Article

Gender Differences in Personality and Interests: When, Where, and Why?

October 2010
Social and Personality Psychology Compass 4(11):1098 - 1110

DOI:10.1111/j.1751-9004.2010.00320.x

Authors:

How big are gender differences in personality and interests, and how stable are these differences across cultures and over time? To answer these questions, I summarize data from two meta-analyses and three cross-cultural studies on gender differences in personality and interests. Results show that gender differences in Big Five personality traits are ‘small’ to ‘moderate,’ with the largest differences occurring for agreeableness and neuroticism (respective ds = 0.40 and 0.34; women higher than men). In contrast, gender differences on the people–things dimension of interests are ‘very large’ (d = 1.18), with women more people-oriented and less thing-oriented than men. Gender differences in personality tend to be larger in gender-egalitarian societies than in gender-inegalitarian societies, a finding that contradicts social role theory but is consistent with evolutionary, attributional, and social comparison theories. In contrast, gender differences in interests appear to be consistent across cultures and over time, a finding that suggests possible biologic influences.

DESIGUALDADE DE RENDA ENTRE HOMENS E MULHERES: UMA VISÃO MAIS AMPLA INCLUINDO ESCOLHAS, SATISFAÇÃO E PERCEPÇÃO DE CAPACIDADE

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Mar 2023

Souza, B. C. & Roazzi, A. (2020). Desigualdade de Renda entre Homens e Mulheres: Uma Visão Mais Ampla Incluíndo Escolhas, Satisfação e Percepção de Capacidade. Revista EDUCAmazônia - Educação, Sociedade e Meio Ambiente, 24, 287-313. ISSN 2358-1468 https://bit.ly/3J8ZmM4 /////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// Resumo: A menor renda das mulheres em relação aos homens é observada há muito tempo no Brasil e no mundo. Existe uma farta literatura apontando isso como fruto de uma opressão sistemática do sexo feminino na vida ocupacional, requerendo correção via iniciativas sociais. Contudo, diversos mecanismos de proteção e incentivo às mulheres parecem ter reduzido a desigualdade, mas não aparentam tender a eliminá-la. Por outro lado, múltiplos trabalhos têm indicado haverem diferenças evolucionárias entre os sexos que poderiam explicar o fenômeno em termos de preferências e escolhas distintos, mais do que uma sociedade opressora. O presente trabalho investigou essa possibilidade a partir de um estudo empírico com 784 homens e mulheres adultos da Região Metropolitana do Recife trabalhando em organizações. As evidências obtidas que confirmam a ideia de que se trata de diferenças voluntárias em comportamento entre os sexos, especialmente quando se tem filhos, mais do que opressão. Palavras Chave: sexo, trabalho, desigualdade, psicologia evolucionária, opressão. /////////////////////////////////////////////////// ////////////////////////////////// Abstract: The lower income of women in relation to men has been observed for a long time in Brazil and in the world. There is a wealth of literature pointing to this as the result of a systematic oppression of the female sex in occupational life, requiring correction through social initiatives. However, several mechanisms for the protection and encouragement of women appear to have reduced inequality, but they do not appear to tend to eliminate it. On the other hand, multiple studies have indicated that there are evolutionary differences between the sexes which could explain the phenomenon in terms of preferences and distinct choices rather than an oppressive society. The present study investigated this possibility from an empirical study with 784 adult men and women from the Metropolitan Region of Recife working in organizations. The evidence obtained confirms the idea that the inequality voluntary differences in behavior between the sexes, especially when having children, rather than oppression. ///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////Resumen: La menor renta de las mujeres en relación a los hombres es observada hace mucho tiempo en Brasil y en el mundo. Hay una abundante literatura apuntando esto como fruto de una opresión sistemática del sexo femenino en la vida ocupacional, requiriendo corrección a través de iniciativas sociales. Sin embargo, diversos mecanismos de protección e incentivo a las mujeres parecen haber reducido la desigualdad, pero no parecen tender a eliminarla. Por otro lado, múltiples trabajos han indicado que existen diferencias evolutivas entre los sexos que podrían explicar el fenómeno en términos de preferencias y elecciones distintas, más que una sociedad opresora. El presente trabajo investigóesta posibilidad a partir de un estudio empírico con 784 hombres y mujeres adultos de la Región Metropolitana de Recife trabajando en organizaciones. Las evidencias obtenidas que confirman la idea de que se trata de diferencias voluntarias en comportamiento entre los sexos, especialmente cuando se tiene hijos, más que opresión. Palabras Clave: sexo, trabajo, desigualdad, psicología evolucionaria,opresión.

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Things versus People: Gender Differences in Vocational Interests and in Occupational Preferences

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Occupational choices remain strongly segregated by gender, for reasons not yet fully understood. In this paper, we use detailed information on the cognitive requirements in 130 distinct learnable occupations in the Swiss apprenticeship system to describe the broad job content in these occupations along the things-versus-people dimension. We first show that our occupational classification along this dimension closely aligns with actual job tasks, taken from an independent data source on employers job advertisements. We then document that female apprentices tend to choose occupations that are oriented towards working with people, while male apprentices tend to favor occupations that involve working with things. In fact, our analysis suggests that this variable is by any statistical measure among the most important proximate predictors of occupational gender segregation. In a further step, we replicate this finding using individual-level data on both occupational aspirations and actual occupational choices for a sample of adolescents at the start of 8th grade and the end of 9th grade, respectively. Using these additional data, we finally show that the gender difference in occupational preferences is largely independent of a large number of individual, parental, and regional controls.

Vocational interests and relationship satisfaction: An actor-partner interdependence model

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PERS INDIV DIFFER

This study examined the intrapersonal and interpersonal effects of vocational interests (VI) on two indicators of romantic relationship satisfaction (RS), specifically women and men's perceived relationship quality and their satisfaction with partner attributes. We hypothesized investigative, artistic, social, and enterprising interests would predict higher own or partner's RS. Additionally, we explored the role of interest profile attributes: differentiation and elevation. The study employs actor-partner interdependence modeling on data of 215 heterosexual romantic couples. Results from both RS measures converged on several findings: realistic and enterprising interests in women, and investigative interests in men positively predicted own RS. Women were more satisfied if their partner had higher investigative interests, artistic interests, higher interest elevation and a lower differentiation of interest profile. Although the effects were relatively small, the present results contribute to the literature by showing that VI, which has been previously investigated principally for the prediction of career outcomes, are also relevant for romantic relationship outcomes.

The Public Sector Personality: The Effects of Personality on Public Sector Interest for Men and Women

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An important factor in vocational choice is whether to pursue a career in the public sector or the private sector. The perception of each sector impacts career choice, attracting individuals with certain traits. This perception-based attraction is important for public sector managers to understand what the ramifications of their branding are on recruitment, and whether it is impacting their workforce or ability to attract appropriate talent. Despite this importance, existing literature is very limited and presents contradictory findings. The present study investigated the impact of the Big Five personality traits (openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism) on interest in public sector employment generally, as well as separately for all three levels of government (local, provincial, and federal), for men and women enrolled in a first-year management program. Extraversion was negatively related to an interest in the public sector for all three levels of government. Men and women did not differ significantly in their level of attraction to the public sector, and no statistically significant differences in personality-based interest were found between the three levels of government. An exploratory analysis of general interest in each level of government found that interest in the federal government was significantly higher than the municipal and provincial governments, although still low for all three levels of government. These results indicate potential challenges for public sector managers to attract candidates for highly social roles requiring an extraverted character.

The Gender Gap in the Care Economy is Larger in Highly Developed Countries: Socio-cultural Explanations for Paradoxical Findings

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Sep 2022

Despite the growing importance of care economy careers (e.g., healthcare and education), men remain underrepresented in these fields. Past research suggests that, while economically developed nations tend to support equal rights for men and women, their labor markets tend to be highly gender-segregated (Charles 1992; 2003). By examining this paradoxical pattern in the care economy, we asked whether men’s lower interest in care economy careers is more pronounced in highly economically developed countries (vs. equally evident across countries), and if so, what psychological and cultural factors underlie these patterns? We examined these questions with actual labor data from 70 nations (Study 1) and a unique pre-registered study of career interest among 19,240 university students from 49 nations (Study 2). Although highly economically developed countries tend to promote some forms of gender equality (GGGI, 2017), the gender gap in care economy representation (Study 1) and interest (Study 2) is especially large in such countries. Results from Study 2 suggested that gender differences in values underlie this pattern. Specifically, men’s relatively lower communal values (e.g., valuing helping and caring for others) in highly economically developed countries predicted the larger gender differences in care economy interest in these countries. In addition, cross-national variation in gender differences in care economy interest was better explained by country-level variation in economic development and individualism than by self-expression values or general gender equality. Counter to prior findings, we did not observe parallel paradoxical patterns for STEM representation or interest.

Exploring variation in surgical practice: does surgeon personality influence anastomotic decision-making? on behalf of the Plato Project Steering Group Collaborators

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Jul 2022
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Abstract Background Decision-making under uncertainty may be influenced by an individual’s personality. The primary aim was to explore associations between surgeon personality traits and colorectal anastomotic decision-making. Methods Colorectal surgeons worldwide participated in a two-part online survey. Part 1 evaluated surgeon characteristics using the Big Five Inventory to measure personality (five domains: agreeableness; conscientiousness; extraversion; emotional stability; openness) in response to scenarios presented in Part 2 involving anastomotic decisions (i.e. rejoining the bowel with/without temporary stomas, or permanent diversion with end colostomy). Anastomotic decisions were compared using repeated-measure ANOVA. Mean scores of traits domains were compared with normative data using two-tailed t tests. Results In total, 186 surgeons participated, with 127 surgeons completing both parts of the survey (68.3 per cent). One hundred and thirty-one surgeons were male (70.4 per cent) and 144 were based in Europe (77.4 per cent). Forty-one per cent (77 surgeons) had begun independent practice within the last 5 years. Surgeon personality differed from the general population, with statistically significantly higher levels of emotional stability (3.25 versus 2.97 respectively), lower levels of agreeableness (3.03 versus 3.74), extraversion (2.81 versus 3.38) and openness (3.19 versus 3.67), and similar levels of conscientiousness (3.42 versus 3.40 (all P <0.001)). Female surgeons had significantly lower levels of openness (P <0.001) than males (3.06 versus 3.25). Personality was associated with anastomotic decision-making in specific scenarios. Conclusion Colorectal surgeons have different personality traits from the general population. Certain traits seem to be associated with anastomotic decision-making but only in specific scenarios. Further exploration of the association of personality, risk-taking, and decision-making in surgery is necessary.

