfaction. 20 Some studies have not observed any significant effects, for example, no effect of pet ownership on self-esteem and physical health, [21][22][23] life satisfaction, 3,21,[24][25][26] and depression and anxiety. ...
Despite the abundance of studies investigating the benefits of having a dog, the specific aspects of dog ownership that impacts human well-being are not well understood. This study used a qualitative approach to create a framework of the main dog-related activities perceived by Brazilian owners to impact their well-being and compared the findings with those of a similar study in England. Thirty-two Brazilian dog owners from the five regions of the country were remotely interviewed. The thematic analysis of the transcripts generated a total of 58 dog-related activities, organised into 13 themes. Most activities were reported to have a positive effect on participants’ well-being, accounting for 76.8% of the total number of mentions in the interviews. ‘Playing with dog’ and ‘Dog presence’ were the themes most frequently associated with positive well-being outcomes, whereas ‘Unwanted behaviours’ and ‘Failing to meet dog's needs’ were the most commonly associated with negative outcomes. The dog-related activities reported by Brazilian dog owners and the well-being outcomes linked to those activities were consistent with the previous British sample in the framework that emerged. These findings suggest reliability between the two methods used to gather data (remote interview versus focus group) and, most importantly, provide consistent cross-cultural evidence for how certain activities impact dog owner’s well-being.
... A kérdőíves kutatás alapján nincs pozitív kapcsolat a pszichés jóllét és a társállat tulajdonlása között, sőt akinek van állata, az általában hajlamosabb az unatkozásra, és magányosabbnak érzi magát. A szerzők az ellentmondó eredményt azzal magyarázták, hogy az unalom és a magányosság talán korábban is fennállt, és a megkérdezettek talán éppen emiatt szereztek be állatot (Wells & Rodi, 2000). Wells és Rodi (2000) és Peacock, Chur-Hansen és Winefield (2012) azt is hangsúlyozzák, hogy az állatukhoz nagyon kötődő egyének az állat előtérbe helyezése miatt hajlamosak elhanyagolni saját egészségüket. ...
Számtalan kutatás vizsgálja azt a kérdést, hogy a társállat pozitívan vagy negatívan befolyásolja-e az ember testi és/vagy lelki jóllétét, azonban a kutatásokból kirajzolódó kép nem egyértelmű. Míg egyes kutatások szerint a kutyával való kapcsolat hozzájárul az egyén fizikai és lelki egészségéhez (pl. segít megküzdeni a társas izolációval, támogatja az erősebb szelf kialakulását, megelőzi a kardiovaszkuláris betegségek kialakulását, stb.), addig más kutatások arra jutottak, hogy a kutyával való kapcsolatban az egyént negatív hatások érik (pl. társas interakciók kialakulását gátolják, stresszforrást jelent a kutya gondozásával járó felelősség, stb.). Az ellentmondás feloldásához a kapcsolati dinamikát helyeztem kvalitatív kutatásom középpontjába és arra kerestem választ, hogy milyen szerepet tölt be a kutyával való kapcsolat az egyén érzelmi önszabályozásában. Kutatásomat kvalitatív módszertannal végeztem, azon belül is a GT-módszert alkalmaztam. A kvalitatív paradigmának megfelelően kutatásom előkészítése során elméletvezérelt célzott mintavételt alkalmaztam; a kutatásba kilenc interjúalanyt vontam be. Az interjúk elemzése során felmerülő fő témák és azok tranzakcionális kapcsolata szerint a kutyával való biztonságot adó kapcsolatban az egyén új utakat tud felfedezni, korrektív kapcsolati élményekkel, új érzelemszabályozási tapasztalatokkal és stratégiákkal gazdagodva. Ezek az új tapasztalatok részben tudatosulva, részben nem tudatosan érvényesülnek a vizsgálati személyek érzelemszabályozásában. Jelen kutatás fontos tanulsága, hogy nem írható le az ember és a kutya mint társállat viszonya abban a dimenzióban, hogy a kutya jót vagy rosszat tesz-e az egyénnek. A kutyával való kapcsolatban megélhet negatív affektusokat – amikor elveszíti biztonságérzetét –, de a kapcsolati dinamika bizonyos perspektívái hozzájárulnak az egyén érzelemszabályozásának változásához
... In contrast, among individuals with low levels of human social support, owning a dog might not be sufficient to compensate for a lack of supportive relationships. Also, in a qualitative study focusing on senior dog and cat owners, Wells and Rodi [58] concluded that "individuals who benefited most from pet ownership were likely to already be well-supported in their social relationships and not dependent on the pet for company or to boost self-esteem" (147). ...
Objective:
This study explored the role of companion dogs for psychological adjustment to pain in patients with fibromyalgia with different levels of social support. It also considered the potential moderating effects of the quality of the owner-dog relationship and the use of interactions with dogs as a coping strategy.
Setting:
A cross-sectional approach was followed using an online questionnaire.
Subjects and methods:
Linear regression analyses were performed on data obtained from 106 participants (dog owners and non-owners). Sub-analyses were performed on 64 dog owners.
Results:
Complex associations were observed between human social support, dog ownership and anxiety/depression levels. For participants with low levels of social support, owning a dog was associated with higher levels of anxiety and depression. In contrast, for moderate and high levels of social support, owning a dog was associated with lower levels of anxiety and depression. Sub-analyses showed that participants in this study actively used interactions with companion dogs to manage their pain more frequently than other pain coping strategies. Among those interactions, patting and stroking the dog to cope with pain was associated with lower anxiety levels, even after adjusting for social support. Emotional closeness with the dog was associated with lower depression levels.
Conclusions:
Obtained results highlight the importance to go beyond mere ownership when addressing the effects of companion dogs and suggest that the development of emotional ties with companion dogs and the active use of interactions with these animals to cope with pain may contribute to better psychological adjustment in patients with fibromyalgia, regardless of human social support.
... Muitos estudos investigam a eficácia da presença de animais de companhia com os idosos (Brickel, 1981;Cherniack & Cherniack, 2014;Wells & Rodi, 2000), (Chang et al., 2013;Yu et al., 2015), o que abre caminho para novas investigações direcionadas para essa área. ...
