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The prospect of negotiating: Stress, cognitive appraisal, and performance
Abstract
Despite a significant literature on the impact of stress on performance in achievement settings, little is known about whether and how stress might matter for would-be negotiators. In two studies, we investigate how bargainers cognitively appraise a looming negotiation, whether its prospect is stressful and what the consequences are for performance. Individuals who appraised a prospective negotiation as a threat experienced more stress ahead of a negotiation, and reached lower quality deals compared to those who had appraised a challenge. Results from a follow-up experiment showed that would-be negotiators who had appraised a threat behaved more passively and were less likely to use tough tactics compared to those who appraised a challenge. Those who appraised a threat also had relatively inaccurate perceptions of their partners’ priorities and interests, which undermined their outcomes. The outcome advantage for those who appraised a challenge was limited to negotiations that contained integrative potential.
... So far, research investigated associations between psychological and/or physiological manifestations of challenge and threat, and performance outcomes, in different domains such as education, sports, and working life (for an overview, see Hase et al., 2019). Concerning psychological indicators, the vast majority of studies could demonstrate that challenge is accompanied by better performance compared to threat, both for cognitive and behavioral tasks (e.g., Drach-Zahavy & Erez, 2002;Freeman & Rees, 2009;Moore et al., 2019;O'Connor et al., 2010). Studies assessing physiological challenge and threat responses in terms of cardiovascular activity displayed similar results in the way that stress-inducing performance situations, which are perceived more as challenging than threatening, go along with better performance outcomes (e.g., Behnke & Kaczmarek, 2018;Moore et al., 2012;Scholl et al., 2015;Seery et al., 2010). ...
... These results may be interpreted in the light of previous research showing that students who report higher threat prior to a socialevaluative performance situation behave more passively during the stressor and perceive the priorities of their interaction partner less accurately, which undermines performance as the stressor unfolds (O'Connor et al., 2010). The critical point seems to be the behavior of the observers: Higher intensity of challenge cannot counteract the negative effects of threat in the absence of responses from the observers. ...
... The critical point seems to be the behavior of the observers: Higher intensity of challenge cannot counteract the negative effects of threat in the absence of responses from the observers. Greater psychological challenge responses only seem to have beneficial effects on performance if the interaction partner responds positively and behaves cooperatively (O'Connor et al., 2010). The negative associations of initial psychological threat responses with presentation performance may be augmented if students evaluate their own performance during the presentation (Rith-Najarian et al., 2014) and/or have lowperformance expectations at the beginning of the presentation (Chalabaev et al., 2009). ...
The current study investigated how changes in psychological (cognitions and emotions) and physiological (cortisol concentrations) threat/challenge responses develop over the course of a presentation and whether initial intensity levels and their changes are related to self-efficacy and presentation performance. Based on the Trier Social Stress Test (TSST), 123 students held video-recorded presentations about their dream job, which were evaluated by three raters. Selfefficacy was measured before the TSST, saliva cortisol concentrations and psychological threat and challenge responses three times during the TSST. Data were analyzed with latent growth modeling. Threat and cortisol increased during the presentation, while challenge decreased. The growth curve coefficients of challenge correlated negatively with the respective coefficients of threat. Also, initial intensity of challenge responses correlated positively with corresponding cortisol concentrations. Higher self-efficacy was associated with higher initial intensity of challenge responses, lower corresponding concentrations of cortisol, and a smaller cortisol increase, but neither with the growth curve coefficients of threat responses nor with presentation performance. Better performance was associated with lower initial intensity of threat and a smaller increase in cortisol. Threat responses and increasing cortisol concentration appear to inhibit presentation performance, while self-efficacy may strengthen challenge responses and reduce corresponding levels of cortisol concentration as well as its increase.
... 15 Specifically, appraisal of a stressor in the harm/loss or threat categories result in poor health outcomes, impaired performance and lower quality of life. 14,16 In contrast, appraisal as a challenge has been associated with positive effects on cardiovascular reactivity and task engagement. 14,16 Cognitive appraisal of HF can predict psychological and physical coping responses. ...
... 14,16 In contrast, appraisal as a challenge has been associated with positive effects on cardiovascular reactivity and task engagement. 14,16 Cognitive appraisal of HF can predict psychological and physical coping responses. 27 Lazarus and Folkman (1984) defined coping as "Constantly changing cognitive and behavioral efforts to manage specific external and/or internal demands that are appraised as taxing or exceeding the resources of the person" while attempting to manage, master, or alter the stressful situation by reducing or tolerating it. ...
... Other healthy and chronically ill subjects have demonstrated the ability to respond to the stress imposed by their condition with a healthier type of cognitive appraisal, challenge, which is associated with better adherence and outcomes. 14,15 In a study conducted among patients with the human immunodeficiency virus, psychological stress was associated with threat cognitive appraisal. 50 Our findings suggest that HF patients may have a different appraisal for the stressful situation since a higher level of stress was associated with harm/loss cognitive appraisal. ...
... Harm/loss and threat cognitive appraisals were associated with impaired performance, lower quality of life, and poor health outcomes when compared to challenge cognitive appraisal. 71,72 The cognitive appraisal mechanism can give a general view or prediction about patients' psychological and physical coping. 73 The stress appraisal and coping model, developed by Lazarus and Folkman, 68 was a starting point for recent research in which stress and coping were investigated. ...
... In contrast, threat, harm and loss cognitive appraisals are significantly correlated with emotional-focused coping, which leads to unsatisfactory health outcomes. 71,[89][90][91][92][93] Due to the need to understand these concepts in HF population, a descriptive longitudinal study with a sample of 88 HF patients was conducted and presented in Chapter Four of this dissertation. The purpose of Chapter Four was to describe selfreported stress level, cognitive appraisal and coping among patients with HF, and to examine the association of cognitive appraisal and coping strategies with event-free survival. ...
... The purpose of Chapter Four was to describe selfreported stress level, cognitive appraisal and coping among patients with HF, and to examine the association of cognitive appraisal and coping strategies with event-free survival. A model based on the literature to date [10][11][12][13][14][15]44,45,[70][71][72][77][78][79][80]94,81,82 (see Figure 1) was proposed and presented in Chapter Four in a trial to understand the relationships between the different variables through testing the proposed model. Two tailed Pearson correlation was used to determine relationships among the variables. ...
... [9][10][11] Specifically, the degree to which individuals experience stress in a performance scenario depends on their cognitive assessment of the situation and its demands, as well as their belief that they have the necessary resources to deal with it. 12,13 The increasing number of unsuccessful candidates for the Brazilian Bar Association examination has raised questions about the reasons for these high failure rates. ...
... In such cases, the stressor consists of thoughts, which, depending on the beliefs and norms acquired through life experiences,can interpret a new event as threatening.[33][34][35] Specifically, the degree to which people experience performance-related stress depends on a decision, a cognitive assessment of the situation's demands and whether they believe they have the necessary resources to deal with it.12,13 Thus, many candidates for the bar examination may have negative beliefs and cognitive distortions about it, which are influenced by a number of factors. ...
Objective:
This study investigated stress and performance levels in candidates for the Brazilian Bar Association examination (Exame da Ordem dos Advogados do Brasil) in Rio Grande do Sul, Southern Brazil.
Methods:
The following instruments were used: A sociodemographic data sheet, Lipp's Stress Symptom Inventory for Adults, the Ways of Coping Scale, the Adult Self-Report Scale, and the Self-Report Questionnaire. The final sample comprised 117 candidates, aged from 18 to 59 years (mean = 29.7, standard deviation = 7.8), 76 women (65%) and 41 men (35%).
Results:
In the first phase of the examination, 67 candidates were approved (57.3%), but there was no significant difference in terms of stress: stress symptoms were present in 76.1% of the successful candidates and 62% of the unsuccessful candidates; (χ² (1) = 2.09; p = 0.148). In terms of stress phases, 70.6% of the successful candidates (n = 36) were in the resistance phase and 78.4% of these had psychological symptoms. The mean age of successful candidates (28.2 years) was lower than that of unsuccessful candidates (31.7 years); (t (115) = −2.48; p = 0.015). Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms were detected in 18 successful candidates (26.9%) and 6 unsuccessful candidates (12.2%); (χ² (1) = 2.85; p = 0.091).
Conclusions:
Candidates who were successful in the first phase of the Brazilian Bar Association examination tended to be younger and scored higher for attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms, but their stress levels did not differ from those of unsuccessful candidates.
... Se postula que la inteligencia espiritual incrementa la resiliencia, factor que hace que las personas se puedan adaptar mejor a los cambios y adquieran conocimientos y habilidades (5,7) . Asimismo, cuando se enfrentan eventos estresantes (como evaluaciones, exámenes, exposiciones, entre otras experiencias comunes en los años universitarios), los niveles de inteligencia espiritual podrían hacer que los alumnos los vean como desafíos por resolver y no problemas insalvables (8,9) . Por ello, este tipo de inteligencia podría hacer que los individuos reconsideren sus experiencias y les otorguen un significado, de acuerdo con sus valores o creencias (10) . ...
... Estudios previos han demostrado que mejores niveles de inteligencia espiritual están relacionados con disminución de niveles de ansiedad, depresión (18) y a ciertos tipos de personalidad (28) , que pueden hacer que una persona maneje, de mejor o peor manera, a los estresores de vida diaria. En estas circunstancias, las personas consideran que la situación es más amenazadora cuando ven que sus habilidades no están a la altura de las demandas de una tarea determinada, pero si creen que tienen los recursos necesarios para satisfacer las demandas, entonces la tarea se convierte en un reto (8) . Este principio explicaría, en parte, que las dimensiones de significado personal de producción, definido como la capacidad para construir un significado y propósito personal en todas las experiencias mentales y físicas, incluyendo la creación de un propósito de vida y la expansión del estado de conciencia, la habilidad de ingresar y salir de estados superiores de consciencia según uno lo desee (como en contemplación profunda, meditación, oración, etc.) (7) . ...
Objetivo: Evaluar la relación entre la inteligencia espiritual y el estrés percibido en estudiantes del séptimo ciclo de la asignatura de Educación Alimentaria en el periodo 2017-I de la Facultad de Ciencias de la Universidad Nacional de Educación Enrique Guzmán y Valle. Materiales y Métodos: Estudio transversal. Se administró el Inventario del Autoinforme de la Inteligencia Espiritual (Spiritual Intelligence Self-Report Inventory: SISRI-24) y la Escala de Estrés Percibido (EEP) en 26 estudiantes universitarios. Se analizó la correlación entre los puntajes obtenidos por el EEP y el puntaje total de Inteligencia Espiritual, así como sus componentes (Pensamiento crítico existencial, Producción de significados personales, Conciencia trascendental y Expansión del estado de conciencia). Resultados: El puntaje promedio de Estrés Percibido obtenido fue de 27.5 ± 3.6 puntos, mientras que el de Inteligencia Espiritual fue de 53.5±13.1. Se encontró una correlación media inversa entre Estrés Percibido y la Inteligencia Espiritual en conjunto (coeficiente de correlación: - 0.460; p= 0.018); y las dimensiones de Significado Personal de Producción (coeficiente de correlación: - 0.488; p= 0.011) y Expansión del Estado de Conciencia (coeficiente de correlación: - 0.483; p= 0.013). Conclusión: Existe una relación inversamente proporcional entre estrés percibido e inteligencia emocional en estudiantes de la Facultad de Ciencias de la Universidad Nacional de Educación Enrique Guzmán y Valle. Se sugiere que futuros estudios apliquen estos instrumentos en muestras mayores y con mejores métodos de selección.
... (3) Within-speaker processes: Aside from the mere presentation behaviors, current cognitive-emotional processes such as emotional intensity, and higher cognitive processes, such as retrieval of presentation-related knowledge, may attenuate the speaker's presentation behavior and thus presentation performance (e.g., De Grez et al., 2009;O'Connor et al., 2010). For instance, many adults experience presentations as highly stressful (e.g., Preuß et al., 2010;Dwyer and Davidson, 2012). ...
Online presentations have become a cost-efficient and contemporary format for knowledge transfer. The associated competence is in demand at all levels of education and in many work contexts as presenting online contributes to educational and professional success. Despite its growing importance, it lacks a research-based overview regarding the definition, performance antecedents and recommendations how to foster online presentation competence. Based on an literature overview, a framework was developed to conceptualize online presentations and their underlying competence facets for instruction. According to this, presentation behavior and presentation performance in online settings is influenced by an interplay of the key factors consisting of (1) speaker’s competence-constituting characteristics, (2) efforts to prepare and practice the presentation, (3) within-speaker processes, and (4) features of the setting. Future empirical studies should examine structure and validity of this framework in more detail. The educational focus on online presentations can be concluded that by deriving a research-based training approach that fit all levels of education and professional training. That intervention model can also serve as a starting point for more research on presentation training programs to promote online presentation competence to disseminate its application to diverse professional contexts such as business or healthcare.
... 18 In this context, SAR involves reframing stress arousal itself as beneficial and functional, that is, as a resource for coping with task demands, thereby fostering a shift towards challenge-type responses and consequently improved task performance, 19,20 including verbal and nonverbal competencies (e.g. 21,22 ). For instance, a fast heartbeat, often associated with anxiety, can instead be viewed as the body's way of increasing cardiac output and thus delivering additional oxygen to enable thriving in difficult situations. ...
Introduction
Breaking bad news (BBN) is a distressing yet essential task in medicine, imposing emotional strain on both physicians and patients. Crucially, effective BBN relies on both verbal and nonverbal communication, which can be impaired by elevated stress associated with the task. Efficient teaching of communication skills continues to present a challenge, and the role of stress management in BBN encounters remains largely overlooked. In this study, we investigated the effects of stress arousal reappraisal (SAR; positive reframing of stress arousal) and worked example (WE; step‐by‐step demonstration of BBN) interventions on medical students' communication performance.
Methods
This pre‐registered randomised controlled trial employed a 2 × 2 between‐subjects design to evaluate the individual and combined effects of SAR and WE interventions on the verbal and nonverbal communication performance of 221 third‐year medical students. To do so, students completed a 40‐min web‐based learning module before disclosing bad news to a simulated patient within a 12‐min consultation. Performances were videorecorded and assessed by three independent raters.
Results
The WE intervention significantly improved both verbal and nonverbal communication performance, whereas the SAR intervention enhanced nonverbal communication only. Combining SAR with WE did not yield additional improvements in nonverbal communication beyond those achieved by either intervention alone.
Discussion
These findings highlight the potential of both SAR and WE interventions to optimise resource‐intensive simulated BBN training. By demonstrating the efficacy of WE in improving both verbal and nonverbal communication, this study advances the literature on the application of WEs in the BBN context. Furthermore, this study is among the first to demonstrate the importance of stress coping in delivering bad news effectively. Given their low threshold, both SAR and WE interventions represent promising tools for equipping medical students with essential BBN communication skills and are well‐suited for integration into already time‐constrained medical curricula.
... Ohly and Fritz (2010) found that challenge appraisals of employees is positively related to creativity and proactive behavior, which is consistent with the findings of Liu et al. (2022). O'Connor et al. (2010) empirically confirmed the positive relationship between challenge appraisal and work performance through two experimental studies. ...
Purpose
The construction of “Digital Government” has greatly facilitated the workplace digitalization in the public sectors of China. Workplace digitalization has become a pervasive phenomenon in modern organizations, including the public sector. Existing research on the impact of workplace digitalization on individual behavior has yielded conflicting results, making the impact of workplace digitalization on employee work engagement remains a subject of debate and investigation. Based on the transactional theory of stress, this article aims to examine how workplace digitalization influences government employees’ work engagement through different appraisals (i.e., challenge and threat) and the moderating role of a personal trait (i.e., digital literacy).
Methods
Structured questionnaires and a three-wave research design were used to collect data. A total of 290 employees from public organizations in Guangdong Province, in China, participated in the study. SPSS and MPLUS were used to analyze the data using the latest bootstrapping and process macro techniques.
Results
The results show that workplace digitalization can produce both beneficial and detrimental impacts on work engagement of government employees via challenge and threat appraisals, respectively. The digital literacy of government employees was confirmed to moderate the impacts of perceived workplace digitalization on stress appraisals (i.e., challenge and threat).
Conclusion
Our study proposes a theoretical framework that explain the mixed impacts of workplace digitalization on government employees’ work engagement via challenge and threat appraisals. It also offers practical suggestions to public sector and managers on how to balance the challenge and threat aspects of digitalization in the workplace.
... Assuming that management does not always have access to sensitive information that limits full disclosure, Ramnath and Rock [21] argue that investors are typically unaware of management's information endowment [22,23]. O'Connor and Arnold [24] illustrates that managers' uncertainty on how investors will respond to their disclosures is sufficient to break the result, despite meeting all of the prerequisites for the finding other than investors' uniform response. As the investors sophistication increases, it may become increasingly difficult for businesses to forecast investor reactions to the news. ...
Knowledge asymmetries and agency concerns among entrepreneurs, investors, and managers drive the natural evolution of the corporate information environment. Accounting data serves two main purposes in market-oriented economies. By supporting capital providers, like owners and creditors, in evaluating investment prospects and expected returns, accounting information primarily serves the ex-ante or valuation role. Second, accounting data enables capital suppliers to monitor the utilization of their invested capital. Firms frequently present distorted financial data. In this study, we propose and experimentally test the hypothesis that investors find it difficult to identify known biases in management's earnings forecasts, but they are more inclined to make a comprehensive adjustment when presented with quantitative bias information in EPS form, provided that the investor's evaluation aligns with the data. The findings of three experiments show that not all investors can detect managerial bias solely by compatibility and quantification. Furthermore, we show that this result holds even after accounting for other variables common in management earnings estimates. Our research benefits investors, regulators, and corporate leaders alike.
... Similar to other types of situational anxieties, such as computer anxiety (Beckers & Schmidt, 2003), delivery service anxiety consists of the discomfort associated with using WGS. Although anxiety is a common emotion in both situational and general terms (e.g., Chen et al., 2020;Kantor et al., 2001;O'Connor et al., 2010), little research has been conducted on anxiety in a service setting. Delivery service anxiety is felt in anticipation of the service event, not because of it. ...
As e‐commerce emerges as a central mechanism through which customers make purchases, so does the diversity of products they choose to purchase online. One of the fastest‐growing product categories is that of large and oversized items, often referred to as “big and bulky” items. This trend is particularly pronounced in the United States, with the online appliance and furniture markets experiencing substantial growth. Significant growth is also observed in the last‐mile delivery services sector for these large items. This presents a plethora of opportunities for industry stakeholders. Capitalizing on these opportunities and achieving service differentiation requires significant strategic investments in specialized equipment and capabilities by retailers and logistics service providers. These capabilities differ significantly from those typically required to deliver standard consumer products. This shift in operational context requires a deep understanding of customer preferences regarding big and bulky item delivery services. In this study, we determine customer preferences for big and bulky item delivery service features and quantify the effect of customer psychographic traits on those preferences. We accomplish this by conducting a choice‐based conjoint experiment. Our findings indicate significant effects that bear both research and managerial implications.
... On the one hand, there is a body of research that advocates universal rules of business communication (David et al., 1994). On the other hand, in intercultural settings, negotiators lack a shared basis of knowledge and attitudes, which limits the creation of trust and sympathy that can improve problem-solving and cooperative 11 behaviors (Bushe & Coetzer, 2007;Mohammed & Dumville, 2001;O'Connor et al., 2010). Due to cultural differences, intercultural communication is much more challenging than an intracultural one (Zaidman, 2001;Ding, 2003;Matsumoto & Hwang, 2011;Lazar, 2017). ...
This study examined the impact of communication context on face concerns in business interactions. In previous research face concerns were studied across cultures, but here for the first time compared within intra-and intercultural business communication settings. The study aims at investigating whether the priority of face concerns is the same or different in intracultural and intercultural face-threatening business communication. We hypothesized that managers would apply different face concerns in response to face threatening acts in interactions with either their compatriots or people from foreign cultures. We surveyed 380 Russian business professionals working in international companies. To measure face concerns we adapted the questionnaire by S. Ting-Toomey and J. Oetzel to the Russian sample. We compared two contexts using t-test and rmANOVA. Results showed a significant difference between face concerns in managers behaviour in intercultural and intracultural communication. Managers tend to employ either self-face or mutual-face rather than other-face concern in intracultural communication. On the contrary, they prefer mutual-face rather than self-face or other-face concerns in intercultural communication. These results provide empirical evidence that Russian managers create public image in business interactions considering cultural differences and modify their behaviour to fit the context.
... We are not aware of research challenging the role of stereotype threat among women in negotiations in particular, but readers may wish to keep in mind the ongoing debates about stereotype threat more broadly. than those who appraised the same upcoming negotiation as a challenge (O'Connor et al., 2010). Finally, when negotiators were told that experiencing anxiety while negotiating could be beneficial to their performance, increases in cortisol (a physiological indicator of stress) during the negotiation were positively associated with negotiation performance (Akinola et al., 2016). ...
Gender disparities in negotiation outcomes contribute to inequality in the workplace and beyond. Explanations of gender gaps in negotiation often focus on internal barriers women face as a consequence of contending with stigma in the workplace and other historically male‐dominated environments, such as stereotype threat and apprehension about negotiating. However, stigma is also associated with relational consequences that may influence success in negotiations. This research compared internal and relational mechanisms for gender disparities in negotiation performance. Seventy‐seven MBA executives reported their apprehension about negotiating, stereotype threat in negotiations, mindset about negotiation‐related stress, and class social networks. Participants were then randomly paired to complete a series of one‐on‐one negotiations based on real‐world scenarios. Overall, men outperformed women in negotiations. Significant gender differences emerged in stereotype threat, stress mindset, and social network centrality. However, only network centrality—specifically number and strength of ties—significantly mediated the relationship between gender and negotiation performance. Position in informal social networks may play an important role in negotiation outcomes, particularly in a shared social environment like the workplace. Although efforts to explain the gender gap in negotiation performance often center internal psychological mechanisms, this research suggests that relational explanations, such as disparities in social networks, merit further attention. Limitations and recommendations for future research and policy are discussed.
... When employees face the conflict between work and family, they may not be able to balance the demands of the two roles. The imbalance identified could significantly compromise their ability to fulfill their responsibilities at work or in their family (O'Connor et al., 2010). Such role stress would typically prompt employee to evoke a negative response (Simaes et al., 2021). ...
Unethical pro-family behavior (UPFB) is prevalent in organizations and has adverse effects on organizations, but very few studies have examined the factors that lead to UPFB. We use a cognitive appraisal theoretical framework to argue that employees’ unethical pro-family (UPFB) behavior results from work and family conflicts (WFC/FWC) are mediated by threat appraisal and moderated family collectivism orientation. Based on the questionnaire data of 496 full-time employees from two-time points, we found that WFC/FWC was positively correlated with UPFB where threat appraisal played a mediating role in this relationship; Family collectivism orientation strengthens the threat appraisal-UPFB relationship and the mediation relationship between WFC/FWC and UPFB via threat appraisal. These findings offer an understanding of the theoretical and practical implications which could help organizations reduce UPFB. Finally, we discuss possible directions for future research.
... Hence, we set out to understand how coping surfaced during the lockdown phase and changed in the unlock phase; and what expectations or concerns people had of the future. Whether participants viewed lockdown (or its consequences) as harm/loss, threat, or an opportunity for growth could give an understanding of their stress responses and well-being-related outcomes (O'Connor et al., 2010;Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). ...
In response to the coronavirus pandemic, the Government of India imposed a nationwide lockdown of 21 days on May 25, 2020, which was extended thrice to a total of 68 days. Mandatory quarantine could hamper mental well-being, trust in the government, and compliance with guidelines. This study looks in-depth at individual accounts during the lockdown (phase A) and after the “unlock” (lifting of the nationwide lockdown; phase B) using telephonic interviews. Mass job loss and the exodus of migrant workers from major cities highlighted the need to include low-income groups in research; hence, purposive sampling was used. We interviewed 45 participants in phase A and 35 participants in phase B; the latter was drawn from the phase A pool based on availability and willingness. Data were analyzed using thematic analysis. Analysis revealed four themes of participants’ experiences, namely: (1) transitioning from a disrupted normal to a “new normal”; (2) accountability and lack of trust; (3) fear and uncertainty; and (4) perceived lack of control. Within the themes, coping with stressors was observed in six broad categories: (1) distraction, (2) escape/avoidance, (3) positive cognitive restructuring, (4) problem solving, (5) seeking support, and (6) religious coping. Results enabled the drawing of parallels and contrasts between various socioeconomic, religious, and sexual/gender groups and were discussed from the lens of cognitive appraisal theory and coping. The implications of these findings in psychological crisis intervention and policy are discussed, pointing toward the need to allow a collaborative effort and mutual trust to build a resilient society.
Keywords: COVID-19 pandemic · Lockdown in India · Longitudinal study · Psychological impact · Coping · Thematic analysis
... Experimenters can also better understand an effect by controlling the conflict strength coefficient within studies: an experimenter might observe that manipulating the independent variable causes deviation in the dependent variable and then use theory to predict that the effect should increase when the conflict strength coefficient is high. Their Study 2 could employ a 2 (independent variable: control/experimental) x 2 (conflict strength coefficient: low/high) design and test her now more precisely formulated hypothesis with the predicted moderation (e.g., O'Connor et al., 2010). The precise numerical nature of the conflict strength coefficient provides exceptional levels of control and the ability to explicitly test theory which makes effects contingent on specific ranges of the conflict strength continuum. ...
Conflict management scholars study mixed-motive negotiation situations with cooperative and competitive incentives predominantly through multi-issue negotiation tasks in experimental studies. Intriguingly, experimenters currently lack an objective, generalizable, and continuous measure that precisely quantifies the incentives underlying these negotiation tasks. We present the conflict strength coefficient, which enables scholars to systematically quantify the incentive structures in these multi-issue negotiation tasks. By making the incentive structures accessible and numerically comparable, the conflict strength coefficient provides new insights into the central element of the experimental study of negotiation and conflict management, unmasks differences across existing tasks, facilitates research transparency, knowledge sharing, and open science practices. We demonstrate the coefficient’s benefits by providing a hands-on example from past research, by reviewing and quantitatively assessing the current literature, and by mapping conflict strength coefficients for the negotiation and conflict management research landscape and its subareas. Our analysis suggests that the conflict strength coefficient can enrich the understanding of cooperative and competitive incentives in the established tasks and directly guide and support an individual scholar’s process of knowledge creation. The conflict strength coefficient provides a methodological contribution to the experimental study of conflict management and negotiation with immediate benefits for the production of scientific knowledge, the experimental study of real-world phenomena, and theory development.
... Therefore, we administered a mental arithmetic task to elicit physiological responses participants could reappraise. The manipulation of threat versus challenge followed prior work in younger adults (Feinberg & Aiello, 2010;Moore et al., 2012;O'Connor et al., 2010); in our study, younger and older participants received instructions to appraise physiological arousal as a sign of a threat (detrimental to performance) or as a sign of a challenge (beneficial for performance). ...
Prior research suggests individuals can reappraise autonomic arousal under stress to improve performance. However, it is unclear whether arousal reappraisal effects are apparent at all ages. Seventy-three younger and 47 older adults received guided instruction to be in a state of challenge or threat while completing a mental arithmetic task. In addition to reporting on coping appraisals during the task, participants' physiological reactivity was assessed; changes in cardiac output (CO) and tonic skin conductance are reported. Participants in the challenge condition (compared to those in the threat condition) perceived greater coping resources, fewer perceived demands, and greater task performance; this pattern was similar for both age groups. Younger adults showed greater CO and tonic skin conductance changes than older adults, yet condition effects on physiological reactivity were only observed within the older sample. These findings suggest that despite physiological differences in aging, older adults may still benefit behaviorally from reappraising arousal to be a sign of a challenge. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).
... This study contributes to the existing literature by positing social networking as a basic virtual need for socialization and that social media platforms assist in that. Cognitive appraisal is an important determinant of individual response (Roesch et al., 2005) and leads to health outcomes (O'Connor et al., 2010). During periods of social distancing, people's need for physical socialization is not met and results in PI. ...
Purpose
Social distancing is an important strategy to control the spread of the COVID-19 pandemic, so it is imperative to understand the behavioral impact of social distancing on individuals. This research studied social distancing from a cognitive appraisal of voluntary social distancing compliance (CAVSD) point of view and a non-medical perspective, specifically the psychological impact (PI) of social distancing on the usage intensity of social networking sites (SNS) during the COVID-19 outbreak in India.
Design/methodology/approach
The study was conducted on 477 SNS users as a full sample and groups based on age, sex and work status. The model was empirically investigated using structural equation modeling.
Findings
CAVSD was negatively associated with PI although it was not a significant predictor, while CAVSD and PI were significant predictors of SNS usage intensity; moreover, SNS usage intensity differed between groups of people.
Practical implications
These findings are significant for organizations, corporations and educational institutions in both the public and private sectors. There is a need to identify subsections of individuals in need of social support and relief from isolation and loneliness. Individuals are relying on social media to handle social distancing and the pandemic, and this shows up in an increase in social networking activity.
Originality/value
This study contributes to the existing literature by positing social networking as a basic virtual need for socialization, and social media platform assists in that. Cognitive appraisal is an important determinant of individual response.
... Not all the effects of stress or cortisol are necessarily disadvantageous. Stress can be an enhancing experience, particularly if there are adequate resources for coping with it or if emotional states (e.g., anxiety) are consciously appraised (O'Connor et al., 2010;Akinola et al., 2016). ...
Hormones exert powerful, but covert, effects on financial decision-making. These vary according to the context of the decision, the type of decision being made and features of the individual making that decision. There are differences, for example, between rapid decisions made under duress (e.g. trading) and more deliberate ones made cooperatively (e.g. management) and those made by trained professional or financial management in everyday life. This chapter focusses mainly on acute decisions. Most studies have been made on males, who have dominated professional finance. Financial decisions involve both cognition and emotion, though the two are not clearly separable. They involve both risk and reward evaluations, and hormones, particularly testosterone, cortisol and oxytocin, influence both. The rewarding function of money has to be learned, and this involves areas of the brain such as the amygdala, which are heavily influenced by steroid hormones. Decisions are influenced not only by reward (utility) but by emotions (e.g. ‘framing’). Stress, and associated levels of cortisol, can impair attention and risk assessment, and levels alter in response to uncertainty; however more prolonged increases may have different effects on risk appetite and impulsivity. Testosterone enhances competitiveness, aggression, risk appetite and optimism in finance as it does in its major role in reproduction. Testosterone levels are also sensitive to winning or losing, and this may affect subsequent decisions. In females, phases of the menstrual cycle alter risk appetite, which is maximal at midcycle. Oxytocin administration increases trust, an essential ingredient of financial transactions. Within each individual, it is the pattern of these hormones, and how they change, that determines the influence they will have on financial decisions, which should not be underestimated, though their roles have received little consideration in the world of finance.
... Die ersten Studien beschäftigten sich vor allem mit internationalen Konflikten (Moore 1970;Campbell 1976;Kelman 1979). Einige Wissenschaftler haben die Erkenntnisse aus diesen ersten Veröffentlichungen genutzt, um daraus Versuchsdesigns zu entwickeln und Effekte der Mediation in Verhandlungen empirisch zu testen (Bartunek et al. 1975;Bigoness 1976;Hiltrop und Rubin 1982;Jones und Bodtker 2001;Johnson und Tullar 1972;Pruitt und Johnson 1970;Ross et al. 1990;Vidmar 1971;Wall 1979) sowie Metastudie von (Dewulf et al. 2009 (Harsanyi 1956;Roth 1985;Raiffa 1982 (Bazerman 1986;Druckman 1977Druckman , 1994Neale und Bazerman 1985;Reifen Tagar et al. 2011;Steinel et al. 2008;Schei et al. 2011;O'Connor et al. 2010;Harinck und Dreu 2008). ...
Die vorliegende Arbeit untersucht die Wirkung von Commitment, Empowerment, Ärger, Zuversicht und Kritik anhand einer computerbasierten Verhandlung im Labor. In der Verhandlungs- und Mediationsforschung existieren nur wenige experimentelle Studien über die Wirkmechanismen dieser Bedingungen bzw. Interventionen in einem Verhandlungskontext mit einem Mediator oder einem vermittelnden Dritten. Üblicherweise basieren die Ergebnisse experimenteller Verhandlungsstudien auf klassischen Zweiparteien-Verhandlungen. Experimentelle Mediationsstudien mit diesem Fokus sind nicht bekannt. Mit der Forschungsfrage wie sich die Interventionen eines Mediators auf den Verhandlungsverlauf auswirken und den dabei ausgewählten Themen Commitment, Empowerment, Emotionen und Kritik, soll ein wissenschaftlicher Beitrag zur Erforschung der Wirkung von Mediation geleistet werden. Dies ist relevant, da Konflikte in der Gesellschaft immer weniger über Macht geklärt werden. Diese Entwicklung zeigt sich in unterschiedlichen Felder des gesellschaftlichen Lebens Im ersten Teil der Arbeit werden Mediation und Verhandlung als Verfahren zur Bearbeitung von Interessensgegensätze beschrieben und ihre Gemeinsamkeiten und Unterschiede herausgearbeitet. Der Forschungsstand zur Wirkmechanismen der Mediation allgemein und konkret zu den Forschungsthemen dieser Arbeit Commitment, Empowerment, Emotionen und Kritik bildet die theoretische Grundlage der Arbeit. Im Anschluss wird auf die spezifischen Versuchsbedingungen eingegangen und dabei erarbeitet, inwiefern die Verhandlungssituation im Labor auf den Mediationskontext übertragbar ist. 186 Probanden nahmen an der Verhandlung teil und wurden im Anschluss per Fragebogen befragt. Betrachtet wurden die Auswirkungen der unterschiedlichen Versuchsbedingungen auf die Kooperationsbereitschaft, die Einigungsquote, die Bewertung des Verhandlungspartners, die erlebten Emotionen während der Verhandlung sowie die Beurteilung des Mediators. Die Verhandlungsbewegung der einzelnen Gruppen wurden an zwei Referenzgruppen abgeglichen und u.a. nach dem Prinzip des match und mismatch (Pruitt und Syna 1985; Benton et al. 1972) bewertet. Es zeigten sich statistisch signifikante Unterschiede zwischen den Versuchsgruppen: Insgesamt einigten sich jene Gruppen schneller, die mit Ärger oder Kritik konfrontiert wurden. In dem Fall der Bedingung Ärger lässt sich das Entgegenkommen analog zu vorausgegangenen Versuchen (ohne Mediator) als strategische Annäherung bewerten. Der Ärger des Verhandlungspartners wurde von den Probanden als Hinweis auf dessen Verhandlungsgrenzen bewertet. Um eine Eskalation oder gar einen Abbruch zu vermeiden, reagierten die Pro-banden mit Entgegenkommen, auch wenn sie dabei nicht glücklich waren und negative Gefühle empfanden. Kritisierte der Mediator den Verhandlungsverlauf, ergab sich ein ähnlicher Effekt: Die Probanden dieser Gruppe einigten sich häufiger als in anderen Gruppen. Die Motivation des Entgegenkommens basierte dabei jedoch nicht auf strategischen Überlegungen, sondern auf der Verunsicherung, die durch die Intervention des Mediators ausgelöst wurde, und war begleitet von eigenen starken negativen Emotionen, die auf alle Beteiligten projiziert wurden. Unterdurchschnittlich kooperatives Verhalten und unterdurchschnittliche Einigungsraten zeigen die Versuchsbedingungen Zuversicht und Empowerment. Der Unterschied der beiden Bedingungen liegt v.a. in der erlebten eigenen Emotion und der Einschätzung des Verhandlungspartners. Wurde den Probanden Zuversicht des Verhandlungspartners vermittelt, reagierten sie überdurchschnittlich gut gelaunt, wenig ängstlich und zuversichtlich und fanden ihren Verhandlungspartner sympathisch und fröhlich. In der Gruppe Empowerment induzierte der Mediator eigene bestärkende Kommentare. Diese lösten neben der zurückhaltenden Kooperation eine eher durchschnittliche Emotionslage aus, und der Mediator wurde als wenig hilfreich bewertet. Die Analyse zeigt, dass die Probanden die Zuversicht des Verhandlungspartners analog zur Bedingung Ärger als ein Zeichen von dessen Zufriedenheit über den Fortgang der Verhandlung interpretierten. Demnach sahen sie keine strategische Notwendigkeit, gesteigerte Koope-ration zu zeigen. Beim Empowerment des Mediators basiert die Zurückhaltung ebenfalls darauf, dass der Mediator als außenstehender Dritter das Vorankommen positiv bewertet. Dies wird als Hinweis interpretiert, dass keine Eskalationsgefahr oder ein Abbruch im Raum steht und die Situation kein gesteigertes Entgegenkommen verlangt. Allerdings waren die Probanden in dieser Bedingung weniger positiv gestimmt und standen der Intervention des Mediators kritischer gegenüber. Es gibt Hinweise darauf, dass die Probanden sich in ihrer Selbstbestimmtheit eingeschränkt sahen. Die Versuchsbedingung Commitment untersucht die Aus-wirkung auf die Einforderung eines schriftlichen Commitments der Probanden vor Beginn der Verhandlung. Die Einigungsquote sowie das Kooperationsverhalten blieben eher durchschnittlich. Eine analysierte Auffälligkeit der Gruppe ist jedoch die im Vergleich zu den anderen Gruppen hohe Anzahl der verwendeten Wörter bei den Kommentaren während der Verhandlung. Die Aufforderung, einen ersten Kommentar zu verfassen, steigerte die Kommunikationsfreudigkeit im Laufe des Verfahrens signifikant und führte zu positiven Emotionen bei den Probanden und einer ebenso positiven Zuschreibung der Verhandlungspartner. Neben der deskriptiven Betrachtung, der Datenanalyse und Interpretation wurden aus den Ergebnissen für jede Gruppe Handlungsempfehlungen für die Mediationspraxis abgeleitet.
... Although the BPS model has yet to be directly explored in real-world police decision-making contexts, challenge and threat orientations have been shown to influence decision-making and performance in other stressful, high-stakes environments. For example, challenge orientation (physiological and psychological) has been associated with better performance in situations that unfold over longer durations of time such as surgery (Moore et al., 2014), cricket and baseball seasons (Blascovich et al., 2004;Turner et al., 2013, respectively), flight simulation , negotiations (O'Connor et al., 2010), and semester grades (e.g., Seery et al., 2010). However, greater challenge orientation also confers benefits in visual attention (e.g., Moore et al., 2012;Vine et al., 2016), motor performance (e.g., Moore et al., 2012Moore et al., , 2013Moore et al., , 2014Moore et al., , 2015, attentional control (e.g., Vine et al., 2013Vine et al., , 2015Vine et al., , 2016, and working memory (e.g., Kelsey et al., 1999;Elzinga and Roelofs, 2005;Feinberg and Aiello, 2010). ...
We examine when and how police officers may avoid costly errors under stress by leveraging theoretical and empirical work on the biopsychosocial (BPS) model of challenge and threat. According to the BPS model, in motivated performance contexts (e.g., test taking, athletics), the evaluation of situational and task demands in relation to one’s perceived resources available to cope with those demands engenders distinct patterns of peripheral physiological responding. Individuals experience more challenge-like states in which blood circulates more efficiently in the periphery when they evaluate their coping resources as meeting or exceeding the task demands. Conversely, individuals experience more threat-like states in which blood circulates less efficiently in the periphery when they view the situation or task demands as exceeding their coping resources. Patterns of response consistent with challenge and threat states have been shown to predict important performance and decision-making outcomes in stressful contexts, and repeated experiences of threat-like patterns of physiological activity are thought to have detrimental effects on long-term cardiovascular health. To date, however, research has not used the biopsychosocial model to understand police decision-making under stress. Here, we review relevant empirical work from the perspective of the BPS model concerning how minority status and power can shape challenge and threat responding and contribute to decision-making under stress. We then detail a research agenda aimed at improving the translational value of research being conducted within the BPS model for understanding complex performance and decision-making in the real world, including among law enforcement personnel.
... The validity of these cardiovascular markers has been supported by dozens of studies, which assessed or manipulated challenge/threat states in various ways (e.g., Moore, Vine, Wilson, & Freeman, 2012; Moore, Vine, Wilson, & Freeman, 2014;Moore, Wilson, Vine, Coussens, & Freeman, 2013;Scheepers, de Wit, Ellemers, & Sassenberg, 2012;Shimizu, Seery, Weisbuch, & Lupien, 2011;Tomaka, Blascovich, Kelsey, & Leitten, 1993;Tomaka, Blascovich, Kibler, & Ernst, 1997;Turner, Jones, Sheffield, Barker, & Coffee, 2014;Weisbuch-Remington, Mendes, Seery, & Blascovich, 2005; for reviews, see Blascovich, 2008;Seery, 2013). Not only has past work directly manipulated resource-demand evaluations to examine cardiovascular markers of challenge/threat (Moore et al., 2012O'Connor, Arnold, & Maurizio, 2010), but correlational studies have examined these associations using self-report resource-demand pre-task evaluations (Moore, Young, Freeman, & Sarkar, 2018;Tomaka et al., 1993;Tomaka et al., 1997;Turner et al., 2013;Vine, Freeman, Moore, Chandra-Ramanan, & Wilson, 2013;Zanstra, Johnston, & Rasbash, 2010). Past work has also assessed or manipulated other psychological constructs that should affect resources-demand evaluations, including self-esteem, social anxiety, task framing, and social power (e.g., Scheepers et al., 2012;Shimizu et al., 2011;Seery, Blascovich, Weisbuch, & Vick, 2004;Weisbuch-Remington et al., 2005). ...
Evidence supports that being overwhelmed by many choice options predicts negative consequences. However, there is uncertainty regarding the effects of choice overload on two key motivational dimensions: (1) the extent to which people view their decision as subjectively valuable (versus not), and (2) the extent to which people view themselves as capable (versus incapable) of reaching a good decision. While evaluating their options and while deciding, we assessed theory-based cardiovascular responses reflecting these dimensions. A meta-analysis across two experiments found that participants who made a final selection from many options—relative to those who chose from few or rated many—exhibited cardiovascular responses consistent with greater task engagement (i.e., perceiving greater subjective value), as well as greater threat (i.e., perceiving fewer resources to manage situational demands). The current work suggests a novel motivational account of choice overload, providing insight into the nature and timing of this experience as it occurs.
... Indeed, while limited, research in social psychology has partially supported this notion, indicating that challenge and threat states might show in divergent NVB (Mendes, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2018.08.003 Received 21 February 2018; Received in revised form 4 July 2018; Accepted 3 August 2018 Blascovich, Hunter, Lickel, & Jost, 2007;O'Connor, Arnold, & Maurizio, 2010;Weisbuch, Seery, Ambady, & Blascovich, 2009). For instance, Mendes et al. (2007) found that responding to a social interaction with a threat-like cardiovascular response (lower cardiac activity and higher vascular resistance) was linked with less positive NVB (smiling, giggling, and positive affirmations) and greater freezing (less feet, hand, and head movement). ...
Objectives: This study examined if challenge and threat states predicted nonverbal behavior during a pressurized soccer penalty task.
Design: A predictive design was employed.
Method: Forty-two participants (Mage = 24 years, SD = 7) completed the task. Before the task, challenge and threat states were assessed via demand resource evaluations and cardiovascular reactivity. During the task, nonverbal behavior was recorded, and later used to rate participants on six scales: (1) submissive–dominant, (2) unconfident–confident, (3) on edge–composed, (4) unfocused–focused, (5) threatened–challenged, and (6) inaccurate–accurate.
Results: Participants who evaluated the task as a challenge (coping resources exceed task demands) were deemed more dominant, confident, composed, challenged, and competent from their nonverbal behavior than those who evaluated it as a threat (task demands exceed coping resources). Cardiovascular reactivity did not predict nonverbal behavior.
Conclusions: Athletes’ challenge and threat evaluations might be associated with nonverbal behavior under high-pressure.
... Not all the effects of stress or cortisol are necessarily disadvantageous. Stress can be an enhancing experience, particularly if there are adequate resources for coping with it or if emotional states (e.g., anxiety) are consciously appraised (O'Connor et al., 2010;Akinola et al., 2016). ...
Both testosterone and cortisol have major actions on financial decision-making closely related to their primary biological functions, reproductive success and response to stress, respectively. Financial risk-taking represents a particular example of strategic decisions made in the context of choice under conditions of uncertainty. Such decisions have multiple components, and this article considers how much we know of how either hormone affects risk-appetite, reward value, information processing and estimation of the costs and benefits of potential success or failure, both personal and social. It also considers how far we can map these actions on neural mechanisms underlying risk appetite and decision-making, with particular reference to areas of the brain concerned in either cognitive or emotional functions.
... Brooks and Schweitzer further found that the harmful effects of anxiety were mitigated by self-efficacy. In a related vein, O'Connor et al. (2010) found that negotiators who appraised an impending negotiation as a threat experienced more stress and reached lower-quality deals compared to those who appraised the prospective negotiation as a challenge (also see Brooks 2014). ...
Conflict is an emotional enterprise. We provide an integrative synthesis of theory and research on emotional dynamics in conflict and negotiation at three levels of analysis: the individual, the dyad, and the group. At the individual level, experienced moods and emotions shape negotiators’ cognition and behavior. At the dyadic level, emotional expressions influence counterparts’ cognitive, affective, and behavioral responses. At the group level, patterns of emotional experience and/or expression can instigate cooperation, coordination, and conformity, or competition, conflict, and deviance. Intrapersonal (individual-level) effects of diffuse moods can be explained by affect priming and affect-as-information models, whereas effects of discrete emotions are better explained by the appraisal-tendency framework. Interpersonal (dyadic- and group-level) effects of emotions are mediated by affective (e.g., emotional contagion) and inferential (e.g., reverse appraisal) responses, whose relative predictive power can be understood through the lens of emotions as social information (EASI) theory. We offer a critical assessment of the current literature, discuss practical implications for negotiation and conflict management, and sketch an agenda for future research. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior Volume 5 is January 21, 2018. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
... However, extant research begs a more nuanced understanding of the role of stress in negotiation performance. Although recent studies have found that inducing anxiety, which is often associated with stress [1], has negative consequences for negotiators [2,3], one limitation of these studies is that they rely on self-reports, leaving open the question of how the actual biological experience of stress during a negotiation can influence negotiation outcomes. Further, research that examines the interplay between biological responses and psychological construals of emotions on negotiation performance is needed, consistent with evidence demonstrating that how one construes emotions and one's bodily responses can influence behavior and performance [4][5][6]. ...
Prior research suggests that stress can be harmful in high-stakes contexts such as negotiations. However, few studies actually measure stress physiologically during negotiations, nor do studies offer interventions to combat the potential negative effects of heightened physiological responses in negotiation contexts. In the current research, we offer evidence that the negative effects of cortisol increases on negotiation performance can be reduced through a reappraisal of anxiety manipulation. We experimentally induced adaptive appraisals by randomly assigning 97 male and female participants to receive either instructions to appraise their anxiety as beneficial to the negotiation or no specific instructions on how to appraise the situation. We also measured participants’ cortisol responses prior to and following the negotiation. Results revealed that cortisol increases were positively related to negotiation performance for participants who were told to view anxiety as beneficial, and not detrimental, for negotiation performance (appraisal condition). In contrast, cortisol increases were negatively related to negotiation performance for participants given no instructions on appraising their anxiety (control condition). These findings offer a means through which to combat the potentially deleterious effects of heightened cortisol reactivity on negotiation outcomes.
... (2010) asked participants to report evaluated demands and resources before performing a complex negotiation task. The results revealed that evaluating the task as a threat was associated with poorer negotiating performance (i.e., lower quality deals; O'Connor et al., 2010). Similar findings have been reported in medical settings (Roberts et al., 2016) and important sporting competitions . ...
The aim of this article is to present an integrative conceptual framework that depicts the effect of acute stress on the performance of visually guided motor skills. We draw upon seminal theories highlighting the importance of subjective interpretations of stress on subsequent performance and outline how models of disrupted attentional control might explain this effect through impairments in visuomotor control. We first synthesize and critically discuss empirical support for theories examining these relationships in isolation. We then outline our integrative framework that seeks to provide a more complete picture of the interacting influences of stress responses (challenge and threat) and attention in explaining how elevated stress may lead to different visuomotor performance outcomes. We propose a number of mechanisms that explain why evaluations of stress are related to attentional control, and highlight the emotion of anxiety as the most likely candidate to explain why negative reactions to stress lead to disrupted attention and poor visuomotor skill performance. Finally, we propose a number of feedback loops that explain why stress responses are often self-perpetuating, as well as a number of proposed interventions that are designed to help improve or maintain performance in real world performance environments (e.g., sport, surgery, military, and aviation).
... One way of under- standing negotiators' motivational orientation is to consider whether they construe negotiation as an opportunity to approach gains or to avoid losses. Those approach- ing gains not only tend to make more ambitious first offers than those avoiding losses (Galinsky, Leonardelli, Okhuysen, & Mussweiler, 2005) but they also use tougher negotiation tactics (O'Connor, Arnold, & Maurizio, 2010). Yet another way to view negotiators' motivation is to consider whether they believe negotiation ability to be fixed or malleable. ...
The behavioral decision research (BDR) perspective has been instrumental in uncovering erroneous assumptions and biases that prevent negotiators from achieving optimal solutions. This chapter examines negotiations through the BDR lens. After articulating signature characteristics of this approach and identifying cognitive research that has adopted it, the chapter explores how a consideration of affect and motivation further elucidate negotiations. It then considers the utility of the BDR approach in light of research highlighting the importance of relational performance measures to negotiators. The chapter also considers how BDR paradigm's emphasis on drawing comparisons to a normative economic standard can be leveraged to bring relational aspects of performance further into the negotiation landscape. The primary objective is to illustrate the BDR perspective by juxtaposing it with alternate theoretical perspectives. In so doing, it takes stock of behavioral negotiation theory, identifies its strengths and weaknesses, and suggests promising directions for future research.
... Also outside the BPS model, there is evidence that evaluation instructions lead to differences in performance outcomes, Drach-Zahavy and Erez (2002) varied the instructional set to correspond to either challenge or threat evaluations and found that the evaluation instructions led to differences in performance outcomes, such that challenge instructions increased accurate predictions of the stock value of a series of companies. Likewise, O´Connor, Arnold, and Maurizio (2010) showed, that when individuals are primed with challenge evaluations, via subtle instructions informing that the task is easy to accomplish (vs. subtle instructions informing that the task is a difficult one), they performed a negotiation task shown resulting in more favorable agreements reached while negotiating a school project. ...
For the first time, 4 experiments tested the relationship between cognitive information-processing and the psychophysiological states of challenge and threat. Results showed that even though both processes (cognitive and motivational) co-occur during a persuasion task they are not causally linked.
... In step three, participants were asked to complete a stress questionnaire adapted from previous studies [29]. The scale consisted of two items: "To what extent do you feel stressed about the article?" and "To what extent do you feel fearful about your future?". ...
... All three experiments used a face-to-face negotiation paradigm in which participants interacted with each other. Indeed, we wanted to allow for mundane realism (consistent withOverbeck et al., 2010;Sinaceur & Tiedens, 2006;Sinaceur et al., 2013;see Kopelman et al., 2006;O'Connor, Arnold, & Maurizio, 2010;Wang et al., 2012). We thought that this was important because studies have rarely investigated effects of emotional expressions using actual, face-to-face negotiations. ...
Although recently some research has been accumulated on emotional expressions in negotiations, there is little research on whether expressing sadness could have any effect in negotiations. We propose that sadness expressions can increase the expressers' ability to claim value in negotiations because they make recipients experience greater other-concern for the expresser. However, only when the social situation provides recipients with reasons to experience concern for the expresser in the first place, will recipients act on their other-concern and, eventually, concede more to a sad expresser. Three experiments tested this proposition by examining face-to-face, actual negotiations (in which participants interacted with each other). In all 3 experiments, recipients conceded more to a sad expresser when, but only when, features of the social situation provided reasons to experience other-concern for the expresser, namely (a) when recipients perceived the expresser as low power (Experiment 1), (b) when recipients anticipated a future interaction (Experiment 1), (c) when recipients construed the relationship as collaborative in nature (Experiment 2), or (d) when recipients believed that it was inappropriate to blame others (Experiment 3). All 3 experiments showed that the positive effect of sadness expression was mediated by the recipients' greater other-concern. These findings extend previous research on emotional expressions in negotiations by emphasizing a distinct psychological mechanism. Implications for our understanding of sadness, negotiations, and emotions are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record
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The present research investigates how the number of issues affects the quality of outcomes in terms of joint gains and impasse rates in integrative negotiations. In the literature, two opposing positions exist reflecting a complexity dilemma regarding the number of negotiation issues: One position suggests that complex negotiations involving higher numbers of issues offer more trade-off opportunities, thereby providing negotiators with greater structural flexibility in reaching mutually beneficial agreements, which improves outcome quality. The opposite position emphasizes that the greater information load inherent in negotiating more issues impedes outcome quality. We propose a third, intermediate position: Negotiating more issues may only improve outcome quality up to a threshold, above which adding further issues results in deteriorated outcomes. We tested these propositions using a quasi-meta-analytic technique by examining the associations between the number of issues, joint gains, and impasse rates across multiple empirical studies on integrative negotiations using various negotiation tasks with different numbers of issues (N = 38,063/21,271 negotiations for joint gains/impasse rates). Moreover, we investigated whether factors related to how negotiators subjectively deal with the increased complexity associated with higher numbers of issues moderate the number-of-issues effect on joint gains. Multilevel analyses revealed no significant number-of-issues effect on joint gains up to a threshold of 3 issues but a negative effect for negotiations involving more than 3 issues. By contrast, we did not find a number-of-issues effect on impasse rates. Moreover, we did not obtain evidence for moderation effects. Findings are discussed with respect to their theoretical and practical implications.
Although intergroup contact is effective at reducing prejudice, avoidance of intergroup contact often creates a barrier to prejudice reduction. The present study aimed to reduce majority members' desire to avoid intergroup interactions by devising an intervention aimed at altering cognitive appraisals. Majority group participants (156 Anglo Australians) were assigned to either the intervention or one of two control conditions. The intervention educated majority members about evidence-based techniques to improve interactions with minority members. Participants were provided with two interaction scenarios, one involving an outgroup minority and one involving an ingroup majority member. As predicted, the intervention reduced threat appraisal for the scenario involving outgroup minority member, but not for one involving ingroup majority member. The intervention similarly reduced avoidance desire, but this reduction was not restricted to the minority partner scenario; it was independent of the partner group. The importance of cognitive appraisals in improving intergroup relations is discussed.
As it often applies to other mental conditions, one may posit that cognitive appraisals might be causal in the onset and maintenance of parental burnout. Recent studies have indeed highlighted that negative cognitive appraisals are positively associated with parental burnout. Howbeit, none of these studies being experimental in design, it has—thus far—been impossible to establish causality. To shed light on the question, the present study relied on an experimental design where the perception of three known antecedents of parental burnout was manipulated: co-parenting support, emotion regulation and child-rearing practices. 313 French- and English-speaking parents took part in the study which employed a 4 (Condition: control, perceived co-parenting support, perceived emotion regulation, perceived efficacy of child-rearing practices) × 2 (Time: pre- and post-manipulation) mixed-design, with Condition as the between-subject factor and Time as the within-subject factor. Results showed that the experimental manipulation was effective in the “co-parenting support” condition solely and this effective manipulation further yielded a significant effect on the decrease of parental burnout scores, hence suggesting a causative relation between cognitive appraisals and parental burnout. Our results highlight both the complexity of manipulating parents’ cognitive appraisals and the scope for relieving partnered parents from their parental burnout symptoms.
Individuals, groups, and societies all experience conflict, and attempt to resolve it in numerous ways. The Oxford Handbook of Economic Conflict Resolution brings together scholars from multiple disciplines to offer perspectives on the current state and future challenges in negotiation and conflict resolution. It aims to act as an aid in identifying new research topics. It hopes also to provide a guide to current debates and identify complementarities between approaches taken by different disciplines and the insights which those approaches generate. Leading researchers from the fields of economics, psychology, organizational behavior, policy, and other fields have contributed articles. The volume is organized to juxtapose purposefully contributions from different fields to enable cross-fertilization between the disciplines and to generate new and creative approaches to studying the topic. These articles provide a lens into current scholarship, and a window into the potential future of this field. The confluence of research perspectives represented here aims to identify further synergies and advances in the understanding of conflict resolution.
Aggressive behavior is any behavior in which one individual or group intentionally causes harm to another targeted individual or group. Aggressive behaviors such as school violence, doctor-patient conflicts, and violent crimes, which are increasing year by year, bringing serious economic burdens and strong negative impacts on individuals and the entire society.
Performance monitoring is the core function of the human executive system, plays a key role in behavior correction and goal-directed behavior, and is the psychological basis for reducing and intervening aggressive behavior. Effective performance monitoring depends primarily on two factors: threat detection (threat sensitivity) and response inhibition. Instrumental group relationship refers to the relationship between individual resources and group identity and group interests in a resource-competitive society. Instrumental group relations are divided into group identity and intergroup prejudice. Aggressive behavior theories include group identity theory and intergroup bias theory.
Instrumental group relationships may have a looser psychological perception threshold for threat and lead to decreased executive functioning. In this study, we designed two experiments to investigate this question. Experiment 1 used the flanker-go/no go task to examine the effect of group identification on performance monitoring of aggressive behavior; Experiment 2 also used the flanker-go/no go task to investigate the effect of intergroup prejudice on performance monitoring of aggressive behavior. The results show that (1) the higher the implicit group identity, the greater the threat sensitivity. The higher the implicit intergroup prejudice, the greater the threat sensitivity. (2) Individuals are more sensitive to aggressive threats than to symbolic threats than to realistic threats. (3) In response inhibition, the higher the implicit identification, the weaker the response inhibition; (4) The ability of response inhibition under aggressive threat is lower than that of symbolic threat and lower than that of realistic threat
Bu çalışmanın amacı sporcuların zihinsel antrenman düzeyleri ile sporda mücadele ve tehdit algılarının incelenmesidir. Katılımcı grubunu Güneydoğu Anadolu bölgesinde bulunan Spor Bilimleri Fakültesi veya Beden Eğitimi ve Spor Yüksekokulunda öğrenim gören 252 erkek ve 174 kadın sporcu oluşturmuştur. Veri toplama aracı olarak araştırmacılar tarafından geliştirilen kişisel bilgi formu, Sporda Zihinsel Antrenman Envanteri ile Sporda Mücadele ve Tehdit Ölçeği uygulanmıştır. Verilerin normal dağılım göstermesi nedeniyle iki grubun karşılaştırılmasında t-testi, ikiden fazla grubun karşılaştırmasında one way ANOVA testi, Tukey çoklu karşılaştırma testi ve değişkenler arasındaki ilişkileri belirlemek için Pearson Korelasyon analizi uygulanmıştır. Ayrıca değişkenler arasındaki etkiyi belirlemek için basit doğrusal regresyon analizi kullanılmıştır. Analizler sonucunda, cinsiyet değişkeni bakımından zihinsel performans becerileri ve tehdit alt boyutunda erkekler lehine, sporculuk düzeyi değişkeni bakımından kendinle konuşma alt boyutunda profesyonel sporcular lehine, spor yaşı değişkenine göre ise zihinsel performans becerileri ve tehdit alt boyutlarında 10 yıl ve üzeri spor yapanlar lehine anlamlı fark bulunmuştur. Zihinsel antrenman düzeyleri ile mücadele alt boyutu arasında orta düzeyde pozitif yönlü ilişki, tehdit alt boyutu arasında ise düşük düzeyde negatif yönlü ilişki tespit edilmiştir. Regresyon analizi sonucunda, sporda zihinsel antrenmanın mücadele ve tehdit algısını anlamlı düzeyde etkilediği saptanmıştır. Sonuç olarak, sporcuların zihinsel antrenman düzeyleri sporda mücadele ve tehdit algısını etkileyebilmektedir.
Purpose
Negotiations are often conducted under stress. Previous studies show that stress can help or hurt negotiation outcomes. This study suggests that individual differences explain these effects, and the purpose of this study is to examine the effect of social value orientation (SVO) and stress on negotiation outcomes.
Design/methodology/approach
Two experimental studies and a pilot investigate the influence of stress and SVO (prosocial vs proself) on negotiation offers and outcomes. The authors’ studies are grounded on social interdependence theory and arousal literatures to explain the effects of stress on negotiation.
Findings
Stress has a positive influence on integrative offers (S1) and joint outcomes (S2). SVO moderates the effect of stress on joint negotiation outcomes (S2), such that, under stress, prosocials fare better than proselfs.
Research limitations/implications
Managers negotiating under stress should pay attention to their own as well as the others’ SVOs. Managers could also build their negotiation teams considering this individual difference and favor the presence of prosocials in stressful negotiations.
Practical implications
The findings have practical implications for managers who are under stress on a daily basis.
Social implications
This research contributes to managers that need to understand how to reach integrative agreements under stress. This is especially important when negotiators are representatives of employees or companies, as the outcomes can affect many individuals.
Originality/value
To the best of the authors’ knowledge, this is the first study examining the relationship between stress, SVO and negotiation offers and outcomes.
The rapidly growing body of research on the effect of emotional expressions in negotiation has been the subject of several narrative reviews. Through meta-analysis, we combine relevant findings, compare and integrate moderators, and examine the mediating mechanisms quantitatively. The analysis incorporates 64 published and unpublished studies conducted over three decades. The findings suggest that, generally, negotiators expressing negative emotions will increase counterparts’ concession-making, which presumably enables them to claim more individual value. Expressing negative emotions diminishes trust and other subjective outcomes. Relationships between negative emotions and negotiation outcomes are moderated by factors that are both theoretical (i.e., power, culture, emotion regulation) and methodological (i.e., characteristics of research design, phases of negotiation). Additionally, we tested theoretical frameworks from Emotions as Social Information theory, which describes the processes through which negative emotions influence negotiation outcomes. The effects for concessions are mediated by inference of limits, inference of toughness, and affective reactions. The effect of negative emotions on individual outcomes is mediated by complementary affective reactions. Based on the existing body of work, we make specific calls for further research.
In two studies, we examine how objective complexity—in terms of numbers of negotiable issues—affects negotiators’ aspirations, perceptions, actions, and ultimately, the quality of agreements they reach. We hypothesized and found that when negotiators had a greater number of issues to resolve, they were less ambitious for their own outcomes and developed less accurate insights into their partners’ interests.
Undergraduate dissertation students' cognitive appraisal, coping styles and perceived stress were examined at three times points during their undergraduate dissertation projects (UDP), observing whether cognitive appraisal and coping styles predicted perceived stress and their temporal changes. Sixty-four dissertation students completed the Perceived Stress Scale, an adapted Cognitive Appraisal of Health Scale, the Brief COPE and explorative open-ended questions. Linear Regression models for each time-point showed coping styles and cognitive appraisal predicted perceived stress, but single coping styles and primary appraisal harm/loss predicted stress levels inconsistently over time. Analyses indicated significant effects of time-point on primary appraisals benign/irrelevance, harm/loss and challenge but none for secondary appraisal, coping styles or perceived stress. Content Analysis showed perceived stressors and coping styles to be a function of the UDP's stages and their tasks and challenges. Implications and recommendations for students and supervisors are discussed.
The biopsychosocial model of challenge and threat states specifies that these states engender different physiological and behavioral responses in potentially stressful situations. This model has received growing interest in the sport and performance psychology literature. The present systematic review examined whether a challenge state is associated with superior performance than a threat state. Across 38 published studies that conceptualized challenge and threat states in a manner congruent with the biopsychosocial model, support emerged for the performance benefits of a challenge state. There was, however, significant variation in the reviewed studies in terms of the measures of challenge and threat states, tasks, and research designs. The benefits of a challenge state on performance were largely consistent across studies using cognitive, physiological, and dichotomous challenge and threat measures, cognitive and behavioral tasks, and direct experimental, indirect experimental, correlational, and quasi-experimental designs. The results imply that sports coaches, company directors, and teachers might benefit from trying to promote a challenge state in their athletes, employees, and students, respectively. Future research could benefit from a greater consensus on how best to measure challenge and threat states to help synthesize the evidence across studies. Specifically, we recommend that researchers use both cognitive and physiological measures and develop stronger manipulations for experimental studies. Finally, future research should report sufficient information to enable risk of bias assessment.
Compilación de trabajos generados por los profesores del Departamento de Clínicas de Salud Mental de la Universidad de Guadalajara
At work, sources of anxiety abound. Individuals worry about the quality of their work, their job security, and impressing their bosses. At the same time, many managers induce anxiety, incidentally or deliberately, in an effort to motivate their employees. Until now, the study of anxiety in organizations has been surprisingly sparse. Previous anxiety research has focused on anxiety as a personality trait. In contrast, I focus on state anxiety, an unpleasant emotional state triggered by novelty and the potential for adverse consequences, which has profound effects on cognition and behavior.
Across three chapters, I examine the intrapersonal experience and interpersonal effects of state anxiety. Using a variety of methods, including survey, archival, and experimental data, I test the influence of anxiety on negotiations, advice taking, emotional reappraisal, and high-pressure performance. In Chapter 1, I find that anxious negotiators tend to make low first offers, exit prematurely, and ultimately obtain worse outcomes. In Chapter 2, I find that feeling anxious leads individuals to rely more heavily on advice, even when the advice is obviously bad. These effects are mediated by low self-efficacy; Feeling anxious lowers self-efficacy, which causes negotiators to exit negotiations and causes individuals to rely more heavily on others' advice. Finally, in Chapter 3, I investigate a counterintuitive strategy to contend with the harmful effects of anxiety: reappraising anxiety as excitement. I find that, compared to the intuition to calm down or reduce anxiety, reappraising pre-performance anxiety as excitement primes an opportunity mindset (as opposed to a threat mindset) and improves subsequent performance across public and private performance tasks.
Attachment theory has received scant consideration in the negotiation literature. We examined the effects of attachment anxiety and avoidance on negotiation propensity and performance in two studies. In terms of negotiation propensity (Study 1), attachment anxiety had significant, deleterious effects, though contrary to our predictions, attachment avoidance did not have significant effects. However, there was an interaction such that individuals high on attachment avoidance had a greater propensity to negotiate with an insecurely attached counterpart compared to a secure counterpart. In addition, attachment orientation influenced negotiation performance and information sharing (Study 2), but the effects depended upon role in the negotiation, with stronger effects for attachment avoidance as opposed to attachment anxiety. Theoretical and practical implications for research on negotiation and attachment theory are discussed.
Attachment theory has received scant consideration in the negotiation literature. We examined the effects of attachment anxiety and avoidance on negotiation propensity and performance in two studies. In terms of negotiation propensity (Study 1), attachment anxiety had significant, deleterious effects, though contrary to our predictions, attachment avoidance did not have significant effects. However, there was an interaction such that individuals high on attachment avoidance had a greater propensity to negotiate with an insecurely attached counterpart compared to a secure counterpart. In addition, attachment orientation influenced negotiation performance and information sharing (Study 2), but the effects depended upon role in the negotiation, with stronger effects for attachment avoidance as opposed to attachment anxiety. Theoretical and practical implications for research on negotiation and attachment theory are discussed.
Although intergroup contact is an effective way of reducing prejudice, negative expectancies about interacting with out-group members often create a barrier to intergroup contact. The current study investigated cognitive appraisals by which negative expectancies may arise. Specifically, we examined whether increasing Anglo Australians' appraisals of their knowledge about Muslims would reduce their negative expectancies about an (ostensible) upcoming interaction with a Muslim Australian. Participants (89 Anglo Australians) completed a test that provided positive feedback either on their knowledge about Muslims or on their general knowledge (control). As predicted, Anglo Australians who received positive feedback on their knowledge about Muslims had a lower threat appraisal and expected to feel less anxious during the intergroup interaction compared with those who were in the control condition. This provides support for the precursory role out-group knowledge may have as a resource that is appraised upon the prospect of an intergroup interaction.
Participants completed anxiety and coping diaries during 10 periods that began 7 days before an academic stressor and continued through the evening after the stressor. Profile analysis was used to examine the anxiety and coping processes in relation to 2 trait anxiety grouping variables: debilitating and facilitating test anxiety (D-TA and F-TA). Anxiety and coping changed over time, and high and low levels of D-TA and F-TA were associated with different daily patterns of anxiety and coping. Participants with a debilitative, as opposed to facilitative, trait anxiety style had lower examination scores, higher anxiety, and less problem-solving coping. Covarying F-TA, high D-TA was associated with a pattern of higher levels of tension, worry, distraction, and avoidant coping, as well as lower levels of proactive coping. Covarying D-TA, high F-TA was associated with higher levels of tension (but not worry or distraction), support seeking, proactive and problem-solving coping.
We hypothesized that anger expressions increase expressers’ ability to claim value in negotiations, but only when the recipients of these expressions have poor alternatives. This effect occurs because anger expression communicates toughness, and only recipients who have poor alternatives are affected by the toughness of their counterpart. In Experiment 1, participants read a scenario about a negotiator who either was angry or not. In Experiment 2, dyads negotiated face-to-face after one negotiator within each dyad was advised to show either anger or no emotion. In both studies, recipients of anger expressions who had poor alternatives conceded more. Experiment 2 also provided evidence that toughness ascribed to the expresser mediated the effect of anger expression on claiming value.
In dyadic research, the responses of the two members of the dyad are likely to be non-independent. Statistical estimation for three different processes that bring about non-independence are presented. In each, a variable X influences Y. First, the X variable of one person may influence the Y variable of his or her partner. Second, the Y variables of the two people may directly influence each other. Third, the two X and Y scores may be indicators of couple-level factors.
Forty-three undergraduates (30 males, 13 females) prepared and performed a speech task (stressor) or a reading task (no-stressor control). Preparing to speak led to greater threat appraisal, negative emotion, and cardiovascular (CV) response than preparing to read aloud, particularly in speech anxious individuals. Delivering the speech, however, did not result in an increment in CV response over and above preparation. Although threat appraisals could not explain the effect of stress on CV response during task preparation, negative emotion accounted for over half of the effect. These data support the hypothesis that CV response in these studies is at least partially accounted for by psychological processes (stressor-specific anxiety and negative emotional response) and suggests that these processes may be best studied during a period of stressor anticipation.
Discusses the biasing effects of nonindependence of observations on the mean squares used to test the effect of some discrete independent variable. Nonindependence of observations is defined, and 3 commonly assumed patterns of nonindependence are identified: nonindependence due to groups, nonindependence due to sequence, and nonindependence due to space. How the bias in both the mean square for treatment and the mean square for error can be derived when each of the 3 patterns of nonindependence is ignored in analyzing the effect of a discrete independent variable is demonstrated. Ways to eliminate the sometimes considerable biases, either by including the source of nonindependence in the analysis, transforming the data to remove it, or modeling it, are discussed. It is concluded that nonindependence of observations should be viewed as a substantive issue central to many areas by psychological research. (28 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Cognitive appraisal theories of stress and emotion propose that cognitive appraisals precede physiological responses, whereas peripheralist theories propose that physiological arousal precedes cognitive processes. Three studies examined this issue regarding threat and challenge responses to potential stress. Study 1 supported cognitive appraisal theory by demonstrating that threat and challenge cognitive appraisals and physiological responses could be elicited experimentally by manipulating instructional set. Studies 2 and 3, in contrast, found that manipulations of physiological response patterns consistent with challenge and threat did not result in corresponding changes in cognitive appraisal. Appraisals in Study 3, however, were related to subjective pain independent of the physiological manipulation. These studies suggest a central role for cognitive appraisal processes in elicitation of threat and challenge responses to potentially stressful situations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The applicability of R. S. Lazarus and S. Folkman's (1984) cognitive appraisal model of stress was examined in 3 laboratory experiments involving the repeated performance of active (Studies 1, 2, and 3) and passive (Study 3) coping stress tasks (P. A. Obrist, 1981). Threat appraisals of upcoming coping tasks were positively related to Ss' self-reported task stress. Cardiac reactivity during active coping stressors was related positively to challenge appraisals and negatively to threat appraisals. Vascular reactivity, however, was related positively to threat appraisals and negatively to challenge appraisals. During passive coping stressors, cardiac and skin conductance reactivity were related positively to threat appraisals. The fractionation of self-report and physiological measures during active coping was interpreted in terms of energy mobilization and effort. The implications for the use of physiological measures as indicators of stress are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
In this study assertiveness as a moderator of stress reactions among women was examined. Specifically, the experimenters examined how high and low assertive women cognitively appraised, affectively and physiologically responded to, and behaviorally coped with the stress of giving an impromptu speech. High assertive women appraised the speech stressor as challenging, whereas low assertive women appraised the stressor as threatening. High assertive women also had a challenge pattern of autonomic response during the task, compared with the threat response of low assertive women. Afterward, the high assertive women reported experiencing less stress and negative emotion and greater positive emotion than did the low assertive women. Overall, the high assertive women's stress-related reactions indicated challenge, whereas the low assertive women's reactions indicated threat (see J. Tomaka, J. Blascovich, R. M. Kelsey, & C. L. Leitten, 1993). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This study illustrates the conceptual and statistical issues stemming from the use of nested, interdependent data in negotiation
research. To this end, the nature and forms of interdependence are discussed, several models of interdependence are outlined,
and methods for analyzing interdependent data are presented. Furthermore, an example using the actor–partner interdependence
model is given. This discussion and example may provide an avenue to rethink the modeling and analysis of offline and online
negotiation processes, given the interdependent nature of negotiation data.
In this study we examined the relation between personality factors (mastery and interpersonal trust), primary appraisal (the stakes a person has in a stressful encounter), secondary appraisal (options for coping), eight forms of problem- and emotion-focused coping, and somatic health status and psychological symptoms in a sample of 150 community-residing adults. Appraisal and coping processes should be characterized by a moderate degree of stability across stressful encounters for them to have an effect on somatic health status and psychological symptoms. These processes were assessed in five different stressful situations that subjects experienced in their day-to-day lives. Certain processes (e.g., secondary appraisal) were highly variable, whereas others (e.g., emotion-focused forms of coping) were moderately stable. We entered mastery and interpersonal trust, and primary appraisal and coping variables (aggregated over five occasions), into regression analyses of somatic health status and psychological symptoms. The variables did not explain a significant amount of the variance in somatic health status, but they did explain a significant amount of the variance in psychological symptoms. The pattern of relations indicated that certain variables were positively associated and others negatively associated with symptoms.
Examines how the dynamics of stress and coping change with circumstances of living and processes of aging. The answer has remained obscure for 3 main reasons. (1) The state of the art in the measurement of stress and coping is still primitive. (2) Personal beliefs, values, and commitments, which develop from a person's unique history, shape appraisal of stress and manner in which stress is coped with and therefore have profound consequences for morale, social and work functioning, and somatic health. (3) Most of the observations relevant to the central question have been obtained cross-sectionally; however, because the significance of any given event is embedded in the individual's personal, lifelong drama, it is important to examine stress and coping longitudinally as well. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Dependencies among observations are of interest to psychologists for both methodological and substantive reasons. A general procedure is developed that can be used to estimated dependencies among observations, given a set of a priori expectations about the structure of those dependencies. The utility of this general procedure is illustrated for specific cases: the estimation of serial dependency in time-series data, of dyadic and group interdependence in social psychology, and of reliability. The utility of the approach derives from its generality and from its ability to handle randomly missing data.
Static models of interacting persons measured at the interval level are reviewed. A discussion of the fundamental sources of variance and key design decisions in social-interaction research is presented. Outlined are the basic designs for social-interaction research and their proper analysis. Multilevel modeling is likely to become the most common data analysis method. Critical issues unique to social-interaction research are examined, particularly the effect of the partner on the interaction actor. Finally, illustrations of analyses from four extended examples are presented.
The human stress response has been characterized, both physiologically and behaviorally, as "fight-or-flight." Although fight-or-flight may characterize the primary physiological responses to stress for both males and females, we propose that, behaviorally, females' responses are more marked by a pattern of "tend-and-befriend." Tending involves nurturant activities designed to protect the self and offspring that promote safety and reduce distress; befriending is the creation and maintenance of social networks that may aid in this process. The biobehavioral mechanism that underlies the tend-and-befriend pattern appears to draw on the attachment-caregiving system, and neuroendocrine evidence from animal and human studies suggests that oxytocin, in conjunction with female reproductive hormones and endogenous opioid peptide mechanisms, may be at its core. This previously unexplored stress regulatory system has manifold implications for the study of stress.
Mediation is said to occur when a causal effect of some variable X on an outcome Y is explained by some intervening variable M. The authors recommend that with small to moderate samples, bootstrap methods (B. Efron & R. Tibshirani, 1993) be used to assess mediation. Bootstrap tests are powerful because they detect that the sampling distribution of the mediated effect is skewed away from 0. They argue that R. M. Baron and D. A. Kenny's (1986) recommendation of first testing the X --> Y association for statistical significance should not be a requirement when there is a priori belief that the effect size is small or suppression is a possibility. Empirical examples and computer setups for bootstrap analyses are provided.
Three experiments investigated the interpersonal effects of anger and happiness in negotiations. In the course of a computer-mediated negotiation, participants received information about the emotional state (anger, happiness, or none) of their opponent. Consistent with a strategic-choice perspective, Experiment 1 showed that participants conceded more to an angry opponent than to a happy one. Experiment 2 showed that this effect was caused by tracking--participants used the emotion information to infer the other's limit, and they adjusted their demands accordingly. However, this effect was absent when the other made large concessions. Experiment 3 examined the interplay between experienced and communicated emotion and showed that angry communications (unlike happy ones) induced fear and thereby mitigated the effect of the opponent's experienced emotion. These results suggest that negotiators are especially influenced by their opponent's emotions when they are motivated and able to consider them.
This meta-analysis reviews 208 laboratory studies of acute psychological stressors and tests a theoretical model delineating conditions capable of eliciting cortisol responses. Psychological stressors increased cortisol levels; however, effects varied widely across tasks. Consistent with the theoretical model, motivated performance tasks elicited cortisol responses if they were uncontrollable or characterized by social-evaluative threat (task performance could be negatively judged by others), when methodological factors and other stressor characteristics were controlled for. Tasks containing both uncontrollable and social-evaluative elements were associated with the largest cortisol and adrenocorticotropin hormone changes and the longest times to recovery. These findings are consistent with the animal literature on the physiological effects of uncontrollable social threat and contradict the belief that cortisol is responsive to all types of stressors.
Optimism is usually associated with better psychological and physiological adjustment to stressors, but some contradictory findings exist. The purpose of this study was to investigate how optimism could result in negative immunological changes following difficult stressors. Because optimists are likely to see positive outcomes as attainable, they may invest greater effort to achieve their goals. It is proposed that such engagement would be more physiologically demanding when pursuing difficult goals. Participants (N = 54) worked on 11 difficult or insoluble anagrams. Optimism when combined with high self-awareness increased time spent working on the anagrams and skin conductance and salivary cortisol during the recovery period. The results support the notion that the increased engagement that arises from optimism may lead to short-term physiological costs.
In 2 studies the authors show that the quality of deals negotiators reach are significantly influenced by their previous bargaining experiences. As predicted, negotiators who reached an impasse on a prior negotiation were more likely either to impasse in their next negotiation or to reach deals of low joint value compared to those who had reached an initial agreement. Notably, the impact of past performance on subsequent deals was just as strong for negotiators who changed partners on the 2nd occasion. Results highlight the role of bargaining histories as significant predictors of negotiation behavior. Moreover, they suggest that, at least in some cases, negotiations should be conceptualized as interrelated exchanges rather than separable incidents.
The authors demonstrate that in dyadic negotiations, negotiators with a promotion regulatory focus achieve superior outcomes than negotiators with prevention regulatory focus in two ways. First, a promotion focus leads negotiators to claim more resources at the bargaining table. In the first two studies, promotion-focused negotiators paid more attention to their target prices(i.e., their ideal outcomes) and achieved more advantageous distributive outcomes than did prevention-focused negotiators. The second study also reveals an important mediating process: Negotiators with a promotion focus made more extreme opening offers in their favor. Second, a promotion focus leads negotiators to create more resources at the bargaining table that benefit both parties. A third study demonstrated that in a multi-issue negotiation, a promotion focus increased the likelihood that a dyad achieved a jointly optimal or Pareto efficient outcome compared to prevention-focused dyads. The discussion focuses on the role of regulatory focus in social interaction and introduces the notion of interaction fit.
In this experience sampling study, the authors examined the role of organizational leaders in employees' emotional experiences. Data were collected from health care workers 4 times a day for 2 weeks. Results indicate supervisors were associated with employee emotions in 3 ways: (a) Employees experienced fewer positive emotions when interacting with their supervisors as compared with interactions with coworkers and customers; (b) employees with supervisors high on transformational leadership experienced more positive emotions throughout the workday, including interactions with coworkers and customers; and (c) employees who regulated their emotions experienced decreased job satisfaction and increased stress, but those with supervisors high on transformational leadership were less likely to experience decreased job satisfaction. The results also suggest that the effects of emotional regulation on stress are long lasting (up to 2 hr) and not easily reduced by leadership behaviors.
Research on cognitive appraisal of stressful achievement events has emphasized threat appraisals and anxiety. The present research also focused on challenge and positive emotion. Study 1 used hypothetical scenarios of stressful events. Study 2 explored temporal patterns of appraisal and emotion prior to an exam. Compared with threat appraisals, trait and state challenge appraisals were associated with more confident coping expectancies, lower perceptions of threat, higher positive emotion, and more beneficial perceptions of the effects of appraisal and emotion on performance. Beneficial perceptions of state appraisals were associated with higher exam performance. These findings were interpreted in the context of theoretical perspectives on the cognitive appraisal of stressful events and the adaptive functions of challenge and positive emotion.
Emotions such as anger and happiness have pervasive interpersonal effects in negotiations. We propose that the nature of the effects depends on the target of the emotion, that is, whether the emotion is directed toward a person or a specific behavior. In a computer-mediated negotiation (N = 87), participants received either angry or happy messages from a simulated opponent, which were either behavior-oriented or person-directed. Behavior-oriented anger elicited larger concessions than behavior-oriented happiness, whereas person-directed anger elicited smaller concessions than person-directed happiness. This reversal could be attributed to the strategic value of the emotional expression, which was higher in the behavior-oriented condition than in the person-directed condition. These findings show that the interpersonal effects of anger and happiness depend critically on the target of the emotion.
Negotiators often fail to reach integrative (”win–win”) agreements because they think that their own and other’s preferences are diametrically opposed—the so-called fixed-pie perception. We examined how verbal (Experiment 1) and nonverbal (Experiment 2) emotional expressions may reduce fixed-pie perception and promote integrative behavior. In a two-issue computer-simulated negotiation, participants negotiated with a counterpart emitting one of the following emotional response patterns: (1) anger on both issues, (2) anger on participant’s high priority issue and happiness on participant’s low-priority issue, (3) happiness on high priority issue and anger on low-priority issue, or (4) happiness on both issues. In both studies, the third pattern reduced fixed-pie perception and increased integrative behavior, whereas the second pattern amplified bias and reduced integrative behavior. Implications for how emotions shape social exchange are discussed.
The author presents a discussion of the steady states (homeostases) of the body, with the explanation, so far as such is possible, of the mechanisms controlling such conditions. The account is closed with analogies between the regulation of the body and the regulation of social processes. Brief bibliography. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
We examined the role of self-efficacy in negotiators' choice of dispute-resolution procedures and responsiveness to third-party recommendations after an impasse. Results show that high self-efficacy negotiators were more likely to choose continued negotiation over mediation than were their low self-efficacy counterparts. In addition, we found that these negotiators were more likely to reject a mediator's recommendation for settlement, even when this recommendation was evenhanded and met their interests. As predicted, however, the influence of self-efficacy on the acceptance of recommendations was moderated by mediator credibility. When disputants perceived that the mediator had low credibility, the pattern of effects remained unchanged. However, when disputants viewed the mediator as being highly credible, self-efficacy had no influence on the acceptance/rejection of mediator recommendations.
Publisher Summary An integrative, interdisciplinary approach is advocated to represent the reality of arousal regulation processes. This chapter describes the results from a multidisciplinary, integrative approach to the study of arousal regulation, integrating not only dispositional but also cognitive, physiological, and social dimensions. Arousal plays an important theoretical role in many categories of behavior––namely, intense emotional experiences and expressions such as terror, rage, lust, and ecstasy. A major problem created by a unidimensional framework for arousal regulation is illustrated in the chapter and such arousal can be indexed by using subjective or objective measures such as stressfulness. The arousal-regulation processes operate in similar fashion for both genders. Moreover, an explanation for the gender effects in the zero-sum experimental game study and implications of work and chart future directions for empirical endeavors are also discussed in the chapter. A multidisciplinary biopsychosocial approach represents a much more fruitful approach for understanding arousal regulation.
S. (2008). Emotions as strategic information: Effects of other's emotions on fixed-pie perception, demands and integrative behavior in negotiation.
This article reports a meta-analytic test of a two-dimensional work Stressor framework with respect to Stressors' relationships with strains, motivation, