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Fluorescence study of the pro‐oxidant effect of free fatty acids on marine lipids

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Abstract

The free fatty acid (FFA) effect on the oxidative stability of marine lipids was studied by fluorescence assessment. Under different reaction conditions, including time, temperature and FFA content and type (different chain lengths and unsaturation degrees), FFAs were made to interact in model systems with a commercial marine oil (cod liver oil) and two different fish (hake and pout) white muscles. Fluorescence assessment showed a pro-oxidant effect of all types of FFA, which increased with time, temperature and FFA content in the reaction mixtures. At 30 °C a higher degree of oxidation was obtained in systems including the shorter-chain-length fatty acids (lauric and myristic) compared to systems including the longest ones (arachidic and stearic). At the same temperature an increasing pro-oxidant effect was also observed with increasing degree of fatty acid unsaturation (stearic < oleic < linoleic < linolenic). When a lower temperature (−10 °C) was tested, a differential pro-oxidant effect among fatty acids (chain length and unsaturation degree) was not observed.© 2001 Society of Chemical Industry

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... However, there is a lack of previous studies regarding the processing of this species. The available reports focused on sensory and physicochemical changes during refrigerated (2 • C) storage [23], physical, chemical and sensory changes during frozen (−20 • C) storage [19] and lipid oxidation and hydrolysis development in heated (30 • C) minced muscle [24]. ...
... Additionally, FFAs have been reported to undergo a faster oxidation rate than higher molecular weight lipid classes such as triacylglycerols and phospholipids. This differential behavior has been explained on the basis of offering a lower steric hindrance to the initial development of the oxidation mechanism [24,57]. ...
... However, lipid oxidation development in pouting muscle has been described when subjected to other technological treatments. Thus, an important fluorescent compound formation was detected in a heated muscle system (25 d at 30 • C) [24]. However, no increase in the TBA value was detected by Blanco et al. [19] in frozen pouting muscle after 6 months of storage at −20 • C. ...
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The present study focused on the use of pouting (Trisopterus luscus), an underutilized gadoid fish species, as a fresh product of potential commercial interest. Accordingly, non-degutted pouting specimens (145–195 g and 15–22 cm) were stored under chilling conditions (0 °C) for microbial, chemical and sensory analyses to evaluate their commercial quality and shelf life. A progressive quality loss (p < 0.05) was detected for this lean species (5.58 g lipids·kg−1 muscle) as the storage time increased, as determined through microbial (aerobes, psychrotrophs and Enterobacteriaceae counts), lipid hydrolysis (free fatty acid value), lipid oxidation (conjugated diene and triene, thiobarbituric acid reactive substance, and fluorescence values) and sensory acceptance assessment. A detailed comparison to related lean fish species revealed that the pouting exhibited a fast quality breakdown under refrigeration conditions. Thus, after 9 d of chilled storage, the psychrotroph counts exceeded the acceptable limits (8.54 log CFU·g−1), and the fish specimens were found to be rejectable, with the sensory panel, external odor and eye appearance being the limiting factors. In contrast, the pouting specimens exhibited high quality after 3 d of storage, with the quality being still acceptable after 6 d. According to the current search for novel, underutilized species, pouting is proposed as a promising source.
... Pro-oxidative potency of FFA depends on both their concentration and their chemical structures (Aubourg, 2001a;Mistry and Min, 1987;Miyashita and Takagi, 1986). To date, no peer-reviewed papers have described the fatty acid profiles of KO FFA, or investigated the origins of these compounds, which could be important for their prooxidative potency in commercial KO. ...
... Our efforts to measure these values were also unsuccessful since PV titrations gave no clear endpoint; and solutions for spectrophotometric pAV analysis produced an orange precipitate, causing a decrease in absorbance intensity at 350 nm (the diagnostic wavelength of the assay). It has been demonstrated that both FFA concentration and structure affects their pro-oxidative activity, with shorter chain lengths and unsaturated molecules enhancing this effect (Aubourg, 2001a;Mistry and Min, 1987;Miyashita and Takagi, 1986). Several reports suggest that pro-oxidative activity of FFA increases with increasing degrees of unsaturation (Aubourg, 2001a;Miyashita and Takagi, 1986), but others have found that mono-and PUFA Table 1 Lipid class profiles of eight commercial krill oils by gravimetric analysis (phospholipids and neutral lipids) and by thin layer chromatography-flame ionization detection (of neutral lipid fractions); and astaxanthin concentrations by UV spectrophotometry (n = 3 AESD) (Mistry and Min, 1987). ...
... It has been demonstrated that both FFA concentration and structure affects their pro-oxidative activity, with shorter chain lengths and unsaturated molecules enhancing this effect (Aubourg, 2001a;Mistry and Min, 1987;Miyashita and Takagi, 1986). Several reports suggest that pro-oxidative activity of FFA increases with increasing degrees of unsaturation (Aubourg, 2001a;Miyashita and Takagi, 1986), but others have found that mono-and PUFA Table 1 Lipid class profiles of eight commercial krill oils by gravimetric analysis (phospholipids and neutral lipids) and by thin layer chromatography-flame ionization detection (of neutral lipid fractions); and astaxanthin concentrations by UV spectrophotometry (n = 3 AESD) (Mistry and Min, 1987). However, most of this work was performed on seed oils, and all used 18-carbon chain fatty acids, which are perhaps less relevant to marine oils than 20-carbon fatty acids. ...
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The concentrations and pro‐oxidative effects of free fatty acids in commercial krill oil are not well defined. We now report that krill oil free fatty acids account for 2–13% of total lipids in commercial krill oil (n = 8) that these compounds are enriched in eicosapentaenoic acid (+7.1%) and docosahexaenoic acid (+6.3%) relative to whole oils; and that this composition make them highly pro‐oxidizing in marine triacylglycerol oils, but not in krill oil, which derives oxidative stability from both its phospholipids, and neutral lipids (the latter because of astaxanthin). Specific fatty acid esterification patterns showed that krill oil free fatty acids predominantly (88–93%) originated from phospholipids, mainly from the sn‐2 position, which was eight‐fold more hydrolyzed than the sn‐1 position. Lipolysis was not ongoing in stored oils. Adding small amounts of krill oil (1–5%) to marine triacylglycerol oils significantly increased their oxidative stability and also their resistance to free fatty acid‐mediated pro‐oxidative effects.
... D3 ¼ 99 IU/g. CLO is considered an appropriate model system for studying oxidation mechanisms in food containing significant polyunsaturated fatty acids levels [34][35][36]. Previous related research shows that this CLO system could be useful assessing the antioxidant effect of citric acid [34] and the pro-oxidant effect of free fatty acids [35]. ...
... CLO is considered an appropriate model system for studying oxidation mechanisms in food containing significant polyunsaturated fatty acids levels [34][35][36]. Previous related research shows that this CLO system could be useful assessing the antioxidant effect of citric acid [34] and the pro-oxidant effect of free fatty acids [35]. CLO (0.5 g) was dissolved in chloroform (19 mL) [34,35]. ...
... Previous related research shows that this CLO system could be useful assessing the antioxidant effect of citric acid [34] and the pro-oxidant effect of free fatty acids [35]. CLO (0.5 g) was dissolved in chloroform (19 mL) [34,35]. The oil solution was immediately mixed with different volumes of the JSE to obtain the following conditions: 0% JSE (C-0 condition; control), 0.2% JSE (C-1 condition), 0.5% JSE (C-2 condition), 1% JSE (C-3 condition), and 2% JSE (C-4 condition). ...
Article
Pigment compounds were extracted from jumbo squid ( Dosidicus gigas ) skin with an acid‐ethanol solvent (JSE). Freeze‐dried JSE was characterized with respect to solubility in different solvents, absorption UV–VIS, and FT‐IR spectra, and tested for its radical scavenging activity against ABTS and oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC). The potential ability of JSE for inhibiting oxidation of cod liver oil (CLO) was also determined by monitoring dienes, trienes, peroxide value (PV), thiobarbutiric acid (TBA), and polyene index (PI) in samples stored at 15, 25, and 50 ° C for 12 days. Concentrations of 0, 0.1, 0.5, 1, and 2% JSE were added to CLO. The yield of JSE was 8.8 mg/g freeze‐dried skin. Solubility behavior, UV–Vis, and FT‐IR spectra of JSE suggests that this pigment extract might belong to the ommochrome family. Moreover, a characteristic xanthommatin peak (1740 cm ⁻¹ ) was observed. JSE exhibited scavenging activity on ABTS •+ radical and in the ORAC assay. After storage PV and TBA increased, whereas PI decreased mainly in the control treatment. The addition of JSE delayed lipid oxidation in CLO during the first 8 days of storage at 50 ° C. JSE was identified as promising source of antioxidants to retard fish lipid oxidation. Practical applications : This study demonstrates that acid‐ethanol pigment extract from jumbo squid skin, which is a by‐product generated by the squid processing industries, is a valuable antioxidant source. Consistent with the preservative effect observed for this pigment extract, squid skin may be successfully employed to obtain new products for food processing and the pharmaceutical industry, with environmental sustainability benefits and provide a more effective use for jumbo squid by‐products. Acid‐ethanol pigment extracts from freeze‐dried jumbo squid skin (JSE) were added to cod liver oil and stored at 50°C. Increasing levels of JSE (0 < 0.1 < 0.5 < 1 < 2%) led to less lipid oxidation. JSE likely belongs to the ommochromes family.
... The fluorescent compound content (Fluorimeter LS 45; Perkin Elmer España; Tres Cantos, Madrid, Spain) was determined in the aqueous fraction, resulting from the lipid extraction of fish muscle [34]. According to previous research [37], fluorescence was measured at excitation/emission wavelengths of 393/463 and 327/415 nm. The relative fluorescence (RF) was calculated as follows: RF = F/F st , where F is the fluorescence measured at each excitation/emission wavelength pair and F st is the fluorescence intensity of a quinine sulphate solution (1 µg·mL −1 in 0.05 M H 2 SO 4 ) at the corresponding wavelength pair. ...
... Furthermore, FFA formation has shown a remarkable effect on lipid-oxidation development. This effect has been explained as a result of the lower oxidative stability of FFA compared to its corresponding phospholipids and triacylglycerols, since these molecules show a higher steric hindrance to oxidative reactions [37]. ...
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Citation: Castro-Enríquez, D.; Miranda, J.M.; Trigo, M.; Rodríguez-Félix, F.; Aubourg, S.P.; Barros-Velázquez, J. Antioxidant and Antimicrobial Effect of Biodegradable Films Containing Pitaya (Stenocereus thurberi) Extracts during the Refrigerated Storage of Fish. Antioxidants 2023, 12, 544. https:// Abstract: This study focused on the quality loss inhibition of fish muscle during refrigerated storage. Two parallel experiments were carried out that were focused on the employment of pitaya (Stenocereus thurberi) extracts in biodegradable packing films. On the one hand, a pitaya-gelatin film was employed for hake (Merluccius merluccius) muscle storage. On the other hand, a pitaya-polylactic acid (PLA) film was used for Atlantic mackerel (Scomber scombrus) muscle storage. In both experiments, fish-packing systems were stored at 4 • C for 8 days. Quality loss was determined by lipid damage and microbial activity development. The presence of the pitaya extract led to an inhibitory effect (p < 0.05) on peroxide, fluorescent compound, and free fatty acid (FFA) values in the gelatin-hake system and to a lower (p < 0.05) formation of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances, fluorescent compounds, and FFAs in the PLA-mackerel system. Additionally, the inclusion of pitaya extracts in the packing films slowed down (p < 0.05) the growth of aerobes, anaerobes, psychrotrophs, and proteolytic bacteria in the case of the pitaya-gelatin films and of aerobes, anaerobes, and proteolytic bacteria in the case of pitaya-PLA films. The current preservative effects are explained on the basis of the preservative compound presence (betalains and phenolic compounds) in the pitaya extracts.
... Fish muscles are prone to lipolysis and oxidation due to the high activity of the autolytic enzymes, which mainly result in the accumulation of FFA. The presence of FFA has an adverse effect on protein solubility and relative viscosity, which are associated with the textural degradation of the muscle (Aubourg, 2001). Fish powder dried at 70°C had significantly lower (p < 0.05) FFA as compared to powder dried at 80°C (Figure 3). ...