A população mundial está a envelhecer, nesse contexto, é possível observar uma tendência para um maior isolamento social e solidão entre os idosos. As intervenções com base tecnológica surgem como alternativa em situações em que intervenções presenciais não são possíveis de serem realizadas, como no período da pandemia COVID-19 ou em casos de isolamento geográfico ou incapacidade de deslocamento devido a condições de saúde. Sendo assim, o objetivo desta revisão integrativa de literatura passa por investigar e descrever as intervenções que utilizem a tecnologia com o propósito de minimizar os efeitos do isolamento social e da solidão nessa população. Efetuou-se uma pesquisa sistemática da literatura tendo em consideração artigos que estudassem intervenções com base tecnológica e os seus efeitos na solidão e no isolamento social nos idosos. Para tal, pesquisaram-se artigos científicos publicados em língua inglesa nas bases de dados PUBMED, B-ON e Web of Science entre os anos de 2000 e 2020. A pesquisa nas bases de dados possibilitou o acesso a 270 artigos e a pesquisa manual a 2 artigos. Por fim, e depois de aplicados os critérios de inclusão e exclusão, foram selecionados 13 artigos para análise. Foram avaliadas características sociodemográficas, objetivos, medidas, design e principais resultados em relação às variáveis: solidão e isolamento social. Por meio de uma análise temática, constatou-se que atividades sociais baseadas na Internet, treino das habilidades tecnológicas, jogos digitais, grupo de exercícios físicos online, serviço de amizade, videoconferências, robôs sociais, e terapia Cognitivo-Comportamental de baixa intensidade por WhatsApp foram os tipos de intervenção utilizados nos artigos selecionados. Os resultados encontrados são encorajadores; a maior parte dos estudos analisados demonstra o potencial e a eficácia das intervenções terapêuticas com base tecnológica na redução da solidão e do isolamento social nos idosos. No entanto, ainda existem barreiras que precisam de ser solucionadas e aspetos que carecem de investigação (e.g. iliteracia digital), de modo a que o acesso às novas ferramentas tecnológicas seja facilitado para a população sénior.
... The implementation of at-home AAI would likely be efficacious, but there are several additional factors unique to out-of-home AAI that may be crucial to its success for some older adults. As one would expect, it has been found that older people have notably greater satisfaction when owning their preferred animal (Wells & Rodi, 2000). As such, while there has been little focus on researching the effect of animal species or breed preference on the efficacy of AAI, it seems intuitive that if an individual feels a connection with the animal, they are more likely to benefit. ...
... Similarly, one study investigating persons aged 65 years and over in Norway found higher depression scores and more negative self-rated health among cat owners than among both dog owners and non-owners (24). Another study based on in-depth interviews of pet owners aged 75 years and over living in Australia found that cat owners tend to be more socially isolated than dog owners (41). However, one study from the United States investigating persons aged 60 years and more found that cat owners reported significantly fewer depressive symptoms than dog owners (42). ...
Introduction: Pet ownership may provide an additional source of social support and may contribute to the owner's self-esteem. Self-esteem is considered a basic human need and is associated with psychological conditions such as depressive symptoms. To date, there is limited knowledge on the association between keeping a pet and self-esteem. Objectives: The aim of this study was to determine whether cat owners, dog owners, and individuals without pets differ in terms of self-esteem (total sample and stratified by sex). Methods: Data were taken from the German Aging Survey (wave 5; nationally representative sample of individuals residing in private households ≥40 years). In this survey, the widely used and well-established Rosenberg scale was used to quantify self-esteem. Socioeconomic, lifestyle, and health-related factors were adjusted for in the regression analysis (n = 5,485). Results: Multiple linear regressions showed that dog owners reported higher self-esteem scores compared to individuals without pets (β = 0.04, p < 0.05). Similarly, male dog owners reported higher self-esteem scores compared to men without pets (β = 0.07, p < 0.01). In contrast, female cat owners reported lower self-esteem scores compared to women without pets (β = −0.07, p < 0.01). Conclusion: Study findings showed a link between owning a cat and lower self-esteem (women), as well as between owning a dog and higher self-esteem (total sample; men). Future studies should concentrate on investigating the underlying mechanisms. Furthermore, longitudinal studies are needed to better understand the link between animal ownership and self-esteem.
... A kérdőíves kutatás alapján nincs pozitív kapcsolat a pszichés jóllét és a társállat tulajdonlása között, sőt akinek van állata, az általában hajlamosabb az unatkozásra, és magányosabbnak érzi magát. A szerzők az ellentmondó eredményt azzal magyarázták, hogy az unalom és a magányosság talán korábban is fennállt, és a megkérdezettek talán éppen emiatt szereztek be állatot (Wells & Rodi, 2000). Wells és Rodi Triebenbacher (1998a) elmélete szerint a társállat olyan funkciókat lát el a gyermek életében, mint egy átmeneti tárgy. ...
Kutatásomban arra kerestem választ, hogy mi a szerepe a kutyának, mint társállatnak az egyén érzelmi önszabályozásában. Az interjúk elemzése során felmerülő fő témák és azok tranzakcionális kapcsolata szerint a kutyával való biztonságot adó kapcsolatban az egyén új utakat tud felfedezni, korrektív kapcsolati élményekkel, új érzelemszabályozási tapasztalatokkal és stratégiákkal gazdagodva. Ezek az új tapasztalatok részben tudatosulva, részben nem tudatosan érvényesülnek a vizsgálati személyek érzelemszabályozásában. Kutatásomat kvalitatív módszertannal végeztem, azon belül is a GT-módszert alkalmazva.
... These findings are in line with previous research showing that stronger human-animal relationships are associated with increased reports of psychopathological symptoms [63][64][65][66]. However, they are inconsistent with findings that suggest either no association between living with a companion animal and well-being [67,68] or findings linking strong humananimal bonds with positive mental health outcomes [36]. One hypothesis -brought up by Müllersdorf et al. [69] -that may explain poorer mental health reported by pet owners strongly attached to their pet is that individuals who are predisposed to experience mental health problems are more likely to obtain a pet and bond to the pet strongly as some kind of self-help strategy. ...
Individuals working in high-risk occupations (e.g., emergency staff) are exposed to high levels of occupational stress including traumatic events. Correspondingly, several studies report high rates of mental health problems among these occupations. Pet ownership has been associated with better mental health. However, to date a study on the association between pet ownership and indicators of mental health in these occupations is missing. The present cross-sectional survey (N = 580) investigated pet ownership, attachment to pets, health-benefitting factors (i.e., sense of coherence, trait-resilience, locus of control) and psychopathological symptoms (i.e., general mental health problems, posttraumatic stress, burnout) in medical staff, police officers, and firefighters. Dog owners and non-dog owners showed comparable levels of psychopathological distress and health-benefitting factors. Compared to cat owners, dog owners demonstrated stronger emotional attachment to their pet. Moreover, a stronger attachment was also linked to higher levels of psychopathological symptoms and lower levels of health-benefitting factors. However, the relationship between attachment to pets and health-benefitting factors could be explained by their overlap with psychopathological symptom levels. Overall, our findings are not in line with the notion that pet ownership generally has a health-benefitting effect. Future studies need to investigate circumstances that modulate positive effects of pet ownership.
... However, in the past twenty years, more and more studies were performed that failed to reproduce the results of these older studies. They either observed no effects of keeping pets on human wellbeing and health [19], or actually observed negative effects of keeping dogs, and even more of keeping cats [20], on health, survival of patients and members of general population and their wellbeing [14,[21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29][30][31]. The question of the existence of positive or negative effects of keeping pets is still open; however, more and more authors have reached the conclusion that many of the older results may be strongly biased by autoselection of participants of studies and selective reporting of only positive results, or a priori expected results of studies [18]. ...
Many studies show that keeping cats and dogs has a positive impact on humans’ physical and mental health and quality of life. The existence of this “pet phenomenon” is now widely discussed because other studies performed recently have demonstrated a negative impact of owning pets or no impact at all. The main problem of many studies was the autoselection–participants were informed about the aims of the study during recruitment and later likely described their health and wellbeing according to their personal beliefs and wishes, not according to their real status. To avoid this source of bias, we did not mention pets during participant recruitment and hid the pet-related questions among many hundreds of questions in an 80-minute Internet questionnaire. Results of our explorative study performed on a sample of 10,858 subjects showed that liking dogs has a weak positive association with quality of life. However, keeping pets, especially cats, and even more being injured by pets, were strongly negatively associated with many facets of quality of life. Our data also confirmed that infection by the cat parasite Toxoplasma had a very strong negative effect on quality of life, especially on mental health. However, the infection was not responsible for the observed negative effects of keeping pets, as these effects were much stronger in 1,527 Toxoplasma-free subjects than in the whole population. Any cross-sectional study cannot discriminate between a cause and an effect. However, because of the large and still growing popularity of keeping pets, the existence and nature of the reverse pet phenomenon deserve the outmost attention.
... The pet is dependent on them, and therefore they are not at the lowest step on the social hierarchy. This 'need to be needed' can manifest itself even more strongly giving a socially isolated person a reason to get up in the morning and a reason to take care of themselves effectively [20]. ...
... Some of the reported psychological benefits associated with companion animal ownership consists of: the potential to mitigate the effects of stressful life events such as bereavement or divorce, reduced levels of anxiety, loneliness and depression (Folse, Minder, Aycock, & Santana, 1994), enhanced feelings of autonomy, competence and self-esteem (Triebenbacher, 1998), as well as improved social interaction (Gueguen & Ciccoti, 2008;Wells, 2004). In contrast, some recent studies have found that companion animals have a minimal impact on psychological wellbeing and may actually exacerbate psychological symptoms of depression and emotional distress (Peacock, Chur-Hansen, & Winefield, 2012;Wells & Rodi, 2000;). These conflicting results emphasise that the relationship between humans and companion animals is still relatively poorly understood and further inquiry is necessary to increase understanding of this dynamic relationship. ...
Many Vietnam veterans continue to experience poor mental health and a range of complex, psychosocial difficulties decades after their military service. This qualitative study examined the experience of companion animal ownership for twelve male Vietnam veterans using a phenomenological framework. The men in this study were in the developmental stage of older adulthood and mostly owned dogs as companion animals. In-depth interviews were analysed using thematic content analysis and three main themes emerged. These were: Psychosocial functioning, the human-animal bond and the benefits of the human-animal bond. While these findings are typical of other human-animal research, the companion animal characteristics that facilitated a strong attachment, and therefore beneficial relationship seemed strongly influenced by the men’s military background. This has implications for progressing current knowledge around the effect companion animals can potentially have on an individual’s mental health, as well as clinical relevance for psychology.
... Furthermore, in a qualitative study (n ¼ 20 pet-owners ! 75 years living in Sydney) (Wells & Rodi, 2000), cat owners tended to be more socially isolated than dog owners. In conclusion, there is mixed evidence regarding the association between pet ownership and social isolation as well as loneliness. ...
Objectives: The purpose of this study was to identify whether cat owners, dog owners and individuals without pets differ in terms of depressive symptoms, loneliness and social isolation among individuals in old age without a partner.
Method: For this study, data were used from a nationally representative sample of non-institutionalized older individuals (German Ageing Survey). We focused on older adults (>65 years) who did not have a partner. The outcome measures were quantified using validated scales. Multiple linear regressions were used.
Results: Among the n = 1,160 individuals aged 65 years and over without a partner, 952 individuals (82.1%) did not own a pet. Moreover, 145 individuals (12.5%) owned one or more cat/s and 63 individuals (5.4%) owned one or more dog/s. Multiple linear regressions showed that dog owners were less socially isolated than individuals without pets. There were no differences between cat owners and individuals without pets in the outcome measures. While there were no differences observed in men, female dog owners were less socially isolated and less lonely than women without pets.
Conclusion: Our study revealed an association between owning a dog and social isolation (total sample) as well as loneliness (total sample and women). Future research should focus on elucidating the underlying mechanisms. In addition, longitudinal studies are required to deepen our understanding of this association.
... Still, some studies suggest that companion animals may have a mixed, null or even negative influence on older adults' health and well-being (Wells and Rodi, 2000;Parslow et al., 2005;Himsworth and Rock, 2013;Enmarker et al., 2015). Several researchers have suggested that the mixed findings reflect methodological diversity in approaches used to study human-animal relationships, compounded by the complexities of the relationships themselves (Morley and Fook, 2005;Fox, 2006;Franklin et al., 2007;Chur-Hansen et al., 2010;Himsworth and Rock, 2013;Putney, 2013;Rock and Degeling, 2013;Ryan and Ziebland, 2015). ...
Over one-third of older adults in many countries have a companion animal, and pets may harbor health-promoting potential. Few studies have considered pet-ownership in relation to economic vulnerability, and pet-ownership has not been often considered within policy efforts to promote ageing-in-place. We conducted a mixed methods case study to understand perspectives of both community agencies that support ageing-in-place and older adults themselves. A shortage of affordable, appropriate pet-friendly housing emerged as a challenge, even when framed as a legitimate choice and preference for many older adults. In this manuscript, we share the trajectories of three economically vulnerable older adults whose affordable housing needs became entangled with commitments to pets. Guided by dialogical narrative methodology, we offer each narrative as a short vignette to (i) illustrate the extent to which older adults will practice 'more-than-human solidarity' for a pet, even when their own well-being is compromised as a result; and (ii) highlight incongruence between the underlying moral values that shape solidaristic practices of individuals versus solidaristic arrangements that shape affordable housing opportunities. We suggest that housing rules and legislation that disrupt, rather than confirm, more-than-human solidarity may render older adults susceptible to, rather than protected from, deteriorating physical, mental and social well-being. We propose that collective solidaristic practices must reflect and subsume the moral complexity of solidarity practiced by individuals, to enable fair and equitable ageing-in-place.
... Those who resist risk being viewed as having unhealthy or abnormal attachments to their companion animals. [41][42][43] Our eviction case also illustrates the extent to which lower-income older adults who do not own their homes may be framed as having failed in their responsibilities to arrange for self-sufficiency in old age. 15 Even as structured oppression may shape opportunities and choices across the life course, 20 economically vulnerable older adults may be particularly subject to disciplining, as those with power (i.e. ...
Inspired by poet J.L. Borges's intimations on acceptance, this commentary highlights the eviction of an older woman and her kitten from an affordable independent living facility as representing exclusionary practices and policies that compromise the ability for some lower-income older adults to age-in-place. Even as efforts to promote aging-in-place have prioritized housing as a key need, and public health evidence suggests benefits from animal companionship later in life, there is a shortage of social and other types of affordable housing in Canada and elsewhere that allows older adult tenants to reside independently with companion animals. Within the private housing market, however, companion animals may be leveraged as a marketing tactic, with 'pets' being welcomed into rental arrangements. In light of this means-patterned discrepancy, this commentary troubles the persistent undervaluing of human-animal relationships that exists at policy and practice levels. Furthermore, banning companion animals from affordable housing subsumes an accepted yet insidious practise of regulating the lives of older adults who have not achieved idealized conceptions of responsible aging, including home ownership. We draw these two concerns together by advocating for adequate provision of affordable housing opportunities where lower-income older adults may be granted the choice to establish a home that includes a companion animal as they age-in-place.
... Raina ve diğerlerinin (1999), 65 yaş üzeri bireylerle gerçekleştirdiği geniş çaplı bir çalışmada, her ne kadar evcil hayvan sahipleri, olmayanlara göre daha fazla fiziksel aktivite yaptıklarını belirtseler de, her iki grup arasında psikolojik iyilik hali açısından bir farka rastlanmadığı ifade edilmiştir. Bunun yanında bazı çalışmalarda evcil hayvan sahipliği ile sağlık ya da stres düzeyi arasında bir ilişkiye rastlanmazken (Tucker et al. 1995;Raina et al. 1999;Simons et al. 2000), bir kısmında da yalnızlık, sıkılma gibi duygularda artışın görüldüğü ve ameliyat gibi önemli kararları evcil hayvanlarından ayrılmak istemedikleri için vermeyi reddettiklerine ilişkin çalışmalar da (Wells & Rodi 2000) mevcuttur. Bunlar değerlendirildiğinde, her ne kadar genel anlamda çalışmalar evcil hayvanların faydalı olduğunu vurgulasa da farklı koşullar altında bireylerin farklı yanıtlar verebileceğinin de göz önünde bulundurulması gerekmektedir. ...
... These evaluations should also include both quantitative and qualitative measures, if prisoner well-being, prison culture or personal change is a desirable outcome. As found in community-based studies, including qualitative methods assists researchers to identify benefits that cannot be easily detected using quantitative methods (Wells & Rodi, 2000). Using these evaluative practices to develop the body of knowledge will allow practitioners to discern and select the program that is most likely to meet their objectives or to assign the most appropriate prisoners to an existing program. ...
In the last 10 years, Prison Animal Programs (PAPs) have been implemented in many Australian correctional centres. Like our international counterparts, these programs receive glowing endorsements from key stakeholders and accolades in the media. The evidence supporting these programs however has not kept pace with public opinion. This article provides a review of the literature surrounding PAPs. Findings highlight that PAPs vary markedly in design, and few have been subjected to research or evaluation. Of these few, only one study was conducted in Australia. Additionally, the research strategies used within international studies are varied; providing little foundation from which to identify consistent outcomes or develop evidence‐based practices. It is concluded that more extensive research is needed to identify the program features that most commonly benefit prisoners, particularly prisoners with mental health needs. A greater evidence base is also needed to guide the introduction of new programs, according to the program objectives at each site.
... In Australia, older pet owners have been found to use fewer blood pressure medications, while older women with pets had fewer physical disabilities and hospitalizations (Simons et al. 20(X)). Other Australian researchers, however, have found few associations in this particular age group between pet ownership and general measures of health (Wells and Rodi 2000), or between pet ownership and health service use (Jorm et al. 1997). For elderly community residents, the direction of relationship between pet ownership and physical health might be questioned. ...
Research on the extent to which humans derive health and social benefits from being with pets has produced inconsistent findings. We examined whether middle-aged adults who owned or cared for pets differed in mental or physical health or in use of general practitioner services. We obtained socio-demographic data and measures of mental and physical health from a random sample of 2,530 adults aged 40 to 44 years living in the community. For 1844 of these participants, we also obtained records on the numbers of general practitioner visits they had made over a 12-month period. Compared with those without pets, pet owners were more likely to be female, married or in a de facto relationship, and in the workforce. Measures of physical and mental health, including use of general practitioner services, were not significantly affected by pet ownership and caring. However, we found that those who owned or cared for a pet used pain relief medications more frequently. We conclude that neither pet ownership nor caring for pets confers any health benefit in this age group. Our findings call into question the generalizability of previous studies that have suggested that higher levels of pet ownership could result in reduced health care expenditure.
... During the various stages of Alzheimer's disease, a pet dog has been shown to provide comfort and relaxation for the older ill person, as well as relaxation and diversion from the strains of the caring role for the carer (Baun and McCabe 2003). Wells and Rodi (2000) suggested that the health benefits for pet owners who are older include higher levels of physical activity, lower medication use and lower use of community services. However, Simons et al (2000) stated that pet ownership has no impact on the health of older people living in the community. ...
Pet ownership is an occupation that has benefits for human health and wellbeing. However, research on pet ownership mainly addresses the benefits of interactive pets, such as dogs and cats. Some individuals are unable to participate in the occupation of interactive pet ownership and, therefore, may be deprived of the benefits that pets can bring to their lives. This research used a qualitative, phenomenological methodology to explore the ownership of fish as pets.
Data were collected using in-depth semi-structured interviews and were analysed inductively. Nine participants were interviewed and the following themes were identified from the data collected: the reasons for owning fish as pets; the fish environment; caring for fish; and the benefits of owning fish as pets. It was discovered that pet fish ownership is a meaningful occupation that provides purpose and enjoyment in life. The findings of this study suggest that pet fish may be an alternative to interactive pets, and one that therapists can recommend to clients who wish to own a pet.
... The term mediation, rather than moderation, is appropriate here in that attachment to one's pet accounted for the relation between the loneliness and health (Baron & Kenny, 1986). Still, inconsistencies in the literature exist in that some studies have found that those who appeared to benefit most from pet ownership, in terms of psychological health, were those with strong social ties (Wells & Rodi, 2000). Contrary findings emerged too when considering whether pet attachment and human attachment are related. ...
The relationship between naturally occurring pet ownership and health, both physical and mental, is reviewed. Key methodological
issues are discussed at the outset and the emphasis of the review is on recent literature. Collectively, the body of work
is inconsistent, with some studies showing profound benefits of pet ownership, some showing no advantage, and others demonstrating
poorer health outcomes among pet owners relative to non-owners. What may be most useful to researchers and practitioners at
this juncture is not whether pet ownership facilitates good health, but under what circumstances might pet ownership facilitate it. Accordingly, this review describes some of the circumstances in which pet ownership appears
to act as a moderator variable in regard to health, and incorporates theoretical approaches that provide a context for understanding
the relationship. Recommendations for future research include focusing on quality of life, recruiting ethnically diverse samples,
and enlarging the policy applications of the work.
KeywordsHealth-Human–animal bond-Mental health-Pet ownership-Social support
Animals have long been part of the lives of humans, providing companionship, comfort, help with tasks (e.g., hunting), and protection. Currently, the use of therapeutic animals is expanding in a variety of social settings (e.g., educational system, justice system) and includes providing therapeutic support to both owners and nonowners. Research into the effects of therapeutic animals is mostly positive, although some studies have found mixed results (Brooks HL, Rushton K, Lovell K, Bee P, Walker L, Grant L, Rogers A. BMC Psychiatry 18(1):31–31, 2018). Because of the assumption that animals enhance the psychological well-being of their owners, legal actions have offered varying levels of protection for animals and their owners. For instance, a service dog can accompany its blind owner to places (e.g., restaurants) in which a normal pet would not be allowed. The purpose of this chapter is to review the law (e.g., legal certification) and the psychology (i.e., effects on stress and well-being) of a range of animals intended to enhance the well-being of humans.KeywordsHuman-animal studiesPsychology and lawPsychological well-beingTherapy/facility animalsEmotional support animalsService animalsAnimal law
This study examines how caring for pets and walking, exercising, or playing with pets is associated with the experiential well-being of older Americans using activity-episode-level data from the 2010, 2012, and 2013 American Time Use Surveys (ATUS) and their associated Well-Being Modules (WBM). Estimating a series of ordered probit models that relate various measures of experiential well-being to different measures of pet-related activities, the results show that caring for pets is associated with greater meaning than other activities, controlling for a standard set of demographic and other person-level characteristics. Walking, exercising, or playing with household pets or animals is associated with greater happiness and meaning and less stress relative to other activities. The results from sensitivity analyses show that the magnitudes of the associations for people who live alone are larger than for those who live with others.
Kutatásomban arra kerestem választ, hogy mi a szerepe a kutyának mint társállatnak az egyén érzelmi önszabályozásában az egyén felnőtt kötődési stílusának és kutyához való kötődési mintázatának kontextusában. A kvalitatív kutatási részben az interjúk elemzése során felmerülő fő témák és azok tranzakcionális kapcsolata szerint a kutyával való biztonságot adó kapcsolatban az egyén új utakat tud felfedezni, korrektív kapcsolati élményekkel, új érzelemszabályozási tapasztalatokkal és stratégiákkal gazdagodva. Ezek az új tapasztalatok részben tudatosulva, részben nem tudatosan érvényesülnek a vizsgálati személyek érzelemszabályozásában. A kérdőíves kutatási rész elemzéséből kiderült, hogy (1) mind a felnőtt, mind a kutyához való kötődés faktorai mentén jelentésteli mintázatok azonosíthatók; (2) a két kötődés mintázata összefüggést mutat; (3) és hogy az egyes kötődési mintázatokkal jellemezhető alcsoportok között különbségek mutatkoznak. Az interjúalanyok komplex profiljaiból pedig az látszik, hogy a kutya által facilitált érzelemszabályozási mintázatok változatos felnőtt és kutyához való kötődési mintázatokban érvényesülnek.
Kutatásomat vegyes módszertannal végeztem: (1) kvalitatív módszertanon belül a GT-módszert alkalmaztam; (2) kvantitatív módszertanon belül kérdőíves kutatást végeztem.
The main purpose of this study was to gain insight into the motivations for pet ownership in late adulthood using a life course approach. A qualitative research methodology based on deductive thematic analysis was applied to examine the accounts given by 21 pet owners living in Mexico: 14 women and seven men. Data were gathered through in-depth interviews. The motivation for pet ownership was found to be sensitive to situational circumstances involving life-stage transitions and role changes. Results indicate that both intrinsic and extrinsic motivations are associated with older adults’ willingness to share their lives with companion animals. However, extrinsic motivation plays an important role because pets provide instrumental value by helping older adults adapt to undesirable life changes. Thus, extrinsic motivations should be considered when developing interventions. Our findings also suggest that some social environments supplement sources of motivation for pet owners by providing financial and moral support, but that others do not support the owner–pet bond. Finally, the deteriorating health conditions characteristic of older adults was a demotivating factor to continue pet ownership.
Studies consistently find that higher levels of social support improve the psychological and physiological health of older people, but findings from empirical research are mixed regarding the presence of a “pet effect”— the idea that living with an animal can improve human health, psychological wellbeing, and longevity. We examined the assocations among social support, dog and cat ownership, and successful aging in a panel of 5,688 people between the ages of 50 and 74 years. Utilizing GLM, we tested for the presence of a complement (independent or additive effects) and/or hydraulic (interactive effect) association of pets and human support on four indicators of successful aging (pain, functional ability, chronic illnesses, and subjective successful aging). Supporting the hydraulic hypothesis, we found that having a dog was associated with fewer chronic illnesses, higher functional ability, and higher levels of subjective success when people lack human support. Similarly, having both a dog and a cat was associated with higher functional ability, less pain, and higher levels of subjective success when people lack human support. Supporting the complement hypothesis, we found that having a cat was associated with more chronic illnesses and lower levels of subjective successful aging. Findings carry practical implications for supporting pet ownership of older people, suggesting that dogs have a positive association with successful aging.
This longitudinal study examined the effect of acquiring a dog using both an indirect and a direct measure of loneliness. The loneliness levels of 31 adults who acquired a dog and a control group of 35 non-dog guardians (non-dog owners) were assessed at baseline and 8 months. Results revealed that changes in loneliness over time differed for the two groups when loneliness was assessed through a 1-item direct measure. Participants who acquired a dog experienced reduced loneliness levels from baseline to 8 months and were less lonely at 8 months than non-dog guardians, even though the two groups did not differ at baseline. On the other hand, when loneliness was assessed through a multi-item indirect measure, acquiring a dog had no effect on loneliness. These results highlight the importance of the type of measure used to assess loneliness when examining changes in loneliness following the acquisition of a companion animal.
Pet therapy can be therapeutic for older adults living in the community. A crossover design was used to examine changes in blood pressure and heart rate before and after a pet therapy visit versus a volunteer-only visit in 28 community dwelling older adults. Relationships among stress, pet attitude, social support, and health status were also examined. Study findings supported that pet therapy significantly decreased blood pressure and heart rate. Ultimately, the findings supported the notion that community health nurses should consider developing and implementing pet therapy programs in the communities they serve. Further implications for community health nurses are discussed.
In this study we examined associations between pet ownership and presence and indicators of psychological wellbeing in older Australians, using an innovative, experience sampling methodology and a community-living sample of 68 adults, including 41 pet owners, all aged over 65 years. In response to randomized prompts the participants provided information about their location, social companions, activities, and mood state six times daily for seven consecutive days. They also completed a number of surveys measuring various aspects of wellbeing. There were no significant differences in our outcome measures between pet owners and those who did not own at least one pet, and few of our pet owners reported engaging in pet-focused human– animal activities, such as walking their dog or playing with their cat. However, frequency of pet presence during activities of daily living was associated with, and statistically predictive of, several measures of wellbeing and mood. From our results we tentatively conclude that more frequent presence of a pet, particularly a dog, may be associated with greater psychological wellbeing in this cohort. More importantly, we confirm that the intensive experience sampling methodology provides a novel means of examining human–pet interactions, enabling a closer analysis of moment-by-moment pet presence than has been possible using alternative approaches.
While researchers have examined the relationship between pet ownership and psychological health among individuals in the general population, the few studies that have examined the possible psychological health benefits of pet ownership for individuals living alone have primarily been conducted among subgroups such as seniors. Using a community sample of adults who were living alone, we hypothesized that pet ownership (pet vs. no pet), emotional attachment levels to pets, and human social support would interact to predict scores on measures of loneliness and depression. A sample of 132 Canadian dog and cat owners as well as non-owners who lived alone completed an on-line survey containing measures of human social support, emotional attachment to pets, loneliness, and depression. Results revealed that neither pet ownership nor attachment to pets predicted the loneliness or depression levels of individuals living alone. However, when we examined the interaction of pet ownership and human social support in the prediction of psychological health, simple effects revealed that dog owners with high levels of human social support were significantly less lonely than non-owners. Furthermore, when we examined the interaction of attachment and human social support in the prediction of psychological health, simple effects revealed that among pet owners with low levels of human social support, high attachment to pets predicted significantly higher scores on loneliness and depression. These findings highlight the complex nature of the relationship between pet ownership and psychological health.
The purpose of this study was to learn more about the relationship between pet attachment, the ability to care for a pet, and depression in older adults. One hundred and seventeen Caucasian, older, adult dog owners in rural, south-central Pennsylvania were recruited using non-random sampling methods through veterinary offices and dog grooming salons in south-central Pennsylvania, USA. They completed an anonymous, self-administered questionnaire, which was returned by mail. Half of the respondents were female, 74% were married, and 27% were employed. Attachment to pet dogs was measured by the Lexington Attachment to Pets Scale. Regression analysis revealed that higher levels of pet attachment and widowhood were associated with higher levels of depression, and the ability to care for the dog and satisfaction with human relationships were associated with lower levels of depression. Higher levels of pet attachment may indicate that the pet plays a central role in the older adult's life and may substitute for human companionship.
A large longitudinal dataset on women's health in Australia provided the basis of analysis of potential positive health effects of living with a companion animal. Age, living arrangements, and housing all strongly related to both living with companion animals and health. Methodological problems in using data from observational studies to disentangle a potential association in the presence of substantial effects of demographic characteristics are highlighted. Our findings may help to explain some inconsistencies and contradictions in the literature about the health benefits of companion animals, as well as offer suggestions for ways to move forward in future investigations of human-pet relationships.
The PAS is designed to gather information on the major psychogeriatric disorders: dementia and depression. It differs from conventional approaches to psychogeriatric assessment in a number of important ways.
The PAS aims to assist a wider range of people to carry out psychogeriatric assessment.
Psychogeriatric assessment is generally the province of people with extensive specialist training in geriatrics or psychiatry. The PAS provides a straightforward method of gathering and interpreting the relevant information without the necessity for prolonged training.
The PAS assesses psychogeriatric disorders on scales rather than as categories.
In conventional thinking, people suffering from dementia or depression are in a distinct category from 'normal' people. It is true that when people with psychogeriatric disorders are seen by health care workers they appear to be categorically distinct from other people. However, when the whole elderly population is looked at, dementia and depression are seen as part of a continuum. For example, there is a continuum ranging from successful cognitive ageing at one end to severe dementia at the other. There is another continuum ranging from positive well-being in old age to severe depression. The PAS aims to place people along a number of relevant continua.
While the PAS provides a method of assessing psychogeriatric disorders, it does not tell the user what action to take if problems are found. The PAS helps by gathering information in a systematic way. It gives guidance on how this information should be interpreted by comparing the results to the normal range found in the community.
In order to examine pet ownership and pet attachment as factors supporting the health of the elderly, a national probability sample of Americans 65 years of age and older was drawn. Participants answered telephone survey questions regarding pet ownership, life stress, social support, depression, and recent illness. In multiple regression analyses, pet ownership failed to predict depression and illness behavior, while pet attachment significantly predicted depression but not illness experience. In a group with particularly great distress (the bereaved), pet ownership and strong attachment were significantly associated with less depression only when the number of available confidants was minimal.
Confirmatory factor analysis was used to test the structure of 5-item affect rating scales designed to measure positive affect and negative affect. A proposed circumplex affect structure was the source of scales constructed to represent a cluster of positive terms, including pleasantness and activation; the negative terms represented anxiety, depression, and hostility. The hypothesized simple-structured positive and negative trait affect factors, with a moderate correlation between them, were found in all cases. Equivalent structure was confirmed for younger adults, middle-aged, and older adults of good health and above-average education. Although the hypothesized simple-structured positive and negative factors emerged for all other groups, three other tests of factor equivalence failed to be confirmed: trait and state factors in the older adult group were not identical. Factors derived from healthy and frail elders were structurally different. Variability among frail elders and variability over 30 days within the same person, when factored, also showed nonequivalence. Although the scales are extremely useful in assessing affect, comparisons across some subject groups should be made with caution.
The findings of this study confirm the independent importance of social factors in the determination of health status. Social data obtained during patients' hospitalization can be valuable in discriminating 1-year survivors. These social data can add to the prognostic discrimination beyond the effects of the well-known physiological predictors. More information is needed about all forms of human companionship and disease. Thus, it is important that future investigations of prognosis in various disease states include measures of the patient's social and psychological status with measures of disease severity. The phenomenon of pet ownership and the potential value of pets as a source of companionship activity or attention deserved more careful attention that that recorded in the literature. Almost half of the homes in the United States have some kind of pet. Yet, to our knowledge, no previous studies have included pet ownership among the social variables examined to explain disease distribution. Little cost is incurred by the inclusion of pet ownership in such studies, and it is certainly by the importance of pets in the lives of people today and the long history of association between human beings and companion animals. The existence of pets as important household members should be considered by those who are responsible for medical treatment. The need to care for a pet or to arrange for its care may delay hospitalization; it may also be a source of concern for patients who are hospitalized. Recognition of this concern by physicians, nurses, and social workers may alleviate emotional stress among such patients. The therapeutic uses of pets have been considered for patients hospitalized with mental illnesses and the elderly. The authors suggest that patients with coronary heart disease should also be included in this consideration. Large numbers of older patients with coronary heart disease are socially isolated and lonely. While it is not yet possible to conclude that pet ownership is beneficial to these patients, pets are an easily attainable source of psychological comfort with relatively few risks.
This preliminary study investigated the impact of pet ownership on the health status of recently widowed urban middle-class women. Analysis of data indicated 1) statistically significant differences between pet owners and nonowners in regard to symptom experiences, with nonowners reporting more symptoms, especially those with psychogenic components; and 2) altered patterns of utilization of medications, with nonowners reporting significantly higher drug use. The findings suggest pet ownership may have a salutary effect on the adjustment of recently widowed women.
The psychological and emotional roles played by pets in the urban household are examined. Telephone interviews were conducted with 320 pet owners and 116 nonowners in Providence, Rhode Island. Respondents were obtained from a systematic random sample of the telephone directory. Sociodemographic differences exist between pet owners and those who do not have pets. Remarried people, families with children present, and families in the "middle" stages of the life cycle are most likely to have pets, whereas pet ownership is low among widows, empty-nesters, families with infants, and those with annual incomes of $8,000 or less. Responses to the survey indicate that pets are viewed as important family members by people who live in the city. However, the roles played by pets are related to the social structure of the household. Attachment to pets is highest among never-married, divorced, widowed and remarried people, childless couples, newlyweds, and empty-nesters. Never-married, divorced, and remarried people, and people without children present, are also most likely to anthropomorphize their pets. Pet attachment and anthropomorphism are also related to type of pet. Both dimensions of pet-human bonds are highest among people who have dogs. The findings of the survey are discussed within the framework of family development theory and changing household composition in the United States.
This study was designed to evaluate the effect of a companion animal on the grief experienced from conjugal bereavement. It was proposed that bonded dog owners with strong social support would adjust best to the loss of a spouse, that bonded dog owners with a weak social support system would do as well as non-pet-owners with a strong social support system, and that non-pet-owners with a weak social support system would adapt the poorest. The subjects in the study consisted of 89 Caucasian women, of whom 34 were bonded dog owners. The results confirmed that there were differences in adaptation between bonded dog owners and non-pet-owners. However, the results did not confirm the proposed graded adaptation. While non-pet-owners reported a deterioration in health after the loss of their spouse, bonded dog owners reported no such deterioration if their health was good. However, bonded dog owners reported a greater sense of loss of control if they had had their dogs for a long time.
The Companion Animal Project has longitudinally followed a sample of rural, community-dwelling older persons to obtain basic descriptive information on the pattern and meaning of pet ownership among the elderly and to evaluate the impact of an organization formed to support pet ownership among the elderly. Two telephone interviews were conducted with the entire sample (N=maximum of 355) in 1984 and 1987. Brief subscales of key items were completed from earlier in-person interviews assessing changes in animal-ownership status, physical health, social activities, perceived social support, emotional well-being, and demographic changes. In 1987, the Pet Relationship Scale (PRS), developed from earlier in-person interviews (Lago et al. 1985), was added to the telephone battery. Results reveal mortality and attrition are higher for former owners than current owners, though the differences are not significant. Pet ownership has declined to 40% of the sample. Declining health status is a stronger predictor of attrition and death than are pet attitudes. Perceived health and morale were strong predictors of each other over a four-year period. Pet attitudes and ownership became significant predictors of maintaining higher levels of both health and morale over four years, but not for the total sample. Directions for future research include focusing on higher-interest subgroups.
There has been increasing interest in the possibility that owning pet animals can contribute positively to the health of older people. The present study was undertaken to determine whether pet-ownership does benefit the health and well-being of older people living alone. The 28-item General Health Questionnaire was administered to 130 solitary respondents aged from 55–93 years (mean age 74.28 years). Additional information relating to age, sex, type of pet, feelings of loneliness, frequency of visits by friends and family, and history of pet-ownership was also obtained. 47 (36.2%) of the respondents were pel-owners and 82 (63.1%) did not own pets (1 missing value). There were no significant differences between pet-owners and non-pet-owners in subscale scoring on the GHQ or on total GHQ score. Significant positive correlations were found between strength of experienced loneliness and scoring on the GHQ. Implications for the care of older people are discussed.
As a modification of the Rodin-Langer control-relevant intervention in a nursing home, this study examined the effects of a responsibility message and the opportunity to care for individually placed bird feeders upon a sample of nursing home residents. When compared to two other groups without this intervention, the responsibility/bird feeder group showed significant pretest-posttest improvements on self-reported control, happiness, and activity and on nurses' ratings of similar variables.
This study was undertaken to assess the therapeutic roles of pet mascots on a hospital ward with total-care elderly patients
and to explore the logistics of pet maintenance. Staff (N = 19) on a ward where feline mascots had been kept over two years
were interviewed. Mascots were observed to stimulate patient responsiveness, give patients pleasure, enhance the treatment
milieu, and act as a form of reality therapy. Further research is suggested.
To compare risk factors for cardiovascular disease in pet owners and non-owners.
Accepted risk factors for cardiovascular disease were measured in 5741 participants attending a free, screening clinic at the Baker Medical Research Institute in Melbourne. Blood pressure, plasma cholesterol and triglyceride values were compared in pet owners (n = 784) and non-owners (n = 4957).
Pet owners had significantly lower systolic blood pressure and plasma triglycerides than non-owners. In men, pet owners had significantly lower systolic but not diastolic blood pressure than non-owners, and significantly lower plasma triglyceride levels, and plasma cholesterol levels. In women over 40 years old, systolic but not diastolic pressure was significantly lower in pet owners and plasma triglycerides also tended to be lower. There were no differences in body mass index and self-reported smoking habits were similar, but pet owners reported that they took significantly more exercise than non-owners, and ate more meat and "take-away" foods. The socioeconomic profile of the pet owners and non-owners appeared to be comparable.
Pet owners in our clinic population had lower levels of accepted risk factors for cardiovascular disease, and this was not explicable on the basis of cigarette smoking, diet, body mass index or socioeconomic profile. The possibility that pet ownership reduces cardiovascular risk factors should therefore be investigated.
The physician utilization behavior of 938 Medicare enrollees in a health maintenance organization was prospectively followed for 1 year. With demographic characteristics and health status at baseline controlled for, respondents who owned pets reported fewer doctor contacts over the 1-year period than respondents who did not own pets. Furthermore, pets seemed to help their owners in times of stress. The accumulation of prebaseline stressful life events was associated with increased doctor contacts during the study year for respondents without pets. This relationship did not emerge for pet owners. Owners of dogs, in particular, were buffered from the impact of stressful life events on physician utilization. Additional analyses showed that dog owners in comparison to owners of other pets spent more time with their pets and felt that their pets were more important to them. Thus, dogs more than other pets provided their owners with companionship and an object of attachment.
A survey of elderly women was carried out to discover their attitudes towards pet cats. The women were living in publicly-owned pensioner housing in two New Zealand cities. In one city cats were allowed in the pensioners' housing and in the other city they were not. Attitudes towards cats were more positive in the city where cats were allowed, and more positive if pensioners owned a cat, or wished to own one. As positive attitudes towards cats outweighed negative ones, the City Authority which had prohibited cats reversed its policy. There was conflicting evidence about the role of cats in reducing feelings of loneliness. It appears that "loneliness" signifies the loss of many aspects of social interaction and that pets may substitute for only some of these interactions.
Four samples of elderly women were compared who were living alone or with other persons, some with and some without a companion pet. Pets only made a difference for those living alone. At best, pets only attenuate the sense of loneliness that may be felt from the lack of human companionship. In intervention with the elderly, the provision of human supports should remain a priority.
Data from a 1968 national sample of older people indicate that pet ownership was more frequent in owner-occupied residences in smaller communities where other family, including children, were present. No association was found between pet ownership and psychological well-being or health.
This comparative retrospective study measured selected health-related effects of association with companion-animals on humans, associations that had previously been supported only by folklore. The sample consisted of 56 predominantly elderly veterans, randomly selected from two strata - clients who did and did not live with pets - that comprised the census of a home care program. No significant difference (p≥.05) were observed. Results provide direction for further research.
An assessment instrument capable of measuring the wellbeing of the aged in a number of significant domains is described. This Philadelphia Geriatric Center Multilevel Assessment Instrument (MAI) systematically assesses behavioral competence in the domains of health, activities of daily living, cognition, time use, and social interaction and in the sectors of psychological wellbeing and perceived environmental quality. Determination of the psychometric qualities of measures of different length in each of these domains and sectors was made. The performance of 590 older people in groups composed of independent community residents, in-home services clients, and people awaiting admission to an institution was determined. The MAI is seen as useful for both research and for assessment in service-giving situations.
Social support and pet ownership, a nonhuman form of social support, have both been associated with increased coronary artery disease survival. The independent effects of pet ownership, social support, disease severity, and other psychosocial factors on 1-year survival after acute myocardial infarction are examined prospectively. The Cardiac Arrhythmia Suppression Trial provided physiologic data on a group of post-myocardial infarction patients with asymptomatic ventricular arrhythmias. An ancillary study provided psychosocial data, including pet ownership, social support, recent life events, future life events, anxiety, depression, coronary prone behavior, and expression of anger. Subjects (n = 424) were randomly selected from patients attending participating Cardiac Arrhythmia Suppression Trial sites and completed baseline psychosocial questionnaires. One year survival data were obtained from 369 patients (87%), of whom 112 (30.4%) owned pets and 20 (5.4%) died. Logistic regression indicates that high social support (p < 0.068) and owning a pet (p = 0.085) tend to predict survival independent of physiologic severity and demographic and other psychosocial factors. Dog owners (n = 87, 1 died) are significantly less likely to die within 1 year than those who did not own dogs (n = 282, 19 died; p < 0.05); amount of social support is also an independent predictor of survival (p = 0.065). Both pet ownership and social support are significant predictors of survival, independent of the effects of the other psychosocial factors and physiologic status. These data confirm and extend previous findings relating pet ownership and social support to survival among patients with coronary artery disease.
To determine whether pet ownership by elderly people is associated with lower use of health services.
Survey of physical and mental health, and retrospective 12-month review of Medicare records of the number of general practitioner and specialist services.
Elderly people living in Canberra (Australian Capital Territory) and Queanbeyan (New South Wales), surveyed in 1994 for the second stage of a larger longitudinal study.
Elderly pet owners did not differ from non-owners on any of the physical or mental health measures or in use of health services.
Given the high use of health services by older people, our findings suggest that the claim that pet ownership leads to savings in health services should be viewed with caution.
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