Do vocational interests matter for the selection of romantic partners? Evidence from Variable‐ and Couple‐Centered Approaches

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The present study links the person‐environment fit theory of vocational interests (VI) with the research on the selection of romantic partners. Empirically, we explore the assortment for VI in 215 heterosexual romantic partners. Using both the variable‐centered (VCA) and couple‐centered (CCA) approaches, we test the hypotheses on positive versus negative assortment, initial assortment versus convergence, and active assortment versus social homogamy. A modest to moderate positive assortment was found for Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, and Social interests but not Conventional interests, whereas evidence of couple similarity in Enterprising interests was less consistent. A moderate level of positive assortment was identified in couples when full interest profiles were evaluated. The results indicate an initial and active assortment rather than convergence or social homogamy effects. The analysis also shows that the assortment for interests represents an independent preference that cannot be easily seen as a by‐product of the assortment in the five‐factor personality traits. These findings highlight the importance of VI in the active selection of romantic partners. We discuss implications for future research and practice.

What do adolescents and young adults strive for in sport and exercise? An explorative study on goal profiles in sport and exercise

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In sport and exercise promotion, it is important to consider goals because achieving these goals leads to a sense of well-being and behaviour adherence. Individuals often pursue multiple goals simultaneously. Therefore, it is also important to not only consider each individual's combination of goals but also to identify so-called "goal profiles". Taking a developmental-psychological perspective, the goal profiles of adolescents may differ from those of young adults. Furthermore, goal profiles might differ concerning the self-determined motivation, sport and exercise behaviour, and gender. Therefore, both age groups, 966 adolescents and 636 young adults, were questioned by self-report on their goals in sport and exercise, self-determined motivation, sport and exercise behaviour, and gender. A multiple-group-analysis for latent-profile-solutions was conducted resulting in six goal profiles for both age groups. As expected, the shape of these profiles differed qualitatively for the majority of adolescents and young adults: In adolescents, goals such as contact and the perception of challenge were more prominent, whereas in young adults, health, figure/appearance, and distraction/catharsis were dominant. Validation analyses support the profiles identified as they differ in self-determined motivation, sport and exercise behaviour, and gender. To more efficiently tailor interventions, an age-specific focus on goal profiles seems promising.

High School Enrollment Choices -- Understanding the STEM Gender Gap

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Students' high school decisions will always impact efforts to achieve gender parity in STEM at the university level and beyond. Without a comprehensive understanding of gendered disparities in high school course selection, it will be impossible to close completely the gender gap in many STEM disciplines. This study examines eleven years of detailed administrative data to determine gendered enrolment trends in university-stream secondary school STEM courses. Male and female enrolments for all publicly funded secondary schools across the province of Ontario (N = 844) were tracked from the 2007/08 academic year to 2017/18. The data reveal a clear trend of growing enrolment in STEM disciplines, with the increase in female students continuing their STEM education significantly outpacing males in almost all courses. However, these results also demonstrate the disparities that persist across STEM disciplines. The existing gender gap in physics remains large - in 2018, the median grade 12 physics class was only $36.5\pm0.05%$ female - with virtually no progress having been made to close this gap. By tracking individual student cohorts, we also demonstrate a newly discovered result showing the continuation rate of male students in biology stream courses has experienced a precipitous drop-off. The proportion of male students continuing from grade 10 science to grade 12 biology two years later has seen an average yearly decline of $-0.44\pm0.08$ percentage points, potentially foreshadowing the emergence of another significant gender gap in STEM. We suggest that researchers and educators cease treating STEM as a monolith when addressing gender disparities, as doing so obscures significant differences between disciplines. Future efforts, particularly those aimed to support women in STEM, must instead adopt a more targeted approach to ensure that they solve existing problems without creating new ones.

Transactional Links Between Parenting and Big Two Personality Traits Across Early Adolescence: Between- and Within-Family Effects

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It is well established that parenting bears a strong link with the development of personality traits among adolescents. However, studies that examine the reciprocal associations between changes in parenting and the Big Two personality traits (i.e., extraversion and neuroticism) of adolescence are lacking. The aim of this study was to examine the longitudinal transactional links between three dimensions of parenting (i.e., parental support, psychological control, and harsh punishment) and the Big Two personality traits during early adolescence. The study applied a four-wave longitudinal approach with each wave being 12 months apart. Participants were 3307 Chinese youth (43.6% girls, Mage = 11.30 years, SD = 0.24). The results of cross-lagged panel modeling supported the significant bidirectional relations between these three parenting practices and adolescent extraversion and neuroticism at the between-family level. The within-person level analysis of random intercept cross-lagged panel modeling found that parental harsh punishment significantly predicted youth neuroticism (but not vice versa) and psychological control significantly predicted both extraversion (but not vice versa) and neuroticism (and vice versa). Sex differences were observed in the bidirectional relation between harsh punishment and neuroticism at the between-family level and in the longitudinal relation between psychological control and neuroticism at the within-family level. These results suggest that the linkages between parenting and adolescent personality traits can be understood to be advanced by both the between-family and within-family approaches that may provide greater support for causal inferences.

Students’ Environmental Care Attitude: A Study at Adiwiyata Public High School Based on the New Ecological Paradigm (NEP)

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Environmental care attitude is an important factor in protecting the environment. The Adiwiyata Award is presented as the highest recognition for implementing an environmental care attitude. The aims of this study are to (1) evaluate the execution of the environmental curriculum in Adiwiyata schools; (2) to analyze the students’ environmental care attitudes in Adiwiyata schools in the Pati Regency using the new ecological paradigm (NEP) scale; and (3) to examine the students’ environmental care attitudes in Adiwiyata schools in the Pati Regency related to gender differences. Based on the criteria of Adiwiyata schools, they were used as research subjects. The research subjects were chosen using a purposive sampling technique. A questionnaire was utilized as a data collection instrument. The new ecological paradigm (NEP) scale was used to assess environmental care attitudes. This study used a Likert scale to assess environmental care attitudes. The Mann-Whitney test was used to identify gender differences in environmental care attitudes. The results found that (1) Adiwiyata schools in the Pati Regency supported the implementation of environmental education in the curriculum, as well as participation in environmental activity programs and the use of greenhouses; (2) the environmental care attitudes of students from the SMA Negeri Pati Regency were in the moderate category; and (3) there was a gender difference based on environmental care attitudes, which found that female students have a higher environmental care attitude than the male students. Environmental education plays an important role in gender differences because the Adiwiyata school has integrated learning activities with the environmental education curriculum, and participatory-based environmental activities can improve students’ environmental care attitudes. The potential implication for policy and practice in the field is that humans will consciously prevent environmental problems from occurring.

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Studies have found that bilinguals respond differently to personality measures in their two languages, indicating that bilinguals change their personality as they switch between their two languages and/or cultures. Across two experiments, we attempted to investigate the effect of language and culture separately on how bilingual speakers rate themselves on the personality dimensions on the Big-5 Personality Inventory. Swedish speakers were asked to imagine applying for a job either at a Swedish (home country/own culture) or an American (foreign country/culture) company, and they responded to the Big-5 questions in either their first language Swedish, or their second language English, in a 2 by 2 design. Overall, differences on several of the personality dimensions were found, mainly affected by the language factor, generally replicating previous research. These results suggest that separate processes may be driving previously found differences on personality measures in bilinguals’ two languages to some extent, and that these processes affect the personality dimensions (as measured by the Big-5 personality inventory) differently, even if the language variable seems to be the stronger indicator.

Evolutionary Perspectives on Post-Separation Parenting

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Evolutionary social science is having a renaissance. This volume showcases the empirical and theoretical advancements produced by the evolutionary study of romantic relationships. The editors assembled an international collection of contributors to trace how evolved psychological mechanisms shape strategic computation and behavior across the life span of a romantic partnership. Each chapter provides an overview of historic and contemporary research on the psychological mechanisms and processes underlying the initiation, maintenance, and dissolution of romantic relationships. Contributors discuss popular and cutting-edge methods for data analysis and theory development, critically analyze the state of evolutionary relationship science, and provide discerning recommendations for future research. The handbook integrates a broad range of topics (e.g., partner preference and selection, competition and conflict, jealousy and mate guarding, parenting, partner loss and divorce, and post-relationship affiliation) that are discussed alongside major sources of strategic variation in mating behavior, such as sex and gender diversity, developmental life history, neuroendocrine processes, technological advancement, and culture. Its content promises to enrich students’ and established researchers’ views on the current state of the discipline and should challenge a diverse cross-section of relationship scholars and clinicians to incorporate evolutionary theorizing into their professional work.

Linking gender differences with gender equality: A systematic-narrative literature review of basic skills and personality

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Marco Balducci

There is controversy regarding whether gender differences are smaller or larger in societies that promote gender equality highlighting the need for an integrated analysis. This review examines literature correlating, on a national level, gender differences in basic skills-mathematics, science (including attitudes and anxiety), and reading-as well as personality, to gender equality indicators. The aim is to assess the cross-national pattern of these differences when linked to measures of gender equality and explore new explanatory variables that can shed light on this linkage. The review was based on quantitative research relating country-level measures of gender differences to gender equality composite indices and specific indicators. The findings show that the mathematics gender gap from the PISA and TIMMS assessments, is not linked to composite indices and specific indicators, but gender differences are larger in gender-equal countries for reading, mathematics attitudes, and personality (Big Five, HEXACO, Basic Human Values, and Vocational Interests). Research on science and overall scores (mathematics, science, and reading considered together) is inconclusive. It is proposed that the paradox in reading results from the interrelation between basic skills and the attempt to increase girls' mathematics abilities both acting simultaneously while the paradox in mathematics attitudes might be explained by girls being less exposed to mathematics than boys. On the other hand, a more nuanced understanding of the gender equality paradox in personality is advanced, in which a gene-environment-cultural interplay accounts for the phenomenon. Challenges for future cross-national research are discussed.

MOTEMO-OUTDOOR: ensuring learning and health security during the COVID-19 pandemic through outdoor and online environments in higher education

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Learn Environ Res

Unlabelled: The restriction measures put in place during the COVID-19 pandemic posed notable challenges for formal teaching-learning processes because they had to be adapted to ensure health security. An active learning programme applied to three environments (indoors, outdoors, and online) was tested with 273 undergraduate university students in a within-subjects experimental study. Each student was assigned to two indoor and two outdoor seminars, with a subsample (n = 30) also participating in online seminars implemented in response to the university's lockdown protocols. The learning experience and learning conditions were evaluated through six dimensions: learning, evaluative impact, hedonic experience, technical conditions, environmental conditions, and health security. Outdoor seminars were more effective than indoor seminars in terms of the learning experience, with greater differences in hedonic experience, while the indoor seminars were rated more highly than the outdoor seminars in terms of learning conditions, with a larger difference in the environmental conditions. No differences were found between online and face-to-face environments in terms of the learning experience, even though the online environment yielded better scores in the learning conditions. Apparently, this adaptation to both outdoor and online contexts through active methodologies allows overcoming of technical, environmental, and teaching limitations and improves health security, while ensuring a good learning experience and added flexibility to teaching-learning processes. Supplementary information: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10984-023-09456-y.

PERSONALITY TRAITS OF SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS: A COMPARATIVE STUDY

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Jul 2020

The purpose of the present study was to investigate the personality traits of secondary school students in relation to gender. The current study was conducted on about 200 students (100 male and 100 female) studying in secondary school in Aligarh district, (U.P.) India. The sample was taken by using random sampling techniques. For the collection of data and necessary information in the present study, the investigator has used the Mini-IPIP scales which is a standardize inventory developed by Donnellan, Oswald, Baird, and Lucas (2006). This scale has five components, namely Extraversion (E), Agreeableness (A), Conscientiousness(C), Neuroticism (N) and Openness (O). Obtained data were analyzed using descriptive t-test. According to the results, significant difference was found between female and male students of secondary school on the total personality trait as well as on all five dimensions (i.e. Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Neuroticism, and Openness). Male students showed significantly higher scores on overall personality, Extroversion, Neuroticism, and Openness to experience than female students. Moreover, female students showed significantly higher scores on Agreeableness and Conscientiousness than male students.

Financial Literacy and Gender Differences: Women Choose People While Men Choose Things?

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According to gender personality traits, women are more interested in people, whereas men are more interested in things. The goal of this research is to see if there is a gender gap in financial literacy and if these disparities can be explained by different areas of interest. A convenience sample of nearly a thousand responses was received in quantitative research. The findings clearly show that women have lower financial literacy than men, but there is no indication that this is due to men and women’s differing interests in people and things.

Natural-born peacemakers? Big five personality traits, gender, and interpersonal peacemaking

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INT J CONFL MANAGE

Purpose This study aims to investigate the relationship between personality, gender and interpersonal peacemaking. Peacemaking is considered as voluntary behavior of team members to help conflicting peers in an impartial way, to find an amicable solution. This study tests the relation between the Big Five personality dimensions, gender and five different components of interpersonal peacemaking (general involvement in peacemaking, multipartiality, focus of finding solutions, emotional support and the use of humor). Design/methodology/approach In total, 503 participants filled out a survey assessing their personality and peacemaking behavior at work. To test the hypotheses, this study conducted structural equation modeling in AMOS 22.0. Findings In line with expectations, openness, extraversion and agreeableness related positively to most peacemaking components, while conscientiousness and neuroticism related negatively to the use of humor and peacemakers’ multipartiality, respectively; comparing men and women, women engage more often in peacemaking in general and in emotional support, and use less humor than men. Results also showed that these gender differences are partially mediated by agreeableness being higher for women. Originality/value To the best of the authors’ knowledge, this is one of the first studies exploring the relationship between personality (Big Five), gender and different aspects of interpersonal peacemaking. Peacemaking is an important, however understudied, behavior in teams and part of OCB. The promotion of peacemaking contributes to team effectiveness.

Measuring heritability: Why bother?

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Uchiyama et al. rightly consider how cultural variation may influence estimates of heritability by contributing to environmental sources of variation. We disagree, however, with the idea that generalisable estimates of heritability are ever a plausible aim. Heritability estimates are always context-specific, and to suggest otherwise is to misunderstand what heritability can and cannot tell us.

Models of gene–culture evolution are incomplete without incorporating epigenetic effects

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Epigenetics impacts gene–culture coevolution by amplifying phenotypic variation, including clustering, and bridging the difference in timescales between genetic and cultural evolution. The dual inheritance model described by Uchiyama et al. could be modified to provide greater explanatory power by incorporating epigenetic effects.

Changes in heritability: Unpredictable and of limited use

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We argue that heritability estimates cannot be used to make informed judgments about the populations from which they are drawn. Furthermore, predicting changes in heritability from population changes is likely impossible, and of limited value. We add that the attempt to separate human environments into cultural and non-cultural components does not advance our understanding of the environmental multiplier effect.

Unpackaging cultural variability in behavioral phenotypes

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Ronald Fischer

We need better understanding of functional differences of behavioral phenotypes across cultures because cultural evolution (e.g., temporal changes in innovation within populations) is less important than culturally molded phenotypes (e.g., differences across populations) for understanding gene effects. Furthermore, changes in one behavioral domain likely have complex downstream effects in other domains, requiring careful parsing of phenotypic variability and functions.

Sex Differences in Traditional School Bullying Perpetration and Victimization among Adolescents: A Chain-Mediating Effect

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Aug 2022
Int J Environ Res Publ Health

The study explored sex differences in traditional school bullying perpetration and victimization among Chinese adolescents and the effects of Machiavellianism and school climate. Data were collected from 727 adolescents (M = 16.8 years, SD = 0.9) who completed the Olweus Bully/Victim Questionnaire, Kiddie Machiavellian Scale, and School Climate Perception Questionnaire. Results showed: (1) boys were more likely to bully others and be bullied; (2) both Machiavellianism and school climate partially mediated sex differences in school bullying perpetration and victimization; (3) the chain-mediating effect of Machiavellianism and school climate on sex differences in bullying perpetration and victimization was significant. These results provide insight into the sex differences in Chinese traditional school bullying perpetration and victimization. The implications are interpreted and discussed.

Generational cohorts and their predisposition toward entrepreneurship in an emerging economy

Article

Full-text available

Jul 2022

Purpose The study investigates the predisposition of generational cohorts toward entrepreneurship in an emerging economy as entrepreneurship has arguably become a panacea for unemployment and sustainable economic development. Design/methodology/approach The study adopts descriptive and cross-sectional survey designs. The study also employs quantitative approach to collect the data from 1,000 workers in 20 selected private and public organizations in Ghana. The data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, correlation and hierarchical regression techniques. Findings The results reveal that baby boomers and Generation Z (Gen Z) have a higher predisposition toward entrepreneurship, while Generation X (Gen X) and Generation Y (Gen Y) have a lower predisposition toward entrepreneurship. However, the study found that baby boomers are more predisposed to entrepreneurship than all the generational cohorts. Furthermore, a generation may become entrepreneurs regardless of their gender. Finally, individuals with higher educational qualification (i.e. masters and doctorate) are more likely to become entrepreneurs in a given generation. Practical implications The findings imply that entrepreneurial opportunities (such as ease of doing business, favorable business regulations, access to credit facilities, low interest rate, ease of registering business, start-up capital, etc.) should be created by government and its stakeholders to serve as stimuli for members of these generations (particularly baby boomers and Gen Z) to participate fully in entrepreneurial activities. In addition, the culture of “go to college and graduate with the expectation of government employment” and “job for life” should be discouraged to allow members of Gen X and Gen Y build up entrepreneurial mindsets. Originality/value This study contributes to generational cohorts and entrepreneurship literature by providing a perspective from the cultural and socio-economic background of an emerging economy. Additionally, this study demonstrates that irrespective of gender, one may become an entrepreneur and highly educated individuals tend be entrepreneurs.

MOTEMO-OUTDOOR: Ensuring learning and health safety during the COVID-19 pandemic through outdoor and online environments in higher education

Preprint

Full-text available

Jun 2022

The restriction measures posed notable challenges for formal teaching-learning processes in the context of the COVID-19 epidemic since they had to be adapted to guarantee health security. An active learning programme applied to three environments (indoor, outdoor, and online) was tested on 273 undergraduate university students in an a within-subjects experimental study. Each student was assigned to two indoor and two outdoor seminars, and a subsample ( n = 30) also participated in online seminars due to the university's lockdown protocols. The learning experience and learning conditions were evaluated through six dimensions: learning, evaluative impact, hedonic experience, technical conditions, environmental conditions, and health safety. The results suggested that outdoor was more effective than indoor in the learning experience, with greater differences in hedonic experience, but indoor scored better than outdoor in the learning conditions, with a greater difference the environmental conditions. No differences were found between online and face-to-face environments in the learning experience, despite online had better scores in the learning conditions. It is concluded that this adaptation through active methodologies to both outdoor and online contexts allows overcoming technical, environmental, and teaching limitations and improves health safety, guaranteeing the learning experience, and thus providing with flexibility the teaching-learning processes.

High Sensitivity: Factor structure of the highly sensitive person scale and personality traits in a high and low sensitivity group. Two gender—matched studies

Article

Full-text available

Jul 2022

Sensory Processing Sensitivity (SPS) is a heritable personality related trait which includessensitivity to a variety of stimuli, emotional, cognitive, and behavioural reactions such asstrong positive and negative emotional responses, deep cognitive processing of stimuli, andempathic behaviour. Two studies are reported. Study 1 investigated the factor structure ofthe Highly Sensitive Person scale (HSP) and gender differences in HSP. Study 2 describeddifferences in Big Five personality traits between two HSP groups. Study 1 comprised asample of adults, mostly university students, matched on gender (N men ¼ 548, N women¼ 548; total N ¼ 1096). Study 2 was based on a sample consisting of a High (N ¼ 164) andLow (N ¼ 164) HSP group also matched on gender (N men ¼ 82 and N women ¼ 82 inboth groups; total N ¼ 328). There were no age differences between men and women inthe two samples. Results from Study 1 showed a correlated three-factor solution: The firstfactor reflected excitability, easily aroused, negative emotional reactivity, frustration,avoidance of upsetting situations and childhood shyness. Factor 2 comprised low sensorythreshold and sensory discomfort. Factor 3 captured intensity of aesthetic reactions,preoccupation with details in the environment, and socio-emotional sensitivity. Genderdifferences were found, women had elevated HSP scores on all scales, also when controlledfor personality traits. Study 2 showed that the highly sensitive individuals had a uniquepersonality trait profile compared to low sensitives. They had higher scores on neuroticism,agreeableness, openness, and lower scores on conscientiousness. There were no differencesin extraversion i.e., there was no tendency towards introversion among the high sensitives

Recalled Childhood Gender-Related Play Behaviour and Current Gender-Related Occupational Interests in University Students: Examining the Mediating Roles of Gender Compatibility, Goal Endorsement, and Occupational Stereotype Flexibility

Article

Full-text available

Jul 2022

Karson T. F. Kung

Substantial average gender differences in childhood play behaviour and occupational interests have been well-documented. Recent research shows that childhood gender-related play behaviour longitudinally predicts gender-related occupational interests in adolescence (Kung, 2021). The first aim of the present study was to extend this recent finding by examining whether university students’ recalled childhood gender-related play behaviour predicts their current gender-related occupational interests. The second aim of the present study was to investigate whether gender-related socio-cognitive processes mediate the relation between childhood play behaviour and subsequent occupational interests. University students (260 men, 542 women) completed scales assessing recalled childhood gender-related play behaviour, gender-related occupational interests, gender typicality, gender contentedness, agentic goal endorsement, communal goal endorsement, and gender-related occupational stereotype flexibility. In the present study, recalled childhood gender-related play behaviour predicted gender-related occupational interests in both men and women. In men, gender typicality and gender contentedness mediated the play-interests link. In women, gender typicality and communal goal endorsement mediated the play-interests link. The present study provides further evidence that childhood gender-related play behaviour is related to subsequent gender-related occupational interests. Although the current study has a correlational design, one interpretation of the current findings is that childhood play may influence socio-cognitive processes, such as gender compatibility and goal endorsement, which may in turn shape occupational interests.

Can Digit Ratio and Gender Identity Predict Preferences for Consumption Options With a Distinct Gender Image?

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2022

This study investigated whether individuals' preferences for masculine (vs. feminine) consumption options could be predicted by a biological sex cue (the 2D:4D digit ratio; a biomarker linked to prenatal testosterone exposure), and a psychological gender cue (self-perceived gender identity). Chinese participants (N = 216) indicated their preferences for a series of binary options that differed in their perceived gender image (e.g., romantic comedy vs. action thriller; pop music vs. hard rock), with one of the options evaluated as relatively more feminine and the other viewed as comparably more masculine. Participants also self-reported their gender identity and the length of their index and ring fingers, which was used to calculate their 2D:4D digit ratios. A low (male-typical) digit ratio and a masculine gender identity were both associated with more masculine preferences, regardless of participants' biological sex. However, a low digit ratio predicted preferences for masculine consumption options only in female participants with a masculine gender identity, but not in those with a feminine gender identity. These findings add to the literature on whether and when biological sex cues and psychological gender cues can predict preferences for options with a distinct gender image and suggest that the connection between these cues is more complex in women than in men.

Is there a g-factor of genderedness? Using a continuous measure of genderedness to assess sex differences in personality, values, cognitive ability, school grades, and educational track

Article

Apr 2022

Some of the most persistently recurring research questions concern sex differences. Despite much progress, limited research has thus far been undertaken to investigate whether there is one general construct of genderedness that runs through various domains of human individuality. In order to determine whether being gender typical in one way goes together with being gender typical also in other ways, we investigated whether 16-year-old Finnish girls and boys ( N = 4106) differ in their personality, values, cognitive abilities, academic achievement, and educational track. To do this, we updated the prediction-focused gender diagnosticity approach by methods of cross-validation for more accurate estimation. The preregistered analysis shows that sex differences vary across domains ( Ds = 0.15–1.48), that fine-grained measures, such as grade profiles, can be accurate in predicting sex (77.5%), whereas some summary indices, such as general cognitive ability, do not perform above-chance (52.4%), and that the genderedness correlations, despite all being positive, are too weak (average partial correlation, r´ = .09, range .03–.34) to support a general factor of genderedness. Our more exploratory analyses show that more focus on gender typicality could offer important insights into the role of gender in shaping people’s lives.

Psychological Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Students, Assistants, and Faculty of a Dental Institute of Saudi Arabia

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2021
Int J Environ Res Publ Health

This study aimed to assess the perceived stress levels in students, assistants, and faculty members of the College of Dentistry, Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal, University (IAU), Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) during the novel coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. Using the Cohen’s perceived stress scale (PSS) questionnaire (consisting of 14 items, hence called PSS-14), an online observational survey was conducted. The PSS 14 was rated on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 0 (never) to 4 (very often). The scores ranging from 0–18 represented low stress, 19–37 represented moderate stress, and 38–56 represented high stress. The second-and third-year students were designated as junior year students, while fourth-year onwards were considered senior year students. Out of total 265 participants, 65% (173) were female, and the majority of the participants were dental students 70% (185) with a mean age of 26.71 ± 9.26 years. In the present study, the average PSS score for the participants was computed as 29.89 (range score: 0–56) which shows moderate stress levels among the respondents. The PSS score for the students was 31.03; for the faculty, it was 28, while for the assistants, it was 27.05. Among the three participant groups, the students were found more on the severe stress side (19%) (p-value = 0.002), and among them, the senior year students (6th year) showed significantly higher stress levels compared to the junior year students (p-value = 0.005). Age-wise, the participants below 20 years were most stressed (21%), followed by those 20–30 years old (18%). Female participants were more severely stressed than males (17% vs. 10%, respectively). It was concluded that the students experienced more stress, followed by the faculty members and dental assistants. In addition, younger participants, females, and senior year students were more stressed than their counterparts. Future studies directed at evaluating stress levels of these groups from different dental institutes could provide an opportunity for policymakers to offer various resources to improve their mental health.

Will conjugal relationship affect the corporate innovation? – Empirical evidence from a-share listed family business in China

Article

Full-text available

Nov 2021

Purpose Few studies have focused on the impact of conjugal control and non-conjugal control on the innovation capability of family firms. In the context of the relative lack of research on the relationship between family firm heterogeneity and innovation ability, this study aims to focus on the differentiated impact of husband–wife-controlled family listed companies and non-husband–wife-controlled family listed companies on their innovation capabilities, which provides empirical evidence with more Chinese institutional and cultural characteristics for the development of corporate organizational management and innovation theories. Design/methodology/approach Taking all A-share listed family firms from 2007 to 2016 as the research sample, this paper examines the influence of spousal control on firm innovation level by empirical research method. Findings The empirical results show that compared with non-spousal-controlled family enterprises, spousal-controlled family enterprises have significant positive effects on the level of enterprise innovation. Further studies suggest that joint management of spousal-controlled family enterprises improves the level of innovation. Authority difference of the couple will weaken the innovation capacity. However, the wife’s professional skills can promote the innovation level. Originality/value Focusing on the characteristics of family internal structure and embedding marriage relationship in the enterprise organization, this paper investigates the influence of different characteristics of husband and wife and cooperation mode on enterprise innovation, and the conclusion enriches the theory of family business and family science, as well as provides important information reference for the stakeholder groups in the capital market.

Ideological Bias in American Psychological Association Communications: Another Threat to the Credibility of Professional Psychology

Chapter

Sep 2023

Psychologists are politically homogenous to a substantially higher degree than the general population. Moreover, professional psychological organizations, namely, the American Psychological Association (APA), also promote and adopt distinctly partisan research, policy positions, and activist efforts. In this chapter, an analysis of the APA’s press releases since 2000 shows a pervasive left-wing bias. In addition to other threats to the credibility of professional psychology’s reputation (e.g., replication crisis), political and ideological bias is a current and underappreciated threat that requires attention. We discuss ways to improve the quality of psychologists’ work as well as public opinion of the credibility of the profession. These include applying research methods to enhance scientific integrity; expanding the definition of diversity; improving psychology curriculum through integration of material from other disciplines; recognizing and promoting varied moral, ideological, and political viewpoints; and prioritizing scientific inquiry over activism.

High School Enrolment Choices—Understanding the STEM Gender Gap

Article

Sep 2023

Students’ high school decisions will always impact efforts to achieve gender parity in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) at the university level and beyond. Without a comprehensive understanding of gendered disparities in high school course selection, it will be impossible to close completely the gender gap in many STEM disciplines. This study examines 11 years of detailed administrative data to determine gendered enrolment trends in university-stream secondary school STEM courses. Male and female enrolments for all publicly funded secondary schools across the province of Ontario (N = 844) were tracked from the 2007/2008 academic year to 2017/2018. The data reveal a clear trend of growing enrolment in STEM disciplines, with the increase in female students continuing their STEM education significantly outpacing males in almost all courses. However, these results also demonstrate the significant disparities that persist across STEM disciplines. The existing gender gap in physics remains large—in 2018, the median grade 12 Physics class was only $36.5\pm 0.05\%$ female—with virtually no progress having been made to close this gap. By tracking individual student cohorts, we also demonstrate a newly discovered result showing the continuation rate of male students in biology stream courses has experienced a precipitous drop-off. The proportion of male students continuing from grade 10 Science to grade 12 Biology 2 years later has seen an average yearly decline of $-0.44\pm 0.08$ percentage points, potentially foreshadowing the emergence of another significant gender gap in STEM. We suggest that researchers and educators cease treating STEM as a monolith when addressing gender disparities, as doing so obscures significant differences between disciplines. Future efforts, particularly those aimed to support women in STEM, must instead adopt a more targeted approach to ensure that they solve existing problems without creating new ones.

Towards Better Cultural Enlightenment: Identify Chinese Preschoolers’ Cultural Cognition Traits and Predictors

Article

Aug 2023

Sex and gender correlates of sexually polymorphic cognition

Preprint

Full-text available

Jul 2023

Background: Sexually polymorphic cognition (SPC) results from the interaction between biological (birth-assigned sex (BAS), sex hormones) and sociocultural (gender identity, gender roles, sexual orientation) factors. The literature remains quite mixed regarding the magnitude of the effects of these variables. This project used a battery of classic cognitive tests designed to assess the influence of sex hormones on cognitive performance. At the same time, we aimed to assess the inter-related and respective effects that BAS, sex hormones, and gender-related factors have on SPC. Methods: We recruited 222 adults who completed eight cognitive tasks that assessed a variety of cognitive domains during a 150-minute session. Subgroups were recruited as follows: cisgender heterosexual men (n = 46), cisgender non-heterosexual men (n = 36), cisgender heterosexual women (n = 36), cisgender non-heterosexual women (n = 38), gender diverse (n = 66). Saliva samples were collected before, during, and after the test to assess testosterone, estradiol, progesterone, cortisol, and dehydroepiandrosterone. Psychosocial variables were derived from self-report questionnaires. Results: Cognitive performance reflects sex and gender differences that are partially consistent with the literature. Interestingly, biological factors seem to better explain differences in male-typed cognitive tasks (e.g., spatial), while psychosocial factors seem to better explain differences in female-typed cognitive tasks (e.g., verbal). Conclusion: Our results provide a solid foundation for better understanding SPC by going beyond BAS as a binary. We highlight the importance of treating sex as a biological factor and gender as a sociocultural factor together since they collectively influence SPC.

Do applicants from Generation X, Y, Z differ in personality traits? data from selection procedures in aviation (1987–2019)

Article

Full-text available

Aug 2023

Dirk Stelling

Introduction: The objective of this study is to research personality trait differences across generations and the impact of age, gender and self-presentation on these traits. Methods: A total of 82,147 applicants (aged 17–24) for aviation training (pilot, air traffic controller), born between 1965 and 2002, were divided into three cohorts (Generation X, Y, Z). We analysed data from the temperament structure scales (TSS) personality questionnaire, which was collected during selection procedures between 1987 and 2019. Generational differences were analysed by ANCOVAs with generation and gender as group factors, controlled by age and self-presentation (social desirability).

Gender issues in key account management research: A systematic literature review and avenues for future research

Article

May 2023
IND MARKET MANAG

Bjoern Ivens

Breed, age, and social environment are associated with personality traits in dogs

Article

Full-text available

Apr 2023

Personality in pets and other domesticated animals is important for their well-being and it can also influence human-animal relationships. Genetic and environmental factors influencing unwanted behavior in dogs are somewhat well known, but the factors influencing dog personality remain understudied. Here we examined environmental and demographic factors associated with seven broad personality traits in a survey of over 11,000 dogs. We utilized linear models and extensive model validation to examine the factors that have the most significant influences on personality and calculated effect sizes to assess the importance of these variables. Breed and age had the strongest associations with dog personality traits. Some environmental factors, especially puppyhood socialization, were also associated with personality. All factors had small effect sizes, highlighting that a lot of variation in personality remains unexplained. Our results indicate that personality traits are complex and strikingly similar in dogs, humans, and other nonhuman animals.

Development of vocational gender stereotype attitudes scale (VGSA) for adolescents

Article

Mar 2023

The study aimed to develop and evaluate the psychometrical properties of a new brief measure of gender stereotyping career attitudes. Participants were 222 early and 196 middle adolescents from Croatia. The Vocational Gender Stereotype Attitudes Scale (VGSA) consists of 12 items that represent masculine, feminine and gender-balanced activities obtained from the Personal Globe Inventory (PGI). The results showed the existence of the bifactor model and high internal reliability of VGSA scale in assessing gender stereotyping attitudes. Results also confirmed acceptable measurement invariance across gender and age groups. Moreover, no gender differences in general career gender stereotyping were found, while early adolescents show greater stereotype endorsement, which is in line with theoretical expectations and supports the construct validity of the scale.

Esports Players Are Less Extroverted and Conscientious than Athletes

Article

Full-text available

Nov 2022

The worldwide status of esports as a sporting phenomenon has been developed in the past decade. However, as the esports industry has grown, it has remained an understudied scientific field. Esports is often contrasted with traditional sports regarding various aspects, including lack of physical activity and the online nature of social interactions. However, little is known whether individuals competing in esports-esports players-differ from individuals competing in traditional sports-athletes. To address this question, we examined the personality characteristics of both types of performers. We collected cross-sectional data on esports players' (n = 416) and athletes' (n = 452) personalities and performance characteristics. We found that esports players were less extroverted and conscientious than athletes. Furthermore, greater sports and esports experience was positively related to being more extroverted. Our findings contribute to the literature by documenting the preferences for competitive activities based on individuals' personality characteristics. We suggest that esports (rather than sports) might be a more suitable form of competition for less extroverted and conscientious individuals.

Integrating cultural evolution and behavioral genetics

Article

Sep 2022

The 29 commentaries amplified our key arguments; offered extensions, implications, and applications of the framework; and pushed back and clarified. To help forge the path forward for cultural evolutionary behavioral genetics, we (1) focus on conceptual disagreements and misconceptions about the concepts of heritability and culture; (2) further discuss points raised about the intertwined relationship between culture and genes; and (3) address extensions to the proposed framework, particularly as it relates to cultural clusters, development, and power. These commentaries, and the deep engagement they represent, reinforce the importance of integrating cultural evolution and behavioral genetics.

When Communication Breaks Down

Article

May 2022
MED CLIN N AM

Sex Differences in Fearful Personality Traits Are Mediated by Physical Strength

Article

May 2022

Across cultures, women reliably exhibit higher levels of Neuroticism than men. Recent work shows that this sex difference, particularly in Neuroticism’s anxiety facet, is partly mediated by the sex difference in physical strength. We build on this finding by testing pre-registered predictions of mediation by physical strength of the sex differences in HEXACO Emotionality and its Anxiety and Fearfulness facets (HEXACO stands for the factors of honesty–humility, emotionality, extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness to experience). Facultative calibration models predict that levels of these two facets, but not necessarily Emotionality’s other facets, will be adaptively adjusted during ontogeny to a person’s relative physical formidability. Results from five samples of U.S. undergraduates (total N = 1,399) showed that strength mediated the sex difference (women > men) in Emotionality and all its facets, but that the mediation effect was strongest for Fearfulness and weakest for Sentimentality. Overall, findings are consistent with the hypothesis that physical strength explains sex differences found in fearful and anxious personality traits.

Few Sex Differences in Dark Side Personality Scale Domains and Facets

Article

Apr 2022

This study examined sex differences in domain and facet scores on a new dark-side personality test (Hogan Development Survey: Form 5) measuring sub-clinical personality disorders. Over 50,000 adults completed the new HDS which assesses eleven dark-side traits and three facets of each. Comparing males and females on the 11 domains and 33 facets using t-tests and binary regressions we found that there were many significant differences on these scores, which replicated other studies. However, the Cohen's d statistic showed very few (5 out of 44) differences >.20. The biggest difference was on Reserved (Schizoid) and few differences on Excitable (Borderline). Implications for researchers interested in assessment and selection are discussed along with limitations of the study.

Geschlechtsidentität, Sexualität und psychologische Geschlechtsunterschiede in der Persönlichkeitspsychologie: Eine kurze Reise durch die Geschichte bis hin zu aktuellen Studien der Genderforschung

Chapter

Jan 2022

Thomas Schütt

The five factor model of personality and heritability: Evidence from Denmark

Article

Jul 2022
PERS INDIV DIFFER

While previous studies have shown that the traits in the FFM are moderately heritable, it is important to examine whether earlier results hold across different contexts. To date, few studies from the Scandinavian context have estimated the heritability of the FFM. We remedy this shortcoming by making use of a large sample of Danish twins who completed a 60-item personality inventory. Our results confirm that previous findings regarding the heritability of personality traits hold in the Danish context. We find that there are differences in mean levels and heritability estimates of personality traits across gender, though the differences in heritability estimates are not statistically significant. We find a significant common environment component for several of the personality traits, which indicates that the rearing environment of Danish twins may influence the development of some personality traits. All scripts for the analyses in this paper will be made available on OSF upon publication. This study's design and its analysis were not pre-registered. We are not allowed to share or post the Danish Twin Registry data used in this paper. However, information on the requirements for getting access to data and how to apply for data can be located here: https://www.sdu.dk/en/om_sdu/institutter_centre/ist_sundhedstjenesteforsk/centre/dtr/researcher/guidelines. We note that data used for this research was provided by the Danish Twin Registry, University of Southern Denmark. The findings, opinions and recommendations expressed therein are those of the author(s) and are not necessarily those of the Danish Twin Research Center. The Danish Twin Registry has been approved by SDU RIO (SDU Legal Services) and the Committee on Health Research Ethics. The participants were enrolled by informed consent. The Danish Twin Registry, SDU RIO notification no. 10.585. We have a conflict of interest with Pete Hatemi and Brad Verhulst because of this publication: Ludeke, S. G. & Rasmussen, S. H. R. (2016). Personality correlates of sociopolitical attitudes in the Big Five and Eysenckian models. Personality and Individual Differences, 98, 30–36.

The socio-economic effect on microplastic pollution of boiled salted fish

Article

Full-text available

Nov 2021

Boiled salted fish is one of the favorite fish processing commodities in Bogor. Every year its production increase in line with potential health hazards for consumers, one of which is caused by contamination of raw materials by microplastics. The socio-economic of people were suspected of having influenced the occurrence of the contamination. The study area took place in Bogor, aiming to analyze the correlation between socio-economic and microplastic contamination in boiled salted fish. The purposive sampling method was used in this study on 150 consumers representing gender, age, education, occupation, and income. The result was analyzed with descriptive and inferential statistics using the likelihood ratio, wald, and odds ratio test to determine which variables had the most influence. The analytical results showed that the variables of gender and education had a significant correlation (95%) with 0.5-7 times of risk. It is shown in the wald result, and the odds ratio is 2.619-17.182 (more than x ² (df ,a) value) and 0.453-7.044. It can be concluded that the potential of microplastic contamination in boiled salted fish correlated with gender and level of education and can be controlled by enhancing the understanding of gender groups through improving public education to a higher level.

A Study on the Differences of Interests in University Students by Sex

Article

Oct 2021

Dal-Hyo KIM

Gender differences in personality traits across cultures: Robust and surprising findings

Article

Full-text available

Aug 2001

Secondary analyses of Revised NEO Personality Inventory data from 26 cultures (N = 23,031) suggest that gender differences are small relative to individual variation within genders; differences are replicated across cultures for both college-age and adult samples, and differences are broadly consistent with gender stereotypes: Women reported themselves to be higher in Neuroticism, Agreeableness, Warmth, and Openness to Feelings, whereas men were higher in Assertiveness and Openness to Ideas. Contrary to predictions from evolutionary theory, the magnitude of gender differences varied across cultures. Contrary to predictions from the social role model, gender differences were most pronounced in European and American cultures in which traditional sex roles are minimized. Possible explanations for this surprising finding are discussed, including the attribution of masculine and feminine behaviors to roles rather than traits in traditional cultures.

Paradigm shift to the integrative big five trait taxonomy: History, measurement, and conceptual issues

Chapter

Full-text available

Jan 2008

On the Real Magnitude of Psychological Sex Differences

Article

Full-text available

Apr 2009

Marco Del Giudice

A comprehensive evolutionary theory of sex differences will benefit from an accurate assessment of their magnitude across different psychological domains. This article shows that mainstream research has severely underestimated the magnitude of psychological sex differences; the reason lies in the common practice of measuring multidimensional differences one dimension at a time, without integrating them into a proper multivariate effect size (ES). Employing the Mahalanobis distance D (the multivariate generalization of Cohen's d) results in more accurate, and predictably larger, estimates of overall sex differences in multidimensional constructs. Two real-world examples are presented: (1) In a published dataset on Big Five personality traits, sex differences on individual scales averaged d = .27, a typical ES conventionally regarded as "small." However, the overall difference was D = .84 (disattenuated D = .98), implying considerable statistical separation between male and female distributions. (2) In a recent meta-analytic summary of sex differences in aggression, the individual ESs averaged d = .34. However, the overall difference was estimated at D = .75 - .80 (disattenuated D = .89 - 1.01). In many psychological domains, sex differences may be substantially larger than previously acknowledged.

The Origins of Sex Differences in Human Behavior: Evolved Dispositions Versus Social Roles

Article

Full-text available

Jun 1999

The origins of sex differences in human behavior can lie mainly in evolved dispositions that differ by sex or mainly in the differing placement of women and men in the social structure. The present article contrasts these 2 origin theories of sex differences and illustrates the explanatory power of each to account for the overall differences between the mate selection preferences of men and women. Although this research area often has been interpreted as providing evidence for evolved dispositions, a reanalysis of D. M. Buss's (see record 1989-32627-001) study of sex differences in the attributes valued in potential mates in 37 cultures yielded cross-cultural variation that supports the social structural account of sex differences in mate preferences. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

Social Dominance Orientation and the Political Psychology of Gender: A Case of Invariance?

Article

Full-text available

Dec 1994

Social dominance theory assumes transsituational and transcultural differences between men and women in social dominance orientation (SDO), with men showing higher levels of SDO than women. SDO is a general individual-difference variable expressing preference for superordinate in-group status, hierarchical relationships between social groups, and a view of group relations as inherently 0-sum. Data from a random sample of 1,897 respondents from Los Angeles County confirmed the notion that men have significantly higher social dominance scores than women and that these differences were consistent across cultural, demographic, and situational factors such as age, social class, religion, educational level, political ideology, ethnicity, racism, region of national origin, and gender-role relevant opinion. The theoretical implications are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

Sex differences in the design features of socially contingent mating adaptations

Article

Full-text available

Apr 2005
BEHAV BRAIN SCI

David M Buss

Schmitt's study provides strong support for sexual strategies theory (Buss & Schmitt 1993) – that men and women both have evolved a complex menu of mating strategies, selectively deployed depending on personal, social, and ecological contexts. It also simultaneously refutes social structural theories founded on the core premise that women and men are sexually monomorphic in their psychology of human mating. Further progress depends on identifying evolved psychological design features sensitive to the costs and benefits of pursuing each strategy from the menu, which vary across mating milieus. These design features, like many well-documented mating adaptations, are likely to be highly sex-differentiated.

Sexual Stereotypes of Occupations

Article

Full-text available

Aug 1975

Eva Shinar

This study examined the nature of sex stereotypes of occupations as they exist among college students today. The method of eliciting sexual stereotypes of occupations was distinctive in that three types of rating criteria were used, each emphasizing a different aspect of perception, on the basis of which the ratings of occupations as masculine, feminine, or neutral were subsequently made. The results indicate that sexual stereotypes of occupations are clearly defined and held in agreement by both college men and college women. The study yielded information about the mean rating of each of 129 occupations in terms of its masculinity, femininity, and neutrality.

The Dark Triad of Personality: Narcissism, Machiavellianism, and Psychopathy

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2002

Of the offensive yet non-pathological personalities in the literature, three are especially prominent: Machiavellianism, subclinical narcissism, and subclinical psychopathy. We evaluated the recent contention that, in normal samples, this ‘Dark Triad’ of constructs are one and the same. In a sample of 245 students, we measured the three constructs with standard measures and examined a variety of laboratory and self-report correlates. The measures were moderately inter-correlated, but certainly were not equivalent. Their only common Big Five correlate was disagreeableness. Subclinical psychopaths were distinguished by low neuroticism; Machiavellians, and psychopaths were low in conscientiousness; narcissism showed small positive associations with cognitive ability. Narcissists and, to a lesser extent, psychopaths exhibited self-enhancement on two objectively scored indexes. We conclude that the Dark Triad of personalities, as currently measured, are overlapping but distinct constructs.

Male, Female: The Evolution of Human Sex Differences

Book

Full-text available

Jan 1998

David C Geary

• Why do girls tend to earn better grades in school than boys? Why are men still far more likely than women to earn degrees in the fields of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics? And why are men on average more likely than women to be injured in accidents and fights? These and many other questions are the subject of both informal investigation in the media and formal investigation in academic and scientific circles. In his landmark book Male, female: The evolution of human sex differences (see record 2000-07043-000 ), author David C. Geary provided the first comprehensive evolutionary model to explain human sex differences. Now, over 10 years since the first edition, Geary has completed a massive update, expansion, and theoretical revision of his classic text. New findings in brain and genetic research inform a wealth of new material, including a new chapter on sex differences in patterns of life history development; expanded coverage of genetic research (e.g., DNA fingerprinting to determine paternity as related to male-male competition in primates); fatherhood in humans; cross-cultural patterns of sex differences in choosing and competing for mates; and genetic, hormonal, and sociocultural influences on the expression of sex differences. Finally, through his motivation to control framework, Geary presents a theoretical bridge linking parenting, mate choices, and competition with children's development and sex differences in brain and cognition. The result is a lively and nuanced application of Darwin's insight to help explain our heritage and our place in the natural world. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2015 APA, all rights reserved) • Why do girls tend to earn better grades in school than boys? Why are men still far more likely than women to earn degrees in the fields of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics? And why are men on average more likely than women to be injured in accidents and fights? These and many other questions are the subject of both informal investigation in the media and formal investigation in academic and scientific circles. In his landmark book Male, female: The evolution of human sex differences (see record 2000-07043-000 ), author David C. Geary provided the first comprehensive evolutionary model to explain human sex differences. Now, over 10 years since the first edition, Geary has completed a massive update, expansion, and theoretical revision of his classic text. New findings in brain and genetic research inform a wealth of new material, including a new chapter on sex differences in patterns of life history development; expanded coverage of genetic research (e.g., DNA fingerprinting to determine paternity as related to male-male competition in primates); fatherhood in humans; cross-cultural patterns of sex differences in choosing and competing for mates; and genetic, hormonal, and sociocultural influences on the expression of sex differences. Finally, through his motivation to control framework, Geary presents a theoretical bridge linking parenting, mate choices, and competition with children's development and sex differences in brain and cognition. The result is a lively and nuanced application of Darwin's insight to help explain our heritage and our place in the natural world. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2015 APA, all rights reserved)

Men and Things, Women and People: A Meta-Analysis of Sex Differences in Interests

Article

Full-text available

Nov 2009
PSYCHOL BULL

The magnitude and variability of sex differences in vocational interests were examined in the present meta-analysis for Holland's (1959, 1997) categories (Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, and Conventional), Prediger's (1982) Things-People and Data-Ideas dimensions, and the STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) interest areas. Technical manuals for 47 interest inventories were used, yielding 503,188 respondents. Results showed that men prefer working with things and women prefer working with people, producing a large effect size (d = 0.93) on the Things-People dimension. Men showed stronger Realistic (d = 0.84) and Investigative (d = 0.26) interests, and women showed stronger Artistic (d = -0.35), Social (d = -0.68), and Conventional (d = -0.33) interests. Sex differences favoring men were also found for more specific measures of engineering (d = 1.11), science (d = 0.36), and mathematics (d = 0.34) interests. Average effect sizes varied across interest inventories, ranging from 0.08 to 0.79. The quality of interest inventories, based on professional reputation, was not differentially related to the magnitude of sex differences. Moderators of the effect sizes included interest inventory item development strategy, scoring method, theoretical framework, and sample variables of age and cohort. Application of some item development strategies can substantially reduce sex differences. The present study suggests that interests may play a critical role in gendered occupational choices and gender disparity in the STEM fields.

Gender Differences in Personality Traits Across Cultures: Robust and Surprising Findings

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2001

Sociosexuality from Argentina to Zimbabwe: A 48-Nation Study of Sex, Culture, and Strategies of Human Mating

Article

Full-text available

Apr 2005

David Schmitt

The Sociosexual Orientation Inventory (SOI; Simpson & Gangestad 1991) is a self-report measure of individual differences in human mating strategies. Low SOI scores signify that a person is sociosexually restricted, or follows a more monogamous mating strategy. High SOI scores indicate that an individual is unrestricted, or has a more promiscuous mating strategy. As part of the International Sexuality Description Project (ISDP), the SOI was translated from English into 25 additional languages and administered to a total sample of 14,059 people across 48 nations. Responses to the SOI were used to address four main issues. First, the psychometric properties of the SOI were examined in cross-cultural perspective. The SOI possessed adequate reliability and validity both within and across a diverse range of modem cultures. Second, theories concerning the systematic distribution of sociosexuality across cultures were evaluated. Both operational sex ratios and reproductively demanding environments related in evolutionary-predicted ways to national levels of sociosexuality. Third, sex differences in sociosexuality were generally large and demonstrated cross-cultural universality across the 48 nations of the ISDP, confirming several evolutionary theories of human mating. Fourth, sex differences in sociosexuality were significantly larger when reproductive environments were demanding but were reduced to more moderate levels in cultures with more political and economic gender equality. Implications for evolutionary and social role theories of human sexuality are discussed.

Culture, Gender, and the Self: Variations and Impact of Social Comparison Processes

Article

Full-text available

Jul 2007
J PERS SOC PSYCHOL

Psychological differences between women and men, far from being invariant as a biological explanation would suggest, fluctuate in magnitude across cultures. Moreover, contrary to the implications of some theoretical perspectives, gender differences in personality, values, and emotions are not smaller, but larger, in American and European cultures, in which greater progress has been made toward gender equality. This research on gender differences in self-construals involving 950 participants from 5 nations/cultures (France, Belgium, the Netherlands, the United States, and Malaysia) illustrates how variations in social comparison processes across cultures can explain why gender differences are stronger in Western cultures. Gender differences in the self are a product of self-stereotyping, which occurs when between-gender social comparisons are made. These social comparisons are more likely, and exert a greater impact, in Western nations. Both correlational and experimental evidence supports this explanation.

Why Can't a Man Be More Like a Woman? Sex Differences in Big Five Personality Traits Across 55 Cultures

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2008

Previous research suggested that sex differences in personality traits are larger in prosperous, healthy, and egalitarian cultures in which women have more opportunities equal with those of men. In this article, the authors report cross-cultural findings in which this unintuitive result was replicated across samples from 55 nations (N = 17,637). On responses to the Big Five Inventory, women reported higher levels of neuroticism, extraversion, agreeableness, and conscientiousness than did men across most nations. These findings converge with previous studies in which different Big Five measures and more limited samples of nations were used. Overall, higher levels of human development--including long and healthy life, equal access to knowledge and education, and economic wealth--were the main nation-level predictors of larger sex differences in personality. Changes in men's personality traits appeared to be the primary cause of sex difference variation across cultures. It is proposed that heightened levels of sexual dimorphism result from personality traits of men and women being less constrained and more able to naturally diverge in developed nations. In less fortunate social and economic conditions, innate personality differences between men and women may be attenuated.

Gender, nature, and nurture, second edition

Book

May 2005

Richard A. Lippa

This engaging text presents the latest scientific findings on gender differences, similarities, and variations--in sexuality, cognitive abilities, occupational preferences, personality, and social behaviors. The impact of nature and nurture on gender is examined from the perspectives of genetics, molecular biology, evolutionary theory, neuroanatomy, sociology, and psychology. The result is a balanced, fair-minded synthesis of diverse points of view. Dr. Lippa’s text sympathetically summarizes each side of the nature-nurture debate, and in a witty imagined conversation between a personified “nature” and “nurture,” he identifies weaknesses in the arguments offered by both sides. His review defines gender, summarizes research on gender differences, examines the nature of masculinity and femininity, describes theories of gender, and presents a “cascade model,” which argues that nature and nurture weave together to form the complex tapestry known as gender. Gender, Nature, and Nurture, Second Edition features: *new research on sex differences in personality, moral thought, coping styles, sexual and antisocial behavior, and psychological adjustment; *the results of a new meta-analysis of sex differences in real-life measures of aggression; *new sections on non-hormonal direct genetic effects on sexual differentiation; hormones and maternal behavior; and on gender, work, and pay; and *expanded accounts of sex differences in children's play and activity levels; social learning theories of gender, and social constructionist views of gender. This lively “primer” is an ideal book for courses on gender studies, the psychology of women, or of men, and gender roles. Its wealth of updated information will stimulate the professional reader, and its accessible style will captivate the student and general reader.

Changes in women's assertiveness in response to status and roles: A cross-temporal meta-analysis, 1931-1993

Article

Jul 2001

Jean M. Twenge

Across two Meta-analyses, American women's assertiveness rose and fell with their social status from 1931 to 1993. College women and high school girls' self-reports on assertiveness and dominance scales increased from 1931 to 1945, decreased from 1946 to 1967, and increased from 1968 to 1993, explaining about 14% of the variance in the trait. Women's scores have increased enough that many recent samples show no sex differences in assertiveness. Correlations with social indicators (e.g., women's educational attainment, women's median age at first marriage) confirm that women's assertiveness varies with their status and roles. Social change is thus internalized in the form of a personality trait. Men's scores do not demonstrate a significant birth cohort effect overall. The results suggest that the changing sociocultural environment for women affected their personalities, most likely beginning in childhood.

Gender differences in personality: A meta-analysis

Article

Dec 1994

Alan Feingold

Four meta-analyses were conducted to examine gender differences in personality in the literature (1958-1992) and in normative data for well-known personality inventories (1940-1992). Males were found to be more assertive and had slightly higher self-esteem than females. Females were higher than males in extraversion, anxiety, trust, and, especially, tender-mindedness (e.g., nurturance). There were no noteworthy sex differences in social anxiety, impulsiveness, activity, ideas (e.g., reflectiveness), locus of control, and orderliness. Gender differences in personality traits were generally constant across ages, years of data collection, educational levels, and nations.

Gender Stereotypes

Chapter

Dec 1986

Sex Differences in Social Behavior:: A Social-Role Interpretation

Article

Jan 1987

Alice H. Eagly

Sensation seeking: Beyond the optimal level of arousal

Article

Jan 1979

Marvin Zuckerman

Occupational Sextype and Sex Differences in Vocational Preference-Measured Interest Relationships

Article

Oct 1998

The existence of substantial sex differences in vocational preferences is important, given the prominent role assigned vocational preferences as a link between underlying interests and vocational choice. Strong Interest Inventory (SII) responses of 16,484 males and females, ages 18 to 22, were analyzed to determine whether relationships between measured interests and vocational preferences were equivalent for the two sexes. Using differential item functioning (DIF) analysis techniques, sex-related differentials in responses to 28 SII occupational title items were estimated, after controlling for 1, 3, or 6 General Occupational Theme scale scores. Significant sex-related DIF was found on most of the occupations. Further, the sex-related DIF was strongly correlated with sextype ratings for the occupations. These results suggest that sex differences in vocational preference are not fully explained by differences in measured vocational interests, and that vocational preferences may not be equivalent indicators of underlying interests for males and females.

Making vocational choices: A theory of careers

Article

Jan 1973

John L. Holland

In Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavior Sciences (Revised Edition)

Book

Jan 1988

Jacob Cohen

Gender stereotypes.

Article

Jan 2008

consider why [gender stereotyping is a ubiquitous process to which we all succumb], what conditions support stereotypes, and what functions they serve / review both theoretical analyses and empirical findings as they relate to the content of gender stereotypes and subtypes, the development of stereotypes, and individual differences in their use / consider possibilities for change, both in cultural endorsement and individual usage (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

Universal sex differences across patriarchal cultures ≠ evolved psychological dispositions

Article

Apr 2005
BEHAV BRAIN SCI

Schmitt's findings provide little evidence that sex differences in sociosexuality are explained by evolved dispositions. These sex differences are better explained by an evolutionary account that treats the psychological attributes of women and men as emergent, given the biological attributes of the sexes, especially female reproductive capacity, and the economic and social structural aspects of societies.

Changing Interests of Women: Myth or Reality?

Article

Jan 2008
APPL PSYCHOL-INT REV

Jo-Ida C. Hansen

Depuis quelques 50 ans, les psychologues utilisent le “Strong Vocational Interest Blank” (SVIB) pour mesurer les motivations professionnelles; la longue histoire du SVIB et le récent collationnement d'un grand nombre d‘échantillons de professionnels interrogés avec des versions antérieures du SVIB, ont rendu possible l'analyse des données recueillies sur de longues périodes de temps, déterminant l'impact de l'Histoire sur la société et par voie de conséquence sur les motivations professionnelles. Les résultats de six professions autant féminines que masculines “en général”, furent utilisées pour étudier deux points: le premier, l'identification du changement général des motivations professionnelles dans la société, le second, l'augmentation ou la diminution des différences entre les motivations des femmes et des hommes depuis 50 ans. Les résultats illustrèrent la ténacité et la stabilité des motivations des femmes et des hommes “en général” autant que des individus oceupant des professions particulières, comme ils montrèrent également d'une façon claire l’élasticité des différences sexuelles dans les aptitudes aux changements.

Psychological Similarities and Differences between Women and Men across Cultures

Article

Jan 2008

Serge Guimond

Most research looking at psychological similarities and differences between women and men has been carried out in North America and Western Europe. In this paper, I review a body of cross-cultural evidence showing that it is precisely in these Western countries that women and men differ the most in terms of personality, self-construal, values, or emotions. Much less-pronounced gender differences are observed, if at all, in Asian and African countries. These findings are unexpected from the perspectives of the two most influential frameworks applied to sex differences coming from evolutionary psychology and social role theory. However, recent research related to social comparison and self-categorization theories suggests a promising approach to explain why more egalitarian societies can paradoxically create greater psychological differences between women and men.

Changes in masculine and feminine traits over time: A meta-analysis

Article

Mar 1997

Jean M. Twenge

Sixty-three samples providing single-sex means on the Bem Sex-Role Inventory [BSRI; S. L. Bem (1974) “The Measurement of Psychological Androgyny,”Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, Vol. 42, pp. 155–162] and 40 reporting similar data on the Personal Attributes Questionnaire [PAQ; J. T. Spence and R. L. Helmreich (1978)Masculinity and Feminity, Austin University of Texas Press] for American undergraduates were located and analyzed. Women’s scores on the BSRI-M and PAQ-M (masculine) scales have increased steadily over time (r’s = .74 and .43, respectively). Women’s BSRI-F and PAQ-F (feminine) scale scores do not correlate with year. Men’s BSRI-M scores show a weaker positive relationship with year of administration (r = .47). The effect size for sex differences on the BSRI-M has also changed over time, showing a significant decrease over the twenty-year period. The results suggest that cultural change and environment may affect individual personalities; these changes in BSRI and PAQ means demonstrate women’s increased endorsement of masculine-stereotyped traits and men’s continued nonendorsement of feminine-steretyped traits.

Dimensions underlying Holland's hexagon: Missing link between interests and occupations?

Article

Dec 1982

Dale J. Prediger

Holland uses a hexagon to model relationships among his six types of vocational interests. This paper provides empirical evidence regarding the nature of the interest dimensions underlying the hexagon. Two studies are reported. Study 1 examines the extent to which two theory-based dimensions—data/ideas and things/people—fit 27 sets of intercorrelations for Holland's types. Three of the data sets involve the mean scores of career groups (total of 228 groups and 35,060 individuals); 24 involve the scores for individuals (total of 11,275). Study 2 explores the heuristic value of the data/ideas and things/people dimensions by determining whether they contribute to the understanding of why interest inventories work. Two data sets covering a total of 563 occupations are used to calculate correlations between the vocational interests of persons and the tasks which characterize the persons' occupations. Each occupation's principal work tasks are determined from job analysis data obtained from the U.S. Department of Labor. Study 1 results provide substantial support for the theory-based dimensions. Study 2 results suggest that interest inventories “work” primarily because they tap activity preferences which parallel work tasks. Counseling and research applications of the data/ideas and things/people dimensions are suggested and implications for interest assessment are noted.

The Social Identity Theory of Inter-Group Behavior

Chapter

Jan 1986

A Theory of Social Comparison Processes

Article

May 1954

Leon A. Festinger

The abstract for this document is available on CSA Illumina.To view the Abstract, click the Abstract button above the document title.

Evolutionary Psychology: The New Science of Mind

Book

Jan 2004

David M Buss

Statistical power ANALYSIS for the Behavioral sciences

Article

Jan 1988
J AM STAT ASSOC

Jacob Cohen

Incluye bibliografía e índice

The Psychology of Sa Differences

Article

Dec 1975

Incl. bibl.

Sex Differences in Personality Traits and Gender-Related Occupational Preferences across 53 Nations: Testing Evolutionary and Social-Environmental Theories

Article

Sep 2008
ARCH SEX BEHAV

Richard A Lippa

Using data from over 200,000 participants from 53 nations, I examined the cross-cultural consistency of sex differences for four traits: extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism, and male-versus-female-typical occupational preferences. Across nations, men and women differed significantly on all four traits (mean ds = -.15, -.56, -.41, and 1.40, respectively, with negative values indicating women scoring higher). The strongest evidence for sex differences in SDs was for extraversion (women more variable) and for agreeableness (men more variable). United Nations indices of gender equality and economic development were associated with larger sex differences in agreeableness, but not with sex differences in other traits. Gender equality and economic development were negatively associated with mean national levels of neuroticism, suggesting that economic stress was associated with higher neuroticism. Regression analyses explored the power of sex, gender equality, and their interaction to predict men's and women's 106 national trait means for each of the four traits. Only sex predicted means for all four traits, and sex predicted trait means much more strongly than did gender equality or the interaction between sex and gender equality. These results suggest that biological factors may contribute to sex differences in personality and that culture plays a negligible to small role in moderating sex differences in personality.

Buss AH, Perry M. The aggression questionnaire. J Pers Soc Psychol 63: 452-459

Article

Oct 1992

A new questionnaire on aggression was constructed. Replicated factor analyses yielded 4 scales: Physical Aggression, Verbal Aggression, Anger, and Hostility. Correlational analysis revealed that anger is the bridge between both physical and verbal aggression and hostility. The scales showed internal consistency and stability over time. Men scored slightly higher on Verbal Aggression and Hostility and much higher on Physical Aggression. There was no sex difference for Anger. The various scales correlated differently with various personality traits. Scale scores correlated with peer nominations of the various kinds of aggression. These findings suggest the need to assess not only overall aggression but also its individual components.

Article

May 1998

Richard A Lippa

In 3 studies (respective Ns = 289, 394, and 1,678), males and females were assessed on Big Five traits, masculine instrumentality (M), feminine expressiveness (F), gender diagnosticity (GD), and RIASEC (Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, Conventional) vocational interest scales. Factor analyses of RIASEC scores consistently showed evidence for D.J. Prediger's (1982) People-Things and Ideas-Data dimensions, and participants' factor scores on these dimensions were computed. In all studies Big Five Openness was related to Ideas-Data but not to People-Things. Gender was strongly related to People-Things but not to Ideas-Data. Within each sex, GD correlated strongly with People-Things but not with Ideas-Data. M, F, and Big Five measures other than Openness tended not to correlate strongly with RIASEC scales or dimensions. The results suggest that gender and gender-related individual differences within the sexes are strongly linked to the People-Things dimension of vocational interests.

Changes in women's assertiveness in response to status and roles: A cross-temporal meta-analysis, 1931-1993

Article

Aug 2001

Jean M. Twenge

Across two meta-analyses, American women's assertiveness rose and fell with their social status from 1931 to 1993. College women and high school girls' self-reports on assertiveness and dominance scales increased from 1931 to 1945, decreased from 1946 to 1967, and increased from 1968 to 1993, explaining about 14% of the variance in the trait. Women's scores have increased enough that many recent samples show no sex differences in assertiveness. Correlations with social indicators (e.g., women's educational attainment, women's median age at first marriage) confirm that women's assertiveness varies with their status and roles. Social change is thus internalized in the form of a personality trait. Men's scores do not demonstrate a significant birth cohort effect overall. The results suggest that the changing sociocultural environment for women affected their personalities, most likely beginning in childhood.

The developmental course of gender differentiation: Conceptualizing, measuring, and evaluating constructs and pathways

Article

Feb 2002

Gender differentiation is pervasive, and understanding how and why it develops is important for both theoretical and practical reasons. The work described here is rooted in constructivist accounts of gender differentiation. Past research provides considerable support for constructivist predictions concerning (a) developmental changes in gender attitudes and (b) the relation between gender attitudes and information processing. Little work, however, has addressed the more fundamental question of how children's developing gender attitudes about others are related to developing gender characterizations of self. The focus of the current Monograph is on this other-self relation during middle childhood. A brief review of past theory and empirical work on gender differentiation is provided. It is argued that a major explanation of the limitations and inconsistencies evident in earlier work may be traced to restrictions in the measures available to assess key constructs. A conceptual analysis of the specific limitations of past measures is presented. The Monograph then offers alternative models of the developmental relation between attitudes toward others and characterization of self (the attitudinal and the personal pathway models), and identifies conditions expected to influence the strength of the observed other-self relation. Four studies establish the reliability and validity of a suite of measures that provides comparable methods for assessing attitudes toward others (attitude measures, or AM) and sex typing of self (personal measures, or PM) in three domains: occupations, activities, and traits (or OAT). Parallel forms are provided for adults (the OAT-AM and OAT-PM) and for children of middle-school age, roughly 11-13 years old (the COAT-AM and COAT-PM). A fifth study provides longitudinal data from children tested at four times, beginning at the start of grade 6 (approximately age 11 years) and ending at the close of grade 7 (approximately age 13 years). These data are used to examine the developmental relation between children's sex typing of others and sex typing of the self, and to test the predictions concerning the factors hypothesized to affect the strength of the relation between the two types of sex typing. Overall, the data supported the conceptual distinctions among individuals' (a) gender attitudes toward others, (b) feminine self, and (c) masculine self, and, additionally, revealed some intriguing differences across domains. Interestingly, the data concerning the other-self relation differed by sex of participant. Among girls, analyses of concurrent relations showed that those girls who held fewer stereotypes of masculine activities for others showed greater endorsement of masculine items for self, a finding compatible with both the other-to-self attitudinal pathway model and the self-to-other personal pathway model. The prospective regression analyses, however, showed no effects. That is, preadolescent girls' gender attitudes about others did not predict their later self-endorsements, nor did self-endorsements predict later attitudes. Data from boys showed a strikingly different pattern, one consistent with the self-to-other personal pathway model: There was no evidence of concurrent other-self relations, but prospective analyses indicated that preadolescent boys who endorsed greater numbers of feminine traits as self-descriptive early in grade 6 developed increasingly egalitarian gender attitudes by the end of grade 7. The Monograph closes with discussions of additional implications of the empirical data, of preliminary work on developing parallel measures for younger children, and of the need to design research that illuminates the cognitive-developmental mechanisms underlying age-related changes in sex typing.

Toward a Broader View of Social Stereotyping

Article

Jan 2004

Monica Biernat

Stereotyping effects are typically considered to be assimilative in nature: A member of a group stereotyped as having some attribute is judged to have more of that attribute than a member of some comparison group. This article highlights the fact that stereotyping effects can also occur in the direction of contrast--or even null effects-- depending on the nature and form of the outcome being assessed (from the researcher's perspective, the dependent variable of interest). Relying on theory and research from the shifting standards model (M. Biernat, M. Manis, & T. F. Nelson, 1991), this review highlights the different ways in which and the factors that determine how stereotypes influence judgment and behavior toward individual group members.

The Gender Similarities Hypothesis

Article

Oct 2005

Janet Hyde

The differences model, which argues that males and females are vastly different psychologically, dominates the popular media. Here, the author advances a very different view, the gender similarities hypothesis, which holds that males and females are similar on most, but not all, psychological variables. Results from a review of 46 meta-analyses support the gender similarities hypothesis. Gender differences can vary substantially in magnitude at different ages and depend on the context in which measurement occurs. Overinflated claims of gender differences carry substantial costs in areas such as the workplace and relationships.

The Preferred Traits of Mates in a Cross-National Study of Heterosexual and Homosexual Men and Women: An Examination of Biological and Cultural Influences

Article

May 2007

Richard A Lippa

BBC Internet survey participants (119,733 men and 98,462 women) chose from a list of 23 traits those they considered first, second, and third most important in a relationship partner. Across all participants, the traits ranked most important were: intelligence, humor, honesty, kindness, overall good looks, face attractiveness, values, communication skills, and dependability. On average, men ranked good looks and facial attractiveness more important than women did (d = 0.55 and 0.36, respectively), whereas women ranked honesty, humor, kindness, and dependability more important than men did (ds = 0.23, 0.22, 0.18, and 0.15). Sexual orientation differences were smaller than sex differences in trait rankings, but some were meaningful; for example, heterosexual more than homosexual participants assigned importance to religion, fondness for children, and parenting abilities. Multidimensional scaling analyses showed that trait preference profiles clustered by participant sex, not by sexual orientation, and by sex more than by nationality. Sex-by-nation ANOVAs of individuals' trait rankings showed that sex differences in rankings of attractiveness, but not of character traits, were extremely consistent across 53 nations and that nation main effects and sex-by-nation interactions were stronger for character traits than for physical attractiveness. United Nations indices of gender equality correlated, across nations, with men's and women's rankings of character traits but not with their rankings of physical attractiveness. These results suggest that cultural factors had a relatively greater impact on men's and women's rankings of character traits, whereas biological factors had a relatively greater impact on men's and women's rankings of physical attractiveness.

Sex Differences in Sex Drive, Sociosexuality, and Height across 53 Nations: Testing Evolutionary and Social Structural Theories

Article

Dec 2007
ARCH SEX BEHAV

Richard A Lippa

By analyzing cross-cultural patterns in five parameters--sex differences, male and female trait means, male and female trait standard deviations--researchers can better test evolutionary and social structural models of sex differences. Five models of biological and social structural influence are presented that illustrate this proposal. Using data from 53 nations and from over 200,000 participants surveyed in a recent BBC Internet survey, I examined cross-cultural patterns in these five parameters for two sexual traits--sex drive and sociosexuality--and for height, a physical trait with a biologically based sex difference. Sex drive, sociosexuality, and height all showed consistent sex differences across nations (mean ds = .62, .74, and 1.63). Women were consistently more variable than men in sex drive (mean female to male variance ratio = 1.64). Gender equality and economic development tended to predict, across nations, sex differences in sociosexuality, but not sex differences in sex drive or height. Parameters for sociosexuality tended to vary across nations more than parameters for sex drive and height did. The results for sociosexuality were most consistent with a hybrid model--that both biological and social structural influences contribute to sex differences, whereas the results for sex drive and height were most consistent with a biological model--that evolved biological factors are the primary cause of sex differences. The model testing proposed here encourages evolutionary and social structural theorists to make more precise and nuanced predictions about the patterning of sex differences across cultures.

Stereotypes and shifting standards Handbook of Prejudice, Stereotyping, and Discrimination Sex differences in the design features of socially contingent mating adaptations

Jan 2005
137-152

M Biernat

Biernat, M. (2009). Stereotypes and shifting standards. In T. D. Nelson (Ed.), Handbook of Prejudice, Stereotyping, and Discrimination (pp. 137–152). New York: Psychology Press. Buss, D. M. (2005). Sex differences in the design features of socially contingent mating adaptations. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 28, 278–279.

Measuring Sex Stereotypes: A Thirty-Nation Study

Jan 1982

J E Williams
D L Best

Williams, J. E., & Best, D. L. (1982). Measuring Sex Stereotypes: A Thirty-Nation Study. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

Social role theory of sex differences and similarities: A current appraisal The Developmental Social Psychology of Gender

Jan 2000
123-174

A H Eagly
W Wood
A B Diekman

Eagly, A. H., Wood, W., & Diekman, A. B. (2000). Social role theory of sex differences and similarities: A current appraisal. In T. Eckes & H. M. Trautner (Eds.), The Developmental Social Psychology of Gender (pp. 123–174).

Components of gender stereotypes

Jan 1983
25

K Deaux
L L Lewis

Deaux, K., & Lewis, L. L. (1983). Components of gender stereotypes. Psychological Documents, 13, 25. (Ms. No. 2583).

Cognitive theories of gender development The Devel-opmental Social Psychology of Gender

Jan 2000
91-121

C L Martin

Martin, C. L. (2000). Cognitive theories of gender development. In T. Eckes & H. M. Trautner (Eds.), The Devel-opmental Social Psychology of Gender (pp. 91–121). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Gender stereotypes The Social Psychology of Male-Female Relations Toward a broader view of social stereotyping

Jan 1986
69-119

R D Ashmore
Del Boca
F K Wohlers

Ashmore, R. D., Del Boca, F. K., & Wohlers, A. J. (1986). Gender stereotypes. In R. D. Ashmore & F. K. Del Boca (Eds.), The Social Psychology of Male-Female Relations (pp. 69–119). Orlando, FL: Academic Press. Biernat, M. (2003). Toward a broader view of social stereotyping. American Psychologist, 58, 1019–1027.

Gender, personality, and psychopathology

Jan 2006
432-442

P G Williams
H E Gunn

Williams, P. G., & Gunn, H. E. (2006). Gender, personality, and psychopathology. In J. C. Thomas, D. L. Segal & M. Hersen (Eds.); Comprehensive Handbook of Personality and Psychopathology (Vol. 1): Personality and Everyday Func-tioning (pp. 432–442). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.

Gender Differences in Personality and Interests: When, Where, and Why?

Abstract

No full-text available

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