Article
Minced meat of Japanese threadfin bream (Nemipterus japonicus) was foam-mat dried at 70 and 80°C using methyl cellulose (MC) as the foaming agent at concentrations of 0.0, 0.5, 1.0, and 1.5% w/w. The objective was to determine the effect of drying temperature and amount of foaming agent incorporated on the physicochemical and functional properties of the powdered samples. Fish powders had a water activity (aw) of < 0.40, which significantly increased (p < 0.05) with increasing MC concentrations and drying temperatures. Protein solubility (PS) and water holding capacity (WHC) were inversely correlated with the drying temperature (r = -0.943 and -0.749, respectively). Emulsification property had a strong inverse correlation with MC (r = -0.839) as compared to temperature (r = 0.462). The TBARS and FFA values of the fish powders dried at 70°C were significantly lower than at 80°C (p < 0.05). No significant differences were obtained in their fat and ash contents, except for crude protein, which was significantly higher in the fish powder dried at 70°C. Drying at 70°C resulted in overall superior powder properties, with 0.5% MC being the best treatment.
... On the one hand, the freezing, frozen storage, and thawing processes can lead to hydrolysis development of higher-molecular weight lipid classes like phospholipids (PL) and triacylglycerols (TG) by endogenous enzyme (i.e., lipases and phospholipases) activity [30,32,50]. On the other hand, FFA are reported to be more prone to be oxidised or broken down during the freezing, frozen storage, and thawing processes than TG and PL [51]; this behaviour has been explained on the basis of showing a greater accessibility to pro-oxidant molecules. Accordingly, this effect would lead to an FFA value decrease. ...
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The antioxidant properties of the liquor resulting from commercial octopus cooking were analysed for this study. Two different concentrations of octopus-cooking liquor (OCL) were tested as glazing systems during the frozen storage period (−18 °C for up to 6 months) of whole Atlantic horse mackerel (Trachurus trachurus). Compared to water-control glazing samples, an inhibitory effect (p < 0.05) on lipid oxidation development (the formation of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances and fluorescent compounds) was detected in frozen fish treated with the most concentrated OCL-glazing system. Additionally, a preservative effect (p < 0.05) on polyunsaturated fatty acids (measurement of polyene index) was also proved. However, no effect (p > 0.05) on the free fatty acid content and on the ω3/ω6 ratio was detected with the presence of the OCL in the glazing system. An increased lipid quality in frozen horse mackerel was established by including the OCL solution in the glazing system. According to previous research, the observed preserving properties were explained on the basis of the presence of antioxidant compounds in the cooking liquor. A novel and valuable combination of glazing processing and the employment of a marine waste substrate is proposed to enhance the lipid stability of frozen fish.
... The highest FFA values recorded in Tunu mrut from trrutmrnt 3(25˚c) uftrr 120 days of storage, while the lowest values recorded in Tuna meat from trrutmrnt 1(5˚c) ut 0 Iuyss The FFA values in our experiment correspond with (Asgharzadeh et al. 2010) results, who found the FFA values increased with increasing storage time, FFA percentages registered in silver carp was ( 6.6 ) at 0 days, while F.F.A percentages recorded in silver carp was (14.1 ) after 6 months of storage, Also the formation of FFA itself does not lead to nutritional losses, its assessme nt is deemed important when consider ing the development of rancidity. Thus, apro-oxidant effect of FFA on lipid matter has been proposed and explain ed on the basis of a catalytic effect of the carboxyl group on the formation of free radicals by the decomposition of hydroperoxides (Yoshida et al. 1992;Aubourg 2001). On o the other hand , FFA has shown to interact with pro teins leading to fish texture deterioration during frozen storage (Mackie 1993). in addition, The F.F.A results of our study near to results of F.F.A percentages in the study of (Maheswara et al. 2011) that the initial FFA content of freshly prepared canned tuna was (0.7%) and increased to (6.50%). ...
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The aims of this study are determination the change of chemical traits for canned meat tuna storage at different temperatures for different periods. A total number of 56 samples of canned tuna meat products by Iran was collected from Sulaimani city markets. Different indicators were measured (pH, Total volatile base nitrogen, Free fatty acids, and Thiobarbaturic acids), to determine chemical traits in canned meat tuna stored in 3 Inffrrrnt storu r trmprruturr (5, 15, unI 25 ˚C) unI storrI for 120 Iuys, unI compurnn them with the acceptable limits for each trait. All tests were made in the postgraduate laboratories of the Animal Sciences Department, College of Agricultural Engineering Sciences, University of Sulaimani, Kurdistan Region, Iraq, from November 2020 to the end of February 2021 (4 months). this study examined the effects of temperature and duration of storage on pH, TBA, TVN, unI FFA nn cunnrI mrut tunus Thrrr wus u sn nnfncunt nncrrusr (P≤0s05) nn pH, TBA, TVN, and FFA for tuna sample types during storage, the highest pH value in tuna, after 120 days was (8.500) whrn thr cunnrI mrut storu r ut (25˚c), nn addition, TBA value for canned tuna, the highest TBA values recorded in Tuna meat from trrutmrnt 3(25˚c) (2.301 mg MDA/ kg meat) in 120 days, also, the highest TVN value in tuna, after 120 days was (19.855 mg N/ 100g meat) when the canned meat storage at (25˚c), on thr othrr hunI, thr hn hrst FFA prrcrntu r nn tunu uftrr 120 Iuys wus (2s580) whrn thr cunnrI mrut storu r ut (25˚c)s thr vulurs of chrmncul nnIncutors wnthnn thr standard limits.
... Lipid hydrolysis does not reduce the nutrition of the food, but has a direct impact on the sensory aspects of the food. A marked direct effect of FFA formation on lipid oxidation had been reported, this effect was explained by the lower oxidative stability of FFA compared to the corresponding triacylglycerols and phospholipids because of its less steric hindrance to oxidation reactions (Aubourg, 2001). The release of active ingredients was mainly concentrated on the food surface and had an inhibitory effect on lipid hydrolysis, which helped to slow down the process of lipid oxidation. ...
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The effects of Caulerpa lentillifera (CL) extract incorporation on antioxidant activity, antibacterial activity, water stability, and physical properties of the chitosan/gelatin (CS/GEL) films were studied. The CL extract containing CS/GEL composite film was prepared by the casting method. The effect of CL content (1%, 3%, 5%) on the antioxidant properties, thermal property, mechanical properties, barrier properties, water stability and water contact angle of CS/GEL films was evaluated. With the increase of CL extract content, bumps and micro‐pores appeared on the surface and cross‐section of the composite films. The water contact angle, water solubility, and water absorption swelling rate of the composite films were improved with the addition of CL; therefore, the composite films exhibited better water stability. The TS of films were enhanced (from 12.57 to 23.66 MPa). Compared with the normal CS/GEL films, the CS/GEL‐CL films exhibited better antioxidant with DPPH scavenging capacity values of 72.6% and could effectively slow down the lipid oxidation of refrigerated pork samples during storage, such as lower accumulation of free fatty acid content and fluorescence compound formation. This suggested that CS/GEL‐CL film might be suitable as active films for food packaging.
... Hal inidisebabkan karena kadar lemak terasi yang rendah berkisar 2,31-2,52% sehingga proses oksidasi lemak selama proses hidrolisis juga tidak menghasilkan bau tengik yang tajam. Aubourg (2001) menyatakan bahwa asam lemak bebas hasil dari hidrolisis lemak dapat digunakan untuk mengetahui ketengikan. Tingkat penerimaan panelis terhadap bau terasi pada penelitian ini tidak berbeda jauh dari hasil penelitian sebelumnya yang dilakukan oleh Kaurong et al. (2018) yang melakukan analisis sensori parameter bau pada jeroan ikan cakalang dimana nilai penerimaan bau yang diperoleh adalah 7,4 -9,0. ...
Article
The aim of this study was to determine the effect of the addition of papain enzymes to sensory values, testing the pH of shrimp head shrimp paste and the proximate value of vaname shrimp head shrimp paste.The study design used a completely randomized design (CRD) with 4 treatments and 3 replications. The addition of papain enzymewere 0%, 4%, 6% and 8%. sensory analysis value showed that the highest addition of 4% papain enzyme. Chemical analysis of the highest water content at 0% is 39.37%, the highest ash content at 8% is 23.36, the highest protein content at 0% is 28.89% and the highest total fat content at 0% is 2.52%. Keywords: papain enzyme, shrimp head, shrimp pasteABSTRAKTujuan penelitian ini untuk mengetahui pengaruh penambahan enzim papainterhadap nilai sensori, pengujian pH terasi kepala udang dannilai proksimat terasi kepala udang vaname.Rancangan penelitianmengunakan Rancangan Acak Lengkap (RAL) dengan 4 pelakuan dan3 kali ulangan.Perlakuan yang diberikan adalah 0%, 4%, 6% enzim papain dan 8%. Berdasarkan nilai analisis sensori (kenampakan, bau, rasa, tekstur) menunjukan bahwa penambahan enzim papain 4% yang tertinggi. Analisis kimia kadar air tertinggi pada 0% yaitu 39,37%, kadar abu tertinggi pada 8% yaitu 23,36, kadar protein tertinggi pada 0% yaitu 28,89% dan kadar lemak total tertinggi pada 0% yaitu 2,52%.Kata kunci: enzim papain, kepala udang, terasi
... On the other, the sterilisation process should breakdown higher-molecular weight lipid molecules and lead to a content increase of FFA values [24,30]. However, it has been proven that FFA compounds are more prone to undergo lipid oxidation development than higher-molecular weight molecules [38,39]. Therefore, the oxidation of FFA ought to be produced during the frozen storage and especially during the sterilisation process, leading to an FFA content decrease. ...
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The effects on lipid damage in canned horse mackerel (Trachurus trachurus) of a prior frozen storage (‒18 °C) period and the presence of an octopus (Octopus vulgaris) cooking juice (OCJ) in the packing medium were investigated. An increase of the frozen storage time favoured an increase (p < 0.05) of free fatty acid (FFA), peroxide, and thiobarbituric acid reactive substance contents and a decrease (p < 0.05) of the phospholipid (PL) value and polyene index. Furthermore, an increased presence of OCJ in the packing medium led to an inhibitory effect (p < 0.05) on fluorescent compound formation as well as to a retention (p < 0.05) of the PL and FFA compounds. Colour determination showed a substantial increase (p < 0.05) of L* and b* values in canned fish with previous frozen storage time. Nevertheless, this increase was partly reduced (p < 0.05) by the OCJ presence in the packing medium. It is concluded that previous holding time has led to an increased lipid oxidation development and loss of beneficial lipid constituents (i.e., PLs and polyunsaturated fatty acids). Remarkably, the presence in the packing medium of preservative compounds (i.e., antioxidants) included in waste juice obtained from octopus processing provided an effective tool for lipid preservation and quality enhancement in canned fish.
... On one side, the freezing, frozen storage and thawing process can lead to the hydrolysis development of high-molecular-weight lipid classes like PL and triacylglycerols (TG) as a result of endogenous enzyme activity (Sikorski & Kolakowski, 2000;V azquez et al., 2018). On the other side, FFA is likely to be oxidised or broken down during freezing, frozen storage and thawing process as showing a greater accessibility to pro-oxidant molecules than TG and PL (Aubourg, 2001); therefore, this effect would lead to a FFA content decrease. According to previous studies on seafood frozen storage (Losada et al., 2007;Romotowska et al., 2016), the first effect has been shown to be more important in the present study. ...
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By‐products (viscera, tails, skin, etc.) resulting from Patagonian squid (Doryteuthis gahi) commercialisation were pooled together and stored at −10 and –18 °C for 12 months. During this storage time, 81.1–83.7 and 1.7–2.4 (g 100 g⁻¹) ranges were detected for moisture and lipid values, respectively. An increased storage time and temperature led to free fatty acid formation and phospholipid content decrease (P < 0.05). Meantime, peroxide levels were low and included in 2.1–3.6 meq. active oxygen kg⁻¹ lipids range. Contrary, substantial formation (P < 0.05) of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances and fluorescent compounds was proved, values being higher by increasing the time and temperature of storage of squid by‐products. Related to amine formation, trimethylamine values increased notably (P < 0.05) with storage, higher values being obtained by increasing the storage time and temperature. For total volatile amines, increased levels with storage time were detected in samples stored at −10 °C; contrary, by‐products stored at the lowest temperature tested did not provide differences (P > 0.05), resulting from the storage time. This study shows the need of appropriate storage conditions to offer the current by‐products as a source of valuable marine constituents. Present results meet the present global interests in the search for new and undervalued marine substrates to be employed commercially.
... It is generally accepted that accumulation of FFA resulting from lipid hydrolysis in fish muscle has no nutritional significance. Nevertheless, this damage pathway has been recognised as an important event during fish processing leading to deteriorative changes of muscle texture, acceleration of lipid oxidation compounds formation, and off-odour and off-taste development [28,29]. In the current research, FFA content can be considered as the result of several factors. ...
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The preservative properties of waste liquor obtained from octopus (Octopus vulgaris) cooking were investigated. Three different concentrations (high, medium, and low) of octopus cooking liquor (OCL) were included, respectively, in the aqueous packaging medium employed for mackerel (Scomber colias) canning. As a result, the canning process led to an increase (p < 0.05) of lipid content, lipid oxidation (development of fluorescent compounds and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances, TBARS), lipid hydrolysis (formation of free fatty acids, FFA) and ω3/ω6 ratio in fish muscle. In all canned samples, primary (peroxides) and secondary (TBARS) levels of lipid oxidation were low. Remarkably, the presence in the packaging medium of the high and medium OCL concentrations led to lower (p < 0.05) lipid oxidation development (fluorescent compound and TBARS detection, respectively). Furthermore, an increasing OCL presence led to an average decrease of peroxide and FFA content and to an average increase of the polyene index (PI). All OCL-packaged muscle showed lower average values of saturated fatty acids and ω3/ω6 ratio and higher average values of PI and monounsaturated fatty acid presence. This study provides a first approach to novel and beneficial use of the present marine waste to inhibit lipid damage of commercial canned fish.
... On one side, the heating process can produce hydrolysis development of lipid classes like phospholipids (PLs) and triacylglycerols (TGs), leading to FFA formation. On the other side, FFA are likely to be quickly oxidised or broken down by the heating process to provide greater accessibility to oxygen and other pro-oxidant molecules when compared to TG and PL [41]; therefore, this effect would lead to an FFA content decrease. Compared with values detected in the edible parts of cephalopod species and marine species in general [31,42], the FFA levels of the current starting viscera can be considered relatively high. ...
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Green extraction was applied to Argentinean shortfin squid (Illex argentinus) viscera, consisting of a wet pressing method including a drying step, mechanic pressing, centrifugation of the resulting slurry, and oil collection. To maximise the oil yield and ω3 fatty acid content and to minimise the oil damage degree, a response surface methodology (RSM) design was developed focused on the drying temperature (45–85 °C) and time (30–90 min). In general, an increase of the drying time and temperature provided an increase in the lipid yield recovery from the viscera. The strongest drying conditions showed a higher recovery than 50% when compared with the traditional chemical method. The docosahexaenoic and eicosapentaenoic acid contents in the extracted oil revealed scarce dependence on drying conditions, showing valuable ranges (149.2–166.5 and 88.7–102.4 g·kg−1 oil, respectively). Furthermore, the values of free fatty acids, peroxides, conjugated dienes, and ω3/ω6 ratio did not show extensive differences by comparing oils obtained from the different drying conditions. Contrary, a polyene index (PI) decrease was detected with increasing drying time and temperature. The RSM analysis indicated that optimised drying time (41.3 min) and temperature (85 °C) conditions would lead to 74.73 g·kg−1 (oil yield), 1.87 (PI), and 6.72 (peroxide value) scores, with a 0.67 desirability value.
... Among such negative modifications, texture changes and the development of off-odor and off-taste can be highlighted. Furthermore, a marked direct effect of FFA formation on lipid oxidation has been reported, this effect being explained on the basis of a lower oxidative stability of FFA as compared with their corresponding triacylglycerols and phospholipids as a result of lower steric hindrance to oxidative reactions (Aubourg, 2001). FFA formation in fish muscle during refrigerated storage has been explained as a result of endogenous and microbial enzyme activities (Campos et al., 2012). ...
Article
Lyophilized alga Fucus spiralis powder was incorporated into a gelatin-based film and employed as a packaging system for mackerel (Scomber scombrus) muscle portions throughout a 9-day refrigerated storage period at 4 °C. In global terms, a progressive loss of quality could be observed in fish muscle with increasing storage time. Comparisons between batches allowed us to conclude an inhibitory effect of F. spiralis-containing films on microbial activity (assessment of aerobes, psychrotrophs, and proteolytic bacteria) and on lipid hydrolysis (as determined by free fatty acid formation) in mackerel muscle. The presence of the lyophilized macroalga in the packaging film also led to a higher retention of primary (peroxides) and secondary (thiobarbituric acid reactive substances) lipid oxidation compounds, while the formation of fluorescent compounds (interaction compounds between lipid oxidation compounds and nucleophilic molecules present in the fish muscle) decreased. Both antimicrobial and antioxidant effects were more intense when the concentration of alga in the packaging film was increased. The preservative effect resulting from the presence of F. spiralis in gelatin-based films demonstrates the potential employment of such bioactive films to improve the retention of fish quality and enhance its commercial value.
... On one side, both endogenous and microbial enzymes (namely, lipases and phospholipases) can hydrolyse high-molecular-weight lipids such as PL and TG. On the other, and as they are low-molecular-weight molecules, FFA are likely to be rapidly oxidised or broken down during storage due to their greater accessibility to oxygen and other pro-oxidant molecules as compared to TG and PL [45]. On the basis of the marked formation of FFA, the first factor has been shown to be more important. ...
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This work addressed the preservative behaviour of different icing media containing extracts from the alga Bifurcaria bifurcata. A comparative study of the antimicrobial and antioxidant effects of aqueous and ethanolic extracts of this macroalga was carried out. Whole hake (Merluccius merluccius) pieces were stored in ice containing either kind of extract and analysed for quality changes throughout a 13-day storage period. A progressive loss of microbial and biochemical quality was detected in all batches as chilling time increased. A significant inhibitory effect (p < 0.05) on microbial activity could be observed as a result of including the aqueous (lowering of psychrotrophic and lipolytic counts and pH value) and ethanolic (lowering of psychrotrophic and lipolytic counts) extracts. Additionally, both kinds of extract led to a substantial inhibition (p < 0.05) in the lipid hydrolysis rate (formation of free fatty acids), greater in the case of the batch containing ethanolic extract. Concerning lipid oxidation, a similar inhibitory effect (p < 0.05) on the formation of secondary compounds (thiobarbituric acid substances) was noticed in fish specimens corresponding to both alga extracts; however, more (p < 0.05) peroxide formation was detected in fish corresponding to the ethanolic extract batch. A preservative effect can be concluded for both kinds of extract; this effect agrees with previous studies reporting the presence of hydrophilic and lipophilic bioactive compounds in B. bifurcata.
... As per this profile, endogenous lipases might contribute to the initial lag period where the hydrolysis occurred very slowly followed by a rapid increase by microbial catabolic processes. The importance of FFA formation in fish muscle is that FFA indirectly affects the nutritional quality by interfering with ATPase activity, protein solubility, texture, and oxidative stability of lipids (Aubourg, 2001). ...
Article
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Gravads were prepared from Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) and evaluated its shelf life during chilled (6°C) and iced (0°C) storage. For standardizing the gravading process, different salt:sugar combinations of gravad mix and two steaks to gravad mixture ratio (1:0.1 and 1:0.2) were selected. Gravads prepared using 1:2 salt‐sugar in the gravad mix and a ratio of 1:0.1 steaks to gravad mix was found optimum combination. Gravads prepared using the standardized combination of salt and sugar were stored at 0°C and 6°C and evaluated for its biochemical and sensorial changes. Total volatile base nitrogen (TVB‐N) increased from 10.25 mg/100 g to 29.85 and 30.66 mg/100 g on Day 41 and Day 49 for chilled and iced samples, respectively. The extend of secondary oxidation was low in both samples, registering an increase from 0.14 mg MDA/kg sample to 0.814 and 0.851 MDA/kg sample on 41st and 49th day, respectively, for chilled and iced samples. Water soluble and salt soluble nitrogen contents were reduced to 1.82 and 5.47 mg/100 g and 1.58 and 4.72 mg/100 g by the end of 41st and 49th day, respectively, for chilled and ice stored gravads. The shelf life of gravads was determined as 41 days under chilled storage and 45 days under iced storage. Nile tilapia is widely cultured fish species in India after the Indian major carps. It is of great interest to the farmers and demand among the consumers because of its fast growth rate and good meat quality. Value addition is an effective approach to utilize this resource cost‐effectively during excessive production periods. Conversion of Nile tilapia into gravads not only increases the value but also enhances the quality and shelf life of the product. The results of the present study provide an idea of appropriate process parameters for making gravads from Nile tilapia and information on its shelf life under refrigerated storage.
... Bien que l'activité des phospholipases diminue après 7 jours de stockage sous glace (2-3°C) l'activité des lipases continue au-delà de 15 jours (Hwang and Regenstein 1993;Aubourg, Medina et al. 1998 Han and Liston (1987) réalisés sur des microsomes de muscle de truite arc-enciel (Salmo gairdnerii) suggèrent l'existence d'une corrélation entre l'oxydation des lipides et l'activité de la phospholipase A2. D'après Aubourg (2001;2001a), les acides gras libres ont un effet pro-oxydant sur les lipides de poisson. ...
Thesis
La fraîcheur est un paramètre déterminant de la qualité sanitaire du poisson. S’agissant d’une matrice très altérable, l’évaluation objective de sa fraîcheur est essentielle pour les opérateurs de la filière mais également pour les services d’inspection. Différents outils et techniques sensoriels, chimiques, physiques et microbiologiques ont été développés pour essayer de déterminer le niveau d’altération mais présentent plusieurs limites et caractérisent le plus souvent des seuils de rejet. L’objectif de la thèse est de proposer une nouvelle méthode basée sur l’étude des composés volatils de la chair du poisson qui permette de déterminer sa qualité de manière fiable et objective dès les premiers stades d’altération. Pour cela, différentes méthodes d’extraction des composés volatils [Headspace Statique avec la Micro - Extraction en Phase Solide (HS - SPME) et Headspace Dynamique (DH) avec le système « Purge and Trap »] ont été employé es, et différents outils analytiques [Chromatographie en phase Gazeuse à une et deux dimensions (GC et GC - GC) couplée à la Spectrométrie de Masse (MS) ou à l’Olfactométrie (O)] ont été testés sur diverses espèces de poissons entiers ou en filets [merlan ( Merlangius merlangus ) , bar commun ( Dicentrarchus labrax ) , dorade royale ( Sparus aurata ), cabillaud ( Gadus morhua ) et saumon ( Salmo salar ) ] au cours de plusieurs suivis d’altération. Les analyses en HS - SPME - GC - MS, DH - GC - MS - 8O et DH - GC - GC - MS - O des fractions volatiles de ces cinq espèces en complément des analyses sensorielles, à différents jours de conservation (1, 4, 7, 10 et 15), ont permis d’identifier plus de 1 22 composés volatils communs aux 5 espèces, qui font partie principalement des familles des aldéhydes, des alcools et des cétones. Différentes études statistiques basées sur des analyses descriptives (ACP et CAH) ont permis d’identifier des marqueurs de qualité du poisson dès les premiers stades d’altération (3 - méthyl - 1 - butanol, 3 - méthyl - butanal , diméthyl - sulfide, éthyl - acetate, 2 - éthyl - furan...) et sur des analyses prédictives (ANOVA et RLM) pour aboutir à un modèle qui prédit un indice de fraicheur en relation avec le profil volatil du poisson
... FFA formation has been reported to exert a direct effect on lipid oxidation development, this effect being based on the catalytic effect of the carboxyl group on the formation of free radicals by breakdown of hydroperoxides (Aubourg 2001). Furthermore, a lower oxidative stability in FFA than in their corresponding methyl esters and triglycerides has been reported as a result of a lower steric hindrance to oxidative reactions (Miyashita and Takagi 1986). ...
Article
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This study focused on the development of novel active packaging methods based on natural compounds. Its main objective was the quality enhancement of refrigerated packaged fish. For it, the effect of the inclusion of a protein concentrate (PC) extracted from microalga Spirulina platensis into a crosslinked gelatine-based biofilm was investigated during the preservation of hake (Merluccius merluccius) muscle. Thus, microbiological and chemical analyses related to quality loss were monitored throughout a 7-day storage at 4 °C. Statistically significant (p < 0.05) lower counts (log CFU g−1 muscle) were obtained for aerobe mesophiles, psychrotrophs, proteolytics, lipolytics, and Enterobacteriaceae in refrigerated fish muscle as a result of the microalga PC presence in the packaging medium when compared with fish corresponding to the control batch. With respect to the lipid fraction, an inhibitory effect on lipid hydrolysis development (free fatty acids formation) (p < 0.05) was concluded and, furthermore, a higher (p < 0.05) polyunsaturated fatty acid retention (polyene index value) was achieved in the PC-treated fish at the end of the storage time. Fish quality enhancement derived from the use of the spirulina PC in the packaging medium was concluded, this result being linked to the presence of preservative water-soluble molecules in the PC extract. Further research related to the optimisation of processing conditions ought to be addressed.
... The oxidative instability of bulk oil also depends upon the chain length and degree of unsaturation of fatty acids present in glycerides of bulk oil. An increasing degree of unsaturation of the FFA added led to increasing oxidation development in the reaction systems when the reaction temperature was 30 °C (Aubourg, 2001). The added FFA increases both the primary and secondary oxidation products in bulk oil (Paradiso et al., 2010). ...
Article
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Oil extracted from pelagic fishes, rich in n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) like Eicosapentaenoic acid and Docosahexaenoic acid, have numerous health benefits. The oil also contains impurities like di- and mono glycerides, free fatty acids, phospholipids, unsaponifiable matter, metal ions and volatile compounds. Most of these impurities are removed by refining process without affecting valuable n-3 PUFA. However, due to the presence of residual impurities, environmental factors and higher degree of unsaturation, the oil exhibit hydrolytic and oxidative instability during storage. This study was aimed to identify the most detrimental factors causing hydrolytic and oxidative instability and deterioration of n-3 PUFA content in sardine oil during five-week storage. The effect of various extrinsic and intrinsic factors on the storage stability was investigated. The hydrolytic and oxidative instability was estimated by free fatty acid (FFA) content and totox value (TV) respectively. Moisture, sunlight, ferric ions and FFA were found to be most detrimental to oil quality and n-3 PUFA content. Although, addition of phosphotidylcholine and phospholipase-A showed high degree of hydrolytic and oxidative instability, n-3 PUFA destruction was minimal. Interestingly, even in the presence of ferric ions and FFA, phosphotidylcholine and phospholipase-A exhibited n-3 PUFA protection. The exact mechanism by which phosphotidylcholine and phospholipase-A offered protection to n-3 PUFA needs further investigation. From this study, it can be concluded that removing ferric ions, moisture and FFA from crude oil during refining is essential. Further, the refined oil must be stored under dark conditions in airtight containers to retard deterioration of oil quality.
... Lipolysis of TG generates FFA, which contribute to flavor defects (rancidity, astringency, or bitterness) and alter the functionality of milk (Deeth, 2006;Ray et al., 2013). The FFA are more susceptible to oxidation than the TG (Aubourg, 2001), particularly FFA that comprise short or medium chains (C4: 0-C12: 0). Our results were consistent with a study showing that the FFA content of milk was increased after thermal treatment due to the increased lipolysis and oxidation of TG (Pereda et al., 2008). ...
Article
Triglyceride (TG) and fatty acid profiles of raw (RM), pasteurized (PM, 85°C for 15 s), and indirect UHT-treated (UM, 135°C for 15 s) cow milk were investigated by a lipidomics approach. Ninety-four TG were identified and all were present at significantly lower concentrations in UM than in RM or PM, and free fatty acid contents were significantly higher in UM than in RM and PM, indicating that TG lipolysis occurred to a greater degree in UM than in RM and PM. In addition, UM contained significantly fewer unsaturated fatty acids (14 types) than those in RM and PM, including C14:1n-5, C15:1n-5, C16:1n-7, C17:1n-7, C18:1n9 cis, C18:2n-6 cis, C18:3n-3, C18:3n-6, C20:1, C20:2, C20:3n-6, C20:3n-3, C20:4n-6, and C20:5n-3. However, we detected no significant differences between RM and PM in these fatty acids. In conclusion, UHT treatment, but not pasteurization, caused loss of the nutritional quality and bioactivity of cow milk lipid profiles.
... The oxidative instability of bulk oil also depends upon the chain length and degree of unsaturation of fatty acids present in glycerides of bulk oil. An increasing degree of unsaturation of the FFA added led to increasing oxidation development in the reaction systems when the reaction temperature was 30 °C (Aubourg, 2001). The added FFA increases both the primary and secondary oxidation products in bulk oil (Paradiso et al., 2010). ...
Preprint
Full-text available
Oil extracted from pelagic fishes, rich in n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) like Eicosapentaenoic acid and Docosahexaenoic acid, have numerous health benefits. The oil also contains impurities like di-and mono glycerides, free fatty acids, phospholipids, unsaponifiable matter, metal ions and volatile compounds. Most of these impurities are removed by refining process without affecting valuable n-3 PUFA. However, due to the presence of residual impurities, environmental factors and higher degree of unsaturation, the oil exhibit hydrolytic and oxidative instability during storage. This study was aimed to identify the most detrimental factors causing hydrolytic and oxidative instability and deterioration of n-3 PUFA content in sardine oil during five-week storage. The effect of various extrinsic and intrinsic factors on the storage stability was investigated. The hydrolytic and oxidative instability was estimated by free fatty acid (FFA) content and totox value (TV) respectively. Moisture, sunlight, ferric ions and FFA were found to be most detrimental to oil quality and n-3 PUFA content. Although, addition of phosphotidylcholine and phospholipase-A showed high degree of hydrolytic and oxidative instability, n-3 PUFA destruction was minimal. Interestingly, even in the presence of ferric ions and FFA, phosphotidylcholine and phospholipase-A exhibited n-3 PUFA protection. The exact mechanism by which phosphotidylcholine and phospholipase-A offered protection to n-3 PUFA needs further investigation. From this study, it can be concluded that removing ferric ions, moisture and FFA from crude oil during refining is essential. Further, the refined oil must be stored under dark conditions in airtight containers to retard deterioration of oil quality.
... Glycerides, glycolipids and phospholipids are hydrolyzed by lipase enzymes and converted to free fatty acids, which later are transformed into aldehydes and ketones. Hydrolysis of lipid alone does not reduce the quality, taste and odor of the product, but FFA have a direct negative effect on the taste of fish flesh and exacerbates lipid oxidation [3,20]. Changes in the FFA values of the spangled emperor fillets during refrigerated storage (4 ± 2 °C) are shown in Fig. 1d. ...
Article
In this study, the effect of carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) edible coating containing summer savory (Satureja hortensis) extract (SHE) on the quality changes of spangled emperor (Lethrinus nebulosus) fillets over a period of 9 days of refrigerated storage (4 ± 2 °C) was investigated. The compounds of S. hortensis extract were evaluated by GC/MS, and carvacrol (28.67%) was the main combination of the extract. According to the results of this study, microbial growth, lipid oxidation and protein degradation in the coated fillets were delayed compared to the control sample (uncoated). Also, texture hardness and sensory properties of the treated samples improved as compared to the control during refrigerated storage. Among treatments, CMC+ 1.5% SHE was the most effective treatment to maintain the quality of L. nebulosus fillets. Thus, carboxymethyl cellulose coating enriched with S. hortensis extract could be a promising method to maintain the quality of L. nebulosus fillets during refrigerated storage.
... It naturally has a high content of unsaturated fatty acids, such as Eicosapentaenoic Acid (EPA) and Docosahexaenoic Acid (DHA), that are very useful for human health. The importance of rainbow trout is because it is rich in unsaturated long chain fatty acids that could be useful in controlling cardiovascular diseases, cancers, Alzheimer's, infectious diseases and blood pressure (Aubourg, 2001;Barat et al., 2006). It is not always possible to supply fresh fish in the market, therefore, during storage, lipid oxidation produces unpleasant smells, undesirable tastes and reduces the nutritional value of the fish (Begin and Calsteren, 1999). ...
Article
The present study aimed at extending shelf life of rainbow trout fillet. Fish and seafoods are the most valuable nutrients, however, high levels of moisture, free amino acids, unsaturated fatty acids, and the content of nutrients make them to be categorized as spoilable and unstable foods. The objective of this research was to study of the shelf life of rainbow trout fillets using Salvia officinalis L. extract. Chemical and microbial analyses were performed on treatments. The usage of hydro-ethanol extract of S. officinalis L. significantly decreased microbial growth in fish fillet and there were significant differences among concentrations of the extract (p ≤ 0.05). The presence of extract of S. officinalis L. resulted in an inhibitory effect on the formation of TVB-N and FFA in comparison with the control group at all analytical times. In conclusion, the shelf life of fish fillets was increased noticeably using extract at 4 ± 1 °C.
... Although the formation of FFAs does not diminish nutritional value, it may directly affect the flavor of fermented food products. Further degradation by different routes may result in important compositional changes affecting flavor (Aubourg, 2001). The FFA content of skate muscle during fermentation is summarized in Fig. 6. ...
... Fats will be transformed into aldehydes and ketones in continue of oxidation process whose production will result in undesirable taste in fish [45].Allowed limit of FFA has been defined as 5% [46].FFA production has a direct negative impact on the taste of fish. It was also mentioned that FFA production can intensify fat oxidation in fish [47]. ...
Article
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Application of natural preservatives in the food industry has been taken into account more than in previous decay. Zataria multiflora Boiss essential oil (ZtEO), which has been paid attention by researchers, has a widerange of antimicrobial and antioxidant activity. But the essential oils required to be encapsulated due to the problematic usage of free from due low dispersion in the aqueous phase, sensitivity to oxidation and decreasing of sensorial properties of incorporated food. Fish and other seafoods, despite the high nutritional value, are considered as quick-corrupted food due to having chemical compounds e.g. unsaturated fatty acids, a high percentage of proteins and high pH; In this research, the impact of nanoliposomal encapsulated ZtEO was investigated on the shelf life of rainbow trout fillet. So, ZtEO, was encapsulated in liposome using the thermal method and the most suitable formulation was achieved which includes 2.5 %w/w, phosphatidylcholine, process temperature 35˚C, at time 42 min and 0.81 ratio of essential oil to phosphatidyl choline. Then fish fillets were encountered with nanoliposomes containing ZtEO in concentration 0.5, 1, 2, 4, and 8 %w/w. The best concentrations included 1, 2 and 4%, were subjected under chemical test and microbial evaluation test (total and psychrophilic counts). Finally, sensory evaluation tests were conducted in triplicate in days 0, 3, 6, 9, 12 at 4°C. The results of chemical, microbial and sensory evaluations show that in rainbow trout fillet incorporated with nanoliposomal ZtEO, the quality and the shelf life of fillet in cold storage was increased. Also results of showed that incorporation of fillet with 4% nanoliposomal ZtEo leads to more suitable condition in term of antioxidant and microbial properties as well as sensory evaluation.
... Although the formation of FFA itself does not lead to nutritional losses, and also the FFA values in the product on 150th day were not much high level, its assessment is deemed important when considering the development of rancidity. A pro-oxidant effect of FFA on lipid matter has been explained on the basis of a catalytic effect of the carboxyl group on the formation of free radicals by the decomposition of hydroperoxides (Aubourg 2001). Similar observation was in accordance with the earlier reports by Aubourg et al. (2004) in horse mackerel, Arnanda et al. (2006) in jack mackerel and Rodriquez et al. (2007) in farmed coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch). ...
Article
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Textural changes as well as protein degradation during frozen storage of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) at −18C for 150 days were studied. Salt-soluble protein and protein solubility decreased significantly during the frozen storage period. Sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis was performed, and no visible changes in myosin heavy chain were observed up to 90th day of frozen storage period; however, the thickness of band was found to decrease thereafter. A new lighter band with molecular weight of 29 kDa was found on 120th and 150th day of sampling period. Actin was found more resistant to proteolysis. Texture profile analysis revealed that hardness 1, hardness 2, gumminess and chewiness gradually decreased up to 120th day, but showed an increase thereafter. Although sensory attributes decreased with the progress of frozen storage period, the fish was in acceptable condition on 150th day. Gradual toughening of muscle was recorded by the sensory panelists.
... Par contre, elle devient toxique pour les cellules sanguines même à faible concentration. Il apparaît que le procédé d'extraction de la CPO a provoqué l'oxydation des lipides dont les produits comme l'hexanal, le 2,4-décadiénal, le propanal sont prooxydants (El-Magoli et al., 1980;Aubourg 2001 Holloway et al., 2000;Dewanto et al., 2002;Graziani et al., 2003;. Pour disperser les caroténoïdes, les lipides sont parfois utilisés. ...
Thesis
L’arille de Momordica cochinchinensis (gac), un fruit de la famille des Cucurbitacées, est la source végétale la plus riche en lycopène et β-carotène. Ces deux composés ont, respectivement, un rôle de puissant antioxydant et de provitamine A, intéressant les compléments santé. Tout d'abord, un procédé d’extraction fractionnée douce a été développé pour extraire ces caroténoïdes naturels en gardant leur qualité originale. Puis, le lycopène et le β-carotène extraits ont été caractérisés et analysés. Au moins 95 % des extraits sont composés de l’isomère all-trans. Ils ne sont pas dégradés pendant le traitement thermique représentant les procédés de formulation. Leur stéréo-mutation thermique a été évaluée. Le lycopène est plus antioxydant et donc plus rapidement isomérisé que le β-carotène à haute température. L’isomérisation augmente leur activité antioxydante, qui a été évalué par test chimique TEAC et sur l’hémolyse des cellules sanguines (KRL) in vitro. Les deux caroténoïdes de l’arille de gac sont beaucoup plus antioxydants que le Trolox contre l’hémolyse. En comparant avec d’autres sources de β-carotène, les caroténoïdes extraits de gac dans ces conditions douces restent antioxydants même à des concentrations plus élevées contrairement à ceux extraits dans des conditions classiques qui deviennent prooxydants. Ces résultats permettent de discuter la bioactivité des caroténoïdes d'après leur qualité et de leur origine, c’est à dire leur source et leur procédé d’extraction. D’un point de vue applicatif, outre le procédé de fractionnement qui est industrialisable, le traitement thermique appliqué permet de contrôler la fonctionnalité des produits riches en caroténoïdes.
... Furthermore, in oils containing more than 0.5% FFA, FFA can react in a saponification reaction with alkali catalysts used in biodiesel industry, leading to a reduced efficiency and an increased need for downstream processing [10]. In addition, FFA are known to have a pro-oxidative effect [11,12] and to be more readily oxidized by lipoxygenase enzymes [13,14]. This secondary effect of the presence of FFA also has detrimental effects on oil quality, as oxidation products of lipids can have a negative impact on flavor and nutritional value, can cause bleaching [15] and formation of deposits in biodiesel production systems [16]. ...
Article
Microalgae are promising sources of lipids for applications in food, fuel, pharmaceutics and cosmetics. However, these lipids are also subject to lipolysis reactions during processing and storage. Especially during wet biomass storage, substantial amounts of free fatty acids (FFA) are formed, which has negative effects on flavor and nutritional value and can cause downstream processing problems in biodiesel production. This study contributes to a better understanding of the underlying processes leading to lipolysis by focusing on cell wall differences between species. Therefore, in a first phase, a comparison was made between the lipolytic stability of Nannochloropsis oculata and T-Isochrysis lutea, two species reported to have substantial differences in cell wall structure and strength. Nannochloropsis appeared to be stable during the first days of wet storage, while in T-Isochrysis, lipolysis started immediately after harvest. In a second experiment, the influence of cell disruption by high pressure homogenization (HPH) on lipolytic stability during wet storage of Nannochloropsis was investigated. It was observed that the HPH treatment induced lipolysis, as the FFA content was rapidly increasing immediately after the treatment, in contrast to the control sample, in which the FFA content was constant during the first days of storage. The integrity of the microalgal cell was thus found to play a crucial role in lipid stability during short-term post-harvest wet storage.
... The presence of nonantioxidant compounds in the reaction can influence phytochemical interactions because these compounds can interfere with the antioxidant activities of phytochemicals. Interfering compounds include food matrix compositions: proteins and amino acids (P erez-Jim enez and Saura-Calixto, 2006); and pro-oxidant agents: metal ions (Celik et al., 2010) and free fatty acids (Aubourg, 2001; Kamal-Eldin and Budilarto, 2014). These compounds affect the performance of antioxidants resulting in incorrect estimation of the antioxidant synergy. ...
Article
The combinations of two or more phytochemicals bring about changes in the ultimate biological effects and/or the bioavailability of each component. A number of mixtures of pure bioactive compounds or phytochemical-containing plant extracts provide synergy with regard to antioxidant status, anti-inflammation, anti-cancer and chemoprevention of several oxidative stress and metabolic disorders in vitro. The biological activities of food phytochemicals depend upon their bioaccessibility and bioavailability which can be affected by the presence of other food components including other bioactive constituents. The interactions between phytochemicals during intestinal absorption could result in changes in the bioavailability of the compounds, which in turn affects the intensity of their bioactivities. This paper provides an overview of combined biological effects of phytochemical mixtures derived from fruits and vegetables with a focus on anti-oxidative, anti-inflammatory and anti-carcinogenic activities. The bioavailability impairment or enhancement caused by the co-consumption of dietary phytochemicals is also discussed. Finally, research gaps for future studies on phytochemical interactions are identified.
... Hence, fluorescence spectroscopy was used in many food areas including sugar processes (Bro et al. 2002), oxidation evaluation of fish and meat (Aubourg et al. 1998), dairy products (Christensen et al. 2003), beers (Sikorska et al. 2004) and flour (Zandomeneghi et al. 2003). Aubourg (2001) and Aubourg et al. (1995) considered that fuorescence detection provided a rapid assessment of quality changes in fish lipid, and also could be more satisfactory for most other lipids than traditional detection methods (AV, POV, TBARS, conjugated dienes and carbonyls etc.). However, the potential of the fluorescence techniques can be improved by applying chemometric methods in the analysis of the fluorescence results (Feudjio et al. 2014;Christensen et al. 2005). ...
Article
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Combined methods of fluorescence spectrometry with chemometrics were used to monitor oxidation deterioration of edible oil. Synchronous and three dimensional fluorescence spectroscopy techniques were proposed for monitoring palm oil, camellia oil, sunflower oil and perilla oil during oven accelerated oxidation. Principal component analysis plot of fluorescence intensity (λex = 320–700 nm) clearly showed oxidative evolution of oils over heating time. High saturated or monounsaturated oils exhibited high regression coefficients between peroxide values and fluorescence intensity (R² = 0.973 for 400 nm in palm oil; R² = 0.956 for 370 nm in camellia oil). High diunsaturated oil exhibited high regression coefficient between nonpolar carbonyl compounds and fluorescence intensity (R² = 0.970 for 370 nm in sunflower oil). High triunsaturated oil exhibited high regression coefficient between p-anisidine value and fluorescence intensity (R² = 0.938 for 665 nm in perilla oil). In conclusion, Fluorescence spectroscopy is a rapid and green nondestructive method for oxidation monitoring. Differences of fatty acid compositions played key rules in formation of oxidation products and evolution of fluorescence spectra.
... Generally, the indicator of FFA is used to evaluate the hydrolysis degree of lipids. The formation of FFA itself does not cause the loss of nutrition (Aubourg, 2001). However, the accumulation of FFA has an adverse impact on ATPase activity and protein solubility, and causes unpleasant flavors, discoloration and viscosity-related deterioration of the texture, leading to the decrease in consumer acceptance (Abreu et al., 2011). ...
... While the formation of FFA itself does not lead to nutritional losses, its assessment is deemed important when considering the development of rancidity. Thus, a pro-oxidant effect of FFA on lipid matter has been proposed and explained on the basis of a catalytic effect of the carboxyl group on the formation of free radicals by the decomposition of hydroperoxides (Yoshida et al., 1992;Aubourg, 2001). In addition, FFA has shown to interact with proteins leading to fish texture deterioration during frozen storage (Mackie, 1993). ...
Article
Chemical composition and fatty acid profile of fillets from farmed and wild common carp were assessed in the course of four seasons. Ten wild and ten0 farmed fish were collected in the middle month of each season (except summer due to unavailability of wild fish) during the year. Lipid and protein contents of the samples decreased from summer to spring (protein: 17.6 ± 0.3-15.9 ± 1.6; 18.2 ± 0.1-17.9 ± 1.4%, in the farmed and wild carp samples, lipid (5.1 ± 0.2-1.5 ± 0.5; 3.8 ± 0.6-2.8 ± 0.9%, respectively; P > 0.05), moisture content of both samples increased in this period (76.7 ± 1.4-81.4 ± 0.4, 75.5 ± 0.6-78.5 ± 0.2 in the farmed and wild carp, respectively). Protein content of wild carp fillet was higher (17.7 ± 0.8% protein vs. and 16.2 ± 1.2%) and moisture content was lower than those of the farmed counterparts (77.65 ± 0.6 vs. and 79.3 ± 0.1, P < 0.05). In all seasons, MUFA were higher than SFA and also the PUFA. In the wild carp fillet, PUFA was higher than SFA in winter and spring but in the farmed carp it was higher in all seasons except the spring. Palmitic, oleic, and DHA were the major SFA, MUFA, and PUFA in the wild carp fillet, respectively. In the farmed carp fillet, the major SFA and MUFA were similar to those in the wild one but linoleic acid was the major PUFA in all seasons. ω-3/ω-6 PUFA ratios in the wild carp fillet were higher than in the farmed counterparts.
... While the formation of FFA itself does not lead to nutritional losses, its assessment is deemed important when considering the development of rancidity. Thus, a pro-oxidant effect of FFA on lipid matter has been proposed and explained on the basis of a catalytic effect of the carboxyl group on the formation of free radicals by the decomposition of hydroperoxides (Aubourg, 2001). In addition, an accumulation of FFA is said to contribute to off-flavor of the product and cause textural alterations by complexing with proteins (Mai and Kinsella, 1980). ...
Article
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This work focuses on the effect of a washing process followed by frozen storage (3 months; −18°C) on the quality of minced pangas muscle. A previous washing step has led to a positive effect on fish quality according to marked decreases in expressible moisture (28%), volatile amines (25.7%), free fatty acids (24.5%), and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (29%). However, such indexes showed quality loss throughout the frozen storage. Amongst quality indexes, special attention should be given to the expressible moisture value and the water holding capacity, as being closely related to the gel forming ability in order to obtain surimi-type commercial products.
Thesis
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This study aims to assess the quality of imported canned meat in Sulaimani markets and their safety for human consumption, by determination the change of chemical composition, chemical, physical, and microbial indicator for some canned meat (tuna, cornado, and luncheon) stored at different temperatures for different periods. A total number of 162 samples of canned meat were collected from Sulaimani city markets. The samples consisted of canned tuna fish (56 samples) produced by Iran, canned chicken luncheon (56) produced by Turkey, and canned beef cornado (56 samples) products in the United Arab Emirates. Chemical composition was determined and used a variety of indicators (moisture, protein, ether extract, and ash), chemical indicator (total violet basic nitrogen, free fat acid, and thiobarbutric acid), physical indicators (pH, water holding capacity, and cooking loss), and microbial indicators (coliform count, staphylococcus count, aerobic sporforming count, and anerobic sporforming count) traits in canned meat (tuna, luncheon, and cornado) stored at 3 different storage temperature (5, 15, and 25 ˚C) for 120 days, and comparing them with the acceptable limits for each trait. All tests were made in the post-graduate laboratories of the Animal Sciences Department, College of Agricultural Engineering Sciences, University of Sulaimani, Kurdistan Region, Iraq, from November 2020 to the end of February 2021 (4 months). Results can be summarized as follows: 1- Chemical composition (moisture, protein, and ash) of canned meat (tuna, cornado, and luncheon); there was a significant decrease (P≤0.05) in all types of canned meat during storage, while the fat percentage significantly increase (P≤0.05) after a storage period. 2- Physical indicators of canned meat for fish, chicken, and beef for 120 days stored at 5, 15, and 25 °C, respectively showed an increased pH value and cooking loss with a decreased water holding capacity. The pH value increased in tuna, luncheon, and cornado after 120 days of storage, as well as the highest cooking loss percentage in tuna, luncheon, and cornado after 120 days were (31.42, 25.20, and 51.92 %) respectively when the canned meat stored at 25˚C. Also, the lowest water holding capacity percentage in tuna, luncheon, and cornado after 120 days were (25.59, 13.88, and18.25) respectively when the canned meat stored at 5, and 15˚C. ii 3- Chemical indicators; the highest thiobarbutric acid (TBA) value in tuna, luncheon, and cornado after 120 days were (2.30, 1.97, and 2.17 mg MDA/ kg meat) respectively when the canned meat stored at 25˚C, also, the highest total volatile basic nitrogen (TVBN) value in tuna, luncheon, and cornado after 120 days were (19.86, 16.01, and18.24 mg N/100 gm meat) respectively when the canned meat stored at 25˚C. On the other hand, the highest free fatty acid (FFA) percentage in tuna, luncheon, and cornado after 120 days were (2.58, 0.96, and 1.18 %) respectively when the canned meat stored at 25˚C. The values of chemical indicators within the standard limitsare were acceptable according to The Iraqi Central Organization for Standardization and Quality Control. 4- The results of the microbial indicators of the three canned meat (tuna, cornado, and luncheon) stored at different temperatures for 120 days showed that the presence of aerobic spore-forming bacteria, anaerobic spore-forming bacteria, coliform and staphylococus bacteria in the tested samples did not observe. 5- The results of an examination of canned meat; all types of canned meat are safe and has not find any detrimental form from external can condition, internal can condition, micro-leak test, product odor, solid product, pigment, and texture).
Article
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Emulsions are implemented in the fabrication of a wide array of foods and therefore are of great importance in food science. However, the application of emulsions in food production is restricted by two main obstacles, that is, physical and oxidative stability. The former has been comprehensively reviewed somewhere else, but our literature review indicated that there is a prominent ground for reviewing the latter across all kinds of emulsions. Therefore, the present study was formulated in order to review oxidation and oxidative stability in emulsions. In doing so, different measures to render oxidative stability to emulsions are reviewed after introducing lipid oxidation reactions and methods to measure lipid oxidation. These strategies are scrutinized in four main categories, namely storage conditions, emulsifiers, optimization of production methods, and antioxidants. Afterward, oxidation in all types of emulsions, including conventional ones (oil‐in‐water and water‐in‐oil) and uncommon emulsions in food production (oil‐in‐oil), is reviewed. Furthermore, the oxidation and oxidative stability of multiple emulsions, nanoemulsions, and Pickering emulsions are taken into account. Finally, oxidative processes across different parent and food emulsions were explained taking a comparative approach.
Chapter
This chapter focuses on the oxidative stability of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFAs) delivery systems and n-3 PUFAs fortified foods during digestion, with specific attention given to the long-chain n-3 PUFAs. The topic is of importance since the formation of reactive lipid oxidation products in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) can lead to unwanted reactions e.g., with proteins, phospholipids, and DNA of the intestinal epithelial layer as well as decrease the amount of n-3 PUFAs being bioavailable in the GIT. Initially, the use of in vitro digestion models to study lipid oxidation is reviewed, after which available literature about the susceptibility of different n-3 PUFA delivery systems—neat oils, emulsions, capsules, and n-3 PUFA-rich foods—to oxidation in the GIT is summarized. In the next part of the chapter, the link between digestion-induced oxidation and initial oxidative status of the n-3 PUFA system, the degree of lipolysis as well as the presence of different pro- and antioxidants is discussed. Based on available findings, some future directions in the current research area are finally given.
Article
Effects of moisture and amphiphilic compounds, including oleic acid, lecithin, and monoacylglycerols (MAGs), on the oxidative stability are evaluated in microwave‐treated corn oil. Moreover, the physical properties including critical micelle concentration (CMC) and moisture content are determined in oils treated by microwave irradiation. The CMC of lecithin and moisture content of oils decreases remarkably, whereas the temperature of the oil increases rapidly with microwave irradiation. The addition of lecithin results in increased moisture content significantly in the edible oils, whereas oleic acid and MAGs do not exhibit these effects. Primary oxidation products in all the oil samples increase, despite the type of amphiphilic compounds used. Corn oil containing oleic acid and samples with lecithin exhibits lower and higher p‐anisidine values (p‐AV), respectively. Remarkably high moisture content in corn oils containing lecithin may contribute to the formation of volatile compounds and high p‐AV. Collectively, moisture and amphiphilic compounds affect the degree of lipid oxidation in microwave‐irradiated bulk oils. Practical application: A microwave oven is an irreplaceable home appliance and is widely used in households nowadays. Effects of amphiphilic compounds and moisture on the oxidative stability are evaluated and it is found that the amphiphilic compounds in lipids affect heat transfer and oxidative stability of oils. The results of this study can provide fundamental insights into lipid oxidation in edible oils, and can provide a direction to the food industry with respect to the development of more efficient and safe methods for the preparation of microwavable foods.
Article
This study aimed to investigate the suitability of refined bleached deodorized palm olein oil (RBD POO) and Macadamia integrifolia oil (MO) blend as deep-fat frying substitute. Oxidative and hydrolytic stability of MO, POO and blends during 15 days of storage under accelerated oxidation condition (65 °C ± 1) studied by assessing free fatty acids (FFA), peroxide (PV), anisidine (AV) and TOTOX (TV) values. Blends formulated with POO: MO at 100:0, 75:25, 50:50, 25:75 and 0:100. Blending significantly affected the fatty acid profile, smoke point, FFA, PV, AV and TV of all samples (p < 0.05). Both independent variables (storage time and type of oil) and their interaction had significant effect on FFA, PV, AV and TV (p < 0.05). On day 15, the highest and the lowest FFA observed for MO and POO, respectively. The significant difference between FFA of MO and POO before incubation and day 15th was due to role of refining process in elimination of initial FFAs from POO. Results of PV, AV and TV showed that the highest and least changes were presented by POO and MO, respectively. Oil blends containing higher proportions of MO with a great percentage of monounsaturated and less polyunsaturated fats were more stable against oxidation. Also, presence of antioxidants played significant role against MO oxidation. From this research, blending POO with MO improved induction period of the blends and inhibited primary and secondary oxidation products formation. Blend 25:75 met the qualitative and nutritional criteria and suggested for formulation of a functional oxidative stable frying medium.
Article
Fish and fish products are highly perishable because of their unsaturated fatty acid content, large amounts of free amino acids, and high final pH. For this reason, preservatives are used to prevent or delay spoiling during storage.The main objecttive of this study was to decrease biochemical changes trend by adding Mentha aquatica extract (0.1 and 0.5 concentration) as a natural preservatives on the silver carp fillet in chiling temperature (-3°C) and accordingly increasing the shelf life. Prepared fish fillets were divided into two groups. One group was dipped in distilled water (control) and one in parsley extract (0/5% and 1%); they were then air packed and kept at -3°C.chemical (PV, TBARS, TVB-N, FFA, pH) and tests were performed properties were analyzed over a 28 d period. Mentha aquatica extract delayed significantly (p<0.05) lipid oxidation in the treated sample. the magnitude of change in TVB-N and PV and FFA and TBARS and pH was less than in the control samples(Mentha aquatica treated 1%< Mentha aquatica treated 0/5%< treated sample)(p<0.05). The results obtained from this study showed that the shelf life of silver carp fillets dipped in Mentha aquatica extract as a natural preservative extended their shelf life by 6 d over the control samples. the findings indicate that Mentha aquatica extract exerts antioxidant effects on air packaged silver carp fillets during storage and increases its shelf life.
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Microalgal lipids have a huge potential in several applications such as biofuels, food and feed. However, enzymatic lipolytic reactions during wet storage cause the formation of substantial amounts of free fatty acids (FFA), which give several problems for these applications. In this study, a full factorial (3²) design with varying time and temperature was used to optimize a heat treatment, that inactivates lipolytic enzymes in the wet paste of T-Isochrysis lutea. Therefore, the FFA and lipid content were evaluated at three time points (0, 3 and 7 days) during wet storage at 4 °C. A treatment of at least 8 min at 80 °C was found to inactivate the lipolytic enzymes. A second experiment elucidated that this optimal treatment had no negative impact on fatty acid composition, peroxide value, phenolic content or carotenoid content. A short heat treatment, thus, enables wet storage of microalgal paste to several days at 4 °C.
Article
Freshwater fishes contain long chain omega-3 and omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) of highest nutritional value. PUFAs in fish are susceptible to oxidative damage during processing and subsequent storage. Sardines (Rastrineobola argentea) are an important fish species of Lake Victoria, constituting 72.3% of the total landings by weight on the Tanzanian side of the lake. Fatty acid profiles and lipid oxidation status of sun-dried, deep-fried, and smoked sardines were investigated. Lipid oxidation was assessed by peroxide value, thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS), and free fatty acids. Fatty acids were analyzed by gas chromatography with flame ionization detector. The three omega-3 PUFAs: docosahexaenoic acid (C22:6n-3), docosapentaenoic acid (C22:5n-3), and eicosapentaenoic acid (C20: 5n-3) contributed 57–60, 63, and 38% of PUFAs in sun-dried, smoked, and deep-fried sardines, respectively. Lipid oxidation reactions were more pronounced in sardines dried on sand and rocks, with TBARS values 97.87 and 84.18 µmolMDA/kg, respectively. The polyene index was significantly lower (p < 0.05) in deep-fried sardines, indicating lower retention of PUFAs in the product. Lake Victoria sardines are a rich source of omega-3 PUFAs. PUFAs in sun-dried sardines are prone to oxidative damage. Smoking resulted in relatively higher retention of omega-3 fatty acids in products.
Article
Previously, it has been observed that lipolysis occurring during (even short term) wet storage of microalgal biomass causes high free fatty acid (FFA) concentrations in the biomass. These FFA have a negative impact for different applications of microalgal lipids, e.g. downstream processing problems in biodiesel production, off-flavors and loss of nutritional value for food applications. However, it is not clear which factors influence lipolysis in microalgal biomass and which lipid class are more susceptible to lipolysis. In this study, wet biomass of T-Isochrysis lutea was stored at 20 °C, 4 °C and − 20 °C during 3 weeks. The extent of lipolysis was followed by analyzing the lipid classes distribution by ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography − accurate mass mass spectrometry (UHPLC-amMS) and the FFA content. It was observed that FFA were formed very rapidly during post-harvest storage of wet biomass at 20 °C and 4 °C, the rate of this process being faster at 20 °C than at 4 °C, while almost no lipolysis was observed at − 20 °C. However, the FFA content levelled off after several days of storage because FFA reacted with alcohols to form fatty acyl esters.
Chapter
Being a threat to almost any aspect of seafood quality–nutritional properties, odor, taste, texture, and color–lipid oxidation is of utmost importance to control within the seafood industry. Differences in the endogenous pools of lipids and pro- and antioxidants, including their direct contact with each other and with air, explain why different aquatic raw material species, products, and morphological parts vary largely in their sensitivity toward oxidation. In fish tissue, the presence and activation of heme proteins as pro-oxidants appear to be particularly crucial in triggering oxidation. The chain of events leading from the harvest/slaughter up to the final product indeed also largely influences oxidation, with examples of critical points being the degree of stress during catch/slaughter, bleeding, washing, precooking and potential oxygen removal during packing. In attempts to add value to underused aquatic species and byproducts–a large focus area today–alternative processing techniques like enzymatic hydrolysis and pH-shift processing have also entered the scene, but it is obvious that care must here be taken to avoid oxidation. The same applies to the incorporation of alternative raw materials like algae and krill into seafood; little is here known about their intrinsic oxidation mechanisms. To combat oxidation in seafood, the addition of plant extracts or pure phenolic compounds is currently receiving huge attention, but also muscle-derived extracts appear interesting as all-natural stabilizers. The current chapter addresses these topics based on both recent literature and core older studies to give a comprehensive picture.
Chapter
Fish oils are rich in long-chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids that are highly prone to oxidation. Therefore, lipid oxidation is the limiting factor for the shelf life of fish oils and the knowledge of factors affecting oxidation is crucial. This chapter, together with cited literature, provides insight into the different approaches and strategies that have been developed by both industry and academia to sustain the oxidative stability of highly unsaturated fish oils, including omega-3 concentrates. The chapter also discusses some challenges related to the measurement of oxidative stability of fish oils by advanced and classic oxidation status methods.
Article
Perishable foods like fish, meat and poultry should be quickly processed and packed using an appropriate technique. Retorting is a method of preserving food by heating it in hermetically sealed containers like cans, glass jars, semi-rigid thermoformed containers and retortable pouches. These products have a shelf life of more than a year when held at ambient temperatures during storage. Retort-processed meat, poultry and seafood products offer convenience and are presented in ready to serve formats. This chapter first reviews the types of containers used for retort-processed meat, poultry and seafood products. The retorting process using semi-rigid and flexible containers is also outlined. Then methods to test container suitability for retorting are addressed. A section on the impacts of retorting on the quality of meat, poultry and seafood products completes the chapter.
Article
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Oxidative stability of oils, fats and fatty food products can be affected by many factors such as oxygen, light, heat, metal ions and enzymes used and finally it brings about oxidative corruption. This study has been done to survey the role of Dorema aucheri extract in oxidative stability of fish oil (under microwave heating) and comparising that with BHT synthetic antioxidant. Concentrations of 250 and 500 ppm extracts of Dorema auchri and BHT 200 ppm were added to fish oil and a fish oil sample without the addition of antioxidant was considered as control, Then they were sampled after putting in microwave at time periods 0, 3, 6, 9, and 12 minutes. Chemical oxidative indicators (peroxide, free fatty acids and thiobarbituric acid) were surveyed. According to the results, in all times putting in microwave the amount of peroxide, free fatty acids and thiobarbituric acid in the treatments that contained extract, were lower than the control treatment, but were higher than the treatment that contained BHT. A significant difference wasn't seen among the treatment that contained 250 ppm of extract and the treatment that contained BHT (p>0/05). According to the results, because of significant difference of samples contained extract with control sample and the lack of significant difference sample containd 250 ppm extract with BHT, it would be expected that Dorema aucheri extract as antioxidant can be used in food industry in maintenace of fish oil.
Chapter
Although lipid oxidation is considered a deteriorative process responsible for generating off-flavors, however, specific oxidation products are desirable flavor compounds particularly when formed in more precise i.e. less random reactions. Lipoxygenases confer positional and stereospecificity to the initiation reactions of lipid peroxidation. As a result it has been proposed that some of the volatiles produced in certain food systems reflect the activity of these enzymes. We have investigated several tissues to determine the activity, specificity and stability of endogenous lipoxygenases and the oxidation products and volatiles generated. Gills of marine and freshwater fish were shown to contain two distinct lipoxygenases differing in specificity and stability. The products and volatile patterns were found to respond to changing the activities of these enzymes. This behavior is consistent with these enzymes being important to the biogeneration of fresh fish flavors. Understanding these enzyme systems will facilitate the development of potential technologies for the biogeneration of fresh fish flavors for seafood products.
Article
Lipid decomposition studies in frozen fish have led to the development of a simple and rapid method for the extraction and purification of lipids from biological materials. The entire procedure can be carried out in approximately 10 minutes; it is efficient, reproducible, and free from deleterious manipulations. The wet tissue is homogenized with a mixture of chloroform and methanol in such proportions that a miscible system is formed with the water in the tissue. Dilution with chloroform and water separates the homogenate into two layers, the chloroform layer containing all the lipids and the methanolic layer containing all the non-lipids. A purified lipid extract is obtained merely by isolating the chloroform layer. The method has been applied to fish muscle and may easily be adapted to use with other tissues.
Article
Enzymatic hydrolysis of phosphatidylcholin (PC) in skipjack flesh during storage at -20°C for 16 weeks was studied by following the changes in PC composition on the basis of their fatty acid compositions. Major PC in skipjack flesh were those having fatty acid combinations of (C16, C22), (C22, C22), (C18, C22), (C20, C22), (C16, C18), and (C18, C20). Percentages of the PC having fatty acid combinations of (C22, C22), (C18, C22), and (C20, C22) incereased gradually during storage, while that of (C18, C22) decreased distinctly. These results indicate that the PC in skipjack flesh are preferentially hydrolyzed by endogenous lipolytic enzyme system during storage at -20°C. The molecular species of the PC preferentially hydrolyzed were the same as those in the ice-stored skipjack flesh as previously reported. This suggests that the preferential hydrolysis of PC in skipjack flesh occurs regardless of storage temperature. On the other hand, lyso-form phospholipids such as lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC) and lysophosphatidylethanolamine accumulated in skipjack flesh during storage. The maximum amount of LPC was 89mg/100g after a 6-week storage period.
Article
Until the past few decades, lipids contained in plants and animals from the marine and freshwater bodies of the world have not been considered important to human nutrition. Today, with the findings that highly unsaturated omega‐3 (n‐3) fatty acids in marine lipids can be important in preventing or reducing certain premature heart diseases, inflammatory disorders, and many other health problems, there is an increasingly active interest in seafood and its component oils. A review of the role of lipids in human nutrition must also include consideration of the source of marine lipids and how the fishing industry can, and does, get high‐quality oils to the consumer. There are many practical considerations involved in the harvesting or growing of seafood, processing the products, and handling and distributing to market that must be considered in the overall program of getting prople to consume more n‐3 fatty acids. Except in regard to those persons requiring medical attention and needing large doses of n‐3s, marine lipids should only be considered in the highly nutritious food category. This includes, high‐quality seafood, food supplement oil and capsules, and prepared foods contining component fish oil.
Article
Flesh proteins, in the context of this article, are taken to be the component proteins of the contractile muscle of animals used for food (i.e., meat, poultry, and fish). Attention is given to the similarities and differences between the proteins from these different sources and in particular to the effects on them of freezing and frozen storage. It is believed that myosin and action, the main contractile proteins, are largely responsible for the functional properties of flesh foods, and that on frozen storage, myosin, in particular, undergoes aggregation reactions which lead to toughening of the muscle and a loss in water‐holding capacity. Variation in stability of flesh of different species on frozen storage can be attributed to some extent to the intrinsic characteristics of the respective myosins. Myosin from fish is generally less stable than its mammalian or avian counterparts and this is reflected in the stability of the flesh on frozen storage. Cryoprotectants, usually in the form of low molecular weight polyhydroxy compounds, are added to some processed products such as surimi to counter the denaturation process. Theories on the mechanism of protein denaturation and of the action of cryopro‐tectants are reviewed. The potential of using the freezing process to form textures from comminuted flesh or protein dispersions is also discussed.
Article
Myofibrils and solutions of myofibrillar protein from post-rigor cod muscle were studied with electron microscopy after incubation with linoleic acid and linoleic acid hydroperoxides. Linoleic acid hydroperoxides were ten times more effective than linoleic acid in reducing the amount of protein in KCl-extracts from incubated myofibrils. Small quantities of hydroperoxides caused precipitation of isolated myofibrillar proteins. Differences in the structure and aggregation pattern of extracted proteins suggest that linoleic acid and hydroperoxides exert their effects by different mechanisms. According to the structure of extracted myofibrils, linoleic acid seemed to prevent the dissolution of the myofibril framework but appeared not to impair the extraction of myosin. Hydroperoxides appeared to cause a retention of A-bands (myosin) in the myofibrils and in this respect showed similarities to the effect of frozen storage previously observed.
Article
This review shows how the basic kinetics of lipid oxidation can be simplified for application to the study of food deterioration. The physical and chemical factors that control oxidation are examined and analyzed in terms of food structure and composition. Studies of oxidation of several food items are examined in light of these kinetics and mechanisms.
Article
Different kinds of lipid damage indices (peroxide value, conjugated diene index, thiobarbituric acid index, free fatty acid content, polyene index, and fluorescent compound formation) were studied during the chilled storage (0 °C) of a lean fish species (blue whiting, Micromesistius poutassou) and compared to total volatile base-nitrogen content (TVB-N). Similar to previous results regarding a fatty fish species (sardine), fluorescence detection of interaction compounds calculated as the ratio between fluorescence measured at 393/463 nm and that at 327/415 nm showed the best correlation with TVB-N evolution and provided the highest independent contribution to time prediction during chilled storage. Present results indicate that this fluorescence detection is sensitive enough for assessing freshness loss during chilling of a lean fish species and appears to be the equal if not the superior of a recognized method such as TVB-N to assess fish spoilage. Keywords: Blue whiting; chilling; fluorescence; interaction compounds; lipid damage; quality
Article
Chilled (0, 2, 6, 10, 13, and 15 days) and frozen (0, 0.5, 2, 4, 8, and 12 months) sardines were used to determine the influence of such storage times of fish over the quality of the final canned product. Traditional determinations of lipid quality (free fatty acids content, thiobarbituric acid index, and polyene index) were studied and compared with the formation of fluorescent compounds expressed as the ratio between fluorescence readings taken at two excitation/emission maxima (393/463 and 327/415 nm). No clear correlations were found between the common measurements of lipid deterioration and the time of storage prior to canning. Satisfactory correlations were found between the fluorescence ratio obtained from the filling medium of cans and the time of storage of the starting material (r = 0.90 and 0.91 in brine- and oil-canned samples, respectively). According to the present results, fluorescence detection of interaction compounds can provide a rapid and sensible method to assess quality differences in the final product as it relates to the quality of the raw material used. Keywords: Canning; fluorescence; lipid deterioration; quality; sardine
Article
Fatty acid composition with a special stress on polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) was studied in the sn-2 location of tuna phospholipids (PL) in eight commercial species. Comparison with the sn-1 location and changes of both positions (sn-1 and sn-2) during cooking were also analyzed. When the sn-1 and sn-2 locations in albacore tuna were compared, some differences were noted. The sn-1 position showed higher contents in saturated (16:0 and 18:0) and 18:1ω7 fatty acids; in contrast, higher proportions in PUFA (22:6ω3, 20:5ω3, and 20:4ω6) and in 18:1ω9 were obtained in the sn-2 location. The comparative study of the sn-2 position of PL showed a similar pattern of distribution in the different tuna species. In all cases the main fatty acid was 22:6ω3, followed by 18:1ω9, 20:5ω3, 16:0, 20:4ω6, and 24:1ω9. A high ω3/ω6 ratio was found in all cases, although great differences were noted between the highest (bonito and yellowfin) and the lowest (little tunny and skipjack) values; ratios between the most abundant PUFA belonging to the ω3 and ω6 series (22:6ω3/20:4ω6 and 20:4ω6/20:5ω3) showed similar differences. The behavior of both positions (sn-1 and sn-2) in albacore PL was studied during cooking. As a result of the thermal treatment, some changes in the fatty acid composition were seen in both locations. The sn-2 position showed a decrease in 22:6ω3 and an increase in 18:1ω9. On the contrary, a decrease in 18:0 was obtained in the sn-1 position, along with an increase in 22:6ω3 and 20:4ω6. Keywords: Tuna fishes; phospholipids; sn-1 and sn-2 positions; PUFA, ω3-PUFA; thermal treatment
Article
Lean fish deterioration during frozen storage (−30 and −10 °C) for up to 1 year was studied by the assessment of lipid changes. Comparison between a formaldehyde (FA)-forming species (cod) and a non-FA-forming one (haddock) was carried out. Lipid damages were measured on the basis of free fatty acids (FFA), peroxide value (PV), thiobarbituric acid index (TBA-i) and fluorescent compounds. In both species at −30 °C, most lipid damage indices showed significant correlations with the storage time. However, at −10 °C, only the FFA and fluorescence detections provided significant correlations with the storage time. Comparison between the fish species showed higher lipid oxidation (PV and TBA-i) and hydrolysis (FFA content) in haddock than in cod at −10 °C; however, a higher fluorescence development was observed in cod at the same temperature. At −30 °C, little differences in lipid damage indices were detected between the two species.© 1999 Society of Chemical Industry
Article
European hake (Merluccius merluccius (L)) was frozen as whole fish and as fillets and stored at −18°C, −24°C and −30°C for up to 39 weeks. Sensory properties, peroxide value and thiobarbituric acid value, lipid fatty acid composition, adenosine nucleotide degradation products, dimethylamine and formaldehyde were measured at intervals during storage. Changes at −30°C were negligible, otherwise fillets deteriorated faster than whole fish. Hedonic rating gave a storage life of around 9 months for whole fish stored at −18°C.
Article
Hake mince was stored at −18°C and samples were withdrawn at intervals during a 300-day period. The extracted lipids were examined for free fatty acid (FFA) and phosphorus (P) content. Total FFA contents were corrected for a phospholipid contribution and converted into genuine FFA contents. Using these genuine FFA contents and the knowledge that the loss of one mole of lipid-P produces two moles of FFA made it possible to calculate the separate contribution of the phospholipids and the neutral lipids to the FFA formed on storage. It was found that FFA originated from both phospholipids and neutral lipids and after an initial rapid surge of FFA formation from both sources the rates declined and became virtually constant. The results for the Cape hake are compared with literature data of the Atlantic cod and the Baltic herring.
Article
Earlier studies have investigated fluorescence at different excitation/emission maxima during common fish processing. A shift towards higher wavelength maxima was observed and measured as the ratio between absorption at two of the maxima tested. This fluorescence ratio (δF) value correlated with increased fish damage. In the present work, different kinds of amines were tested to compare the fluorescence produced with that measured during fish processing. Amines with different substitution degree, and primary amines with different steric hindrance and chain length were reacted with cod liver oil and glutaraldehyde at 30°C in model systems. All the amine classes produced changes in the fluorescent properties of the systems, higher δF values being associated with lower degree of substitution and steric hindrance of the −NH2 group, and also as a result of a longer chain length and higher concentration of the amine compound.
Article
The interaction of hake muscle actomyosin with free fatty acids in 0.6 M KCl pH 7 during frozen storage has been studied up to 280 days. ATPase activity, protein solubility and relative viscosity measurements were performed. Oleic and myristic acid had a detrimental effect on these properties during frozen storage. Oleic acid was bound to the protein from the beginning, mainly to the insoluble fraction. The diminishment of functionality following addition of oleic acid is not due to aggregation caused by covalent-type bonds, since it occurs well before the electrophoretic change is appreciable.
Article
The causes of two fluorescent emissions which develop in fish muscle during frozen storage have been investigated. Both appear to be predominantly associated with proteins via reaction between free amino groups and carbonyl compounds. Under favourable conditions, a white or pale blue emission is produced throughout the white muscle as the result of reactions involving sugars and sugar phosphates in low-temperature browning reactions. A bright yellow fluorescence arises from reactions involving formaldehyde produced by enzymic degradation of trimethylamine oxide.
Article
Hake fillets and mince were frozen and stored at −18°C in four different tests. Samples were periodically withdrawn and analysed for total protein, protein soluble in aqueous salt solution, free fatty acid content and texture. Highly significant correlations were found between the texture and both the ratio of protein soluble in aqueous salt solution to total protein and the free fatty acid content. These correlations led to the formulation of quantitative quality criteria based on protein soluble in aqueous salt solution and free fatty acid content for frozen hake stored at −18°C.
Article
Lipolysis occurs extensively in fish muscle post-mortem and is associated with quality deterioration in the frozen tissue. Fish muscle lipolysis is presented in the context of basic fish muscle physiology and lipid composition. Phospholipase A and lipases from fish muscle have been described and characterized. The reaction is usually followed by measurement of free fatty acid production, and several colorimetric assays are available. Processing and storage treatments have been shown to influence the extent and rate of lipolysis in fish muscle; most of the research in this area has been directed at the effects of frozen storage. The interaction of lipolysis and lipid oxidation is a particularly intriguing area of study as triglyceride hydrolysis leads to increased oxidation while phospholipid hydrolysis produces the opposite effect.
Article
Carbon-13 nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy was applied to study the effect of the filling medium on lipid modifications occurring during the industrial canning of tuna (Thunnus alalunga). In the two media studied—brine and soybean oil—increases in the free fatty acid level were observed with preferential hydrolysis of polyunsaturated fatty acids esterified in the sn-2 position of the glycerol moiety. The extent and mechanism of lipolysis seem to be independent of the filling medium used. Quantitative results obtained for the main lipid classes showed dilution of the natural lipids of muscle by triacylglycerols from the filling medium in oil-filled cans.
Article
The changes of free fatty acids (FFA) during the ripening of salted anchovy was studied. In the course of the curing process, the content of free fatty acids (FFA) in the muscle increased fifteen-fold, mostly in the first 100 days of the process. Each sample was subjected to sensory evaluations. A high correlation between FFA contents and sensory scores was found. Therefore the determination of FFA is proposed as an objective index to assess the ripening of salted anchovies.
Article
In a major pathway of the autoxidation of methyl linolenate, peroxyl radicals of the internal hydroperoxides undergo rapid 1,3-tyclisation to form hydroperoxyepidioxides. Because linolenate hydroperoxides are relatively unstable, free radical antioxidants are much less effective in linolenate oils than in linoleate oils. Tocopherols and carotenoids effectively inhibit photosensitised oxidation of vegetable oils. Direct gas chromatographic analyses of malonaldehyde do not correlate with the TBA test. Model fluorescence studies indicate that malonaldehyde may not be so important in crosslinking with DNA. In contrast to oxidised methyl linoleate, oxidised trilinolenin does not form dimers. Although trilinolein oxidises with no preference between the 1(3)-and 2-triglyceride positions, the n-3 double bond of trilinolenin oxidises more in the 1(3)- than in the 2-position. Synthetic triglycerides oxidise in the following decreasing relative rates: LnLnL, LnLLn, LLnL, LLLn (Ln = linolenic and L = linoleic). To estimate the flavour impact of volatile oxidation products their relative threshold values must be considered together with their relative concentration in a given fat.
Article
Total, non-volatile free fatty acids (FFA) content was determined in hake muscle during fish storage in ice. FFA increased linearly in every season according to freshness loss as determined by sensory scoring. FFA determination is proposed as a valuable alternative to sensory scoring in determining fish deterioration in ice.
Article
Effects of 0 to 1.0% levels of caprylic, capric, lauric, myristic, palmitic or stearic acid on the oxidative stability of purified soybean oil were investigated under microwave heating conditions. A prooxidative effect of the fatty acids introduced into the systems was established. The extent of this effect depended on the acyl chin and levels of added fatty acids. During microwave heating, the oxidative rate of purified soybean oil by the fatty acids was rapid compared to the addition of their corresponding hydrocarbons; the shorter the chainlength and the higher the levels of fatty acids, the more accelerated was the thermal oxidation in the oil. The results are explained on the basis of the catalytic effect of the carboxylic group on the formation of free radicals by the decomposition of hydroperoxides. Therefore, particular attention should be paid to the free fatty acid content, which affects the oxidative stability of purified soybean oil.
Article
Oleic, linoleic and linolenic acids were autoxidized more rapidly than their corresponding methyl esters. Addition of stearic acid accelerated the rate of autoxidation of methyl linoleate and the decomposition of methyl linoleate hydroperoxides. Therefore, the higher oxidative rate of FFA’s than their methyl esters could be due to the catalytic effect of the carboxyl groups on the formation of free radicals by the decomposition of hydroperoxides. Addition of stearic acid also accelerated the oxidative rate of soybean oil. This result suggests that particular attention should be paid to the FFA content that affects the oxidative stability of oils.
Article
 In previous studies fluorescence detection at different excitation/emission maxima during common fish processing has been used. A bathochromic shift towards higher wavelength maxima was observed and measured as the ratio between absorption at two of the maxima tested. This fluorescence ratio (δF) value correlates positively with fish damage. In the present work, the influence of formaldehyde (FA) on the value δF was studied. A model system was set up in which FA reacted at 30°C for 25 days with propylamine and fish muscle. It was observed that FA was less able to produce fluorescent compounds compared with common fish oxidation products that were also tested, i. e. propanal and hexanal. However, in the presence of both lipid oxidation aldehydes, the FA-containing mixtures led to a higher δF value. Model systems consisting of FA and fatty fish (sardine) muscle produced more fluorescence than FA and lean fish (cod), because of the formation of lipid oxidation compounds under the reaction conditions of the former systems. It is thus concluded that the presence of FA in a reacting medium enhances fluorescence formation, such that δF be can used as an accurate measure of fish damage. It is thought that measurement of δF in processes such as the freezing of gadoid fish, in which both FA and lipid oxidation are produced, could be of benefit.
Article
 A comparison of the lipid damage produced in different hake zones was carried out during frozen storage at –11 and –18  °C. Three light muscle zones and the dark muscle were considered. Lipid oxidation [conjugated dienes; thiobarbituric acid index (TBA-i); fluorescence formation] and hydrolysis (free fatty acids, FFA) were determined. The most predominant lipid damage in all zones was hydrolysis, at the end of storage reaching values of about 40% (for the light muscle zones) and 12% (for the dark muscle) of the total lipids at –11  °C. Significant (P<0.05) correlation value (r=0.67–0.85) relationships between the frozen storage time and the FFA content were obtained for the four muscle zones at both temperatures. A comparison of the regression lines slopes in the different zones showed that a lower (P<0.05) lipolitic activity was produced in the dark muscle compared to the three light zones at both temperatures. A low lipid oxidation development was produced in the three light muscle parts, so that no significant differences between them could be assessed. However, the dark muscle showed a higher oxidation development (TBA-i and fluorescence formation) as a result of a higher lipid content and the presence of prooxidant constituents.
Article
Lipoxygenase is responsible for the production of lipid hydroperoxides in inadequately processed foods. The hydroperoxides as well as their products of decomposition are potentially reactive substances that can cause deterioration of food proteins or amino acids. Among the many consequences of protein exposure to peroxidized lipids is the formation of lipid-protein complexes that are bound through purely physical forces. Chemical changes caused by interaction of lipid hydroperoxide and protein are protein-protein cross-links, protein scission, protein-lipid adducts, and amino acid damage. The secondary products arising from hydroperoxide decomposition also readily damage protein and amino acids through formation of covalent bonds. Among the secondary products, aldehydes have received the most attention because of their propensity to form Schiff base adducts with amino groups, and, in particular, the bifunctional malondialdehyde can cross-link protein via Schiff base formation.
Article
This chapter presents the ubiquitous nature and pervasiveness of lipid oxidation ex vivo in foods and in vivo, and demonstrates that oxidation generally has deleterious results in both systems. This dramatizes the need for more effective strategies for controlling lipid oxidation, both in food materials and in tissues in vivo. The chapter discusses the existing practices using antioxidants, chelators, enzyme inactivation, and anoxic and low-temperature storage conditions. The oxidative degradation of the unsaturated fatty acid components of food lipids may be beneficial in some foods in generating low levels of desirable flavorful carbonyl compounds. However, in general, oxidation causes deleterious changes in flavor, taste, color, texture, and possibly safety of foods. The polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA)—particularly the trienoic, pentaenoic, and hexaenoic PUFA commonly found in oilseeds and seafoods—render these foods, which are particularly sensitive to oxidative changes which limit their self-life.
Article
Age-related fluorescent and cross-linked proteins increase with lipid oxidation of tissues. The fluorophores and cross-links have been considered to be conjugated Schiff bases between amino groups of proteins and malonaldehyde. Our recent studies showed that the fluorophores produced in the in vitro reaction of proteins with malonaldehyde are 1,4-dihydropyridine-3,5-dicarbaldehydes, whose fluorescence characteristics are similar to but not always the same as those of the age-related fluorescent substances, and that the cross-linking is due to less fluorescent conjugated Schiff bases. The in vitro reaction of proteins with oxidized lipids produces fluorescent and cross-linked proteins similar to those in the aging cells or tissues. Monofunctional aldehydes such as alkanals, alk-2-enals and alka-2,4-dienals can also participate in the formation of the fluorophores and cross-links. The fluorescent substances produced from the reaction of primary amines or proteins with these aldehydes showed spectra close to those of the age-related fluorescent substances.
Article
The damage to tuna fish lipids induced by cooking was investigated in the Thunnus obesus and Th. thynnus varieties, using conventional and fluorescence detection methods, and the results were compared. As a consequence of thermal processing, the peaks at longer wavelengths increased, which correlated with other conventional indices of lipid damage (i.e. carbonyl compound formation, browning and increases in the free fatty acid content). A special significance was given to the fluorescence ratio between the maxima of the excitation emission data at 393/460 nm and 327/415 nm; increases in this ratio as a result of cooking were less dependent on the samples than were other conventional methods of measuring lipid damage.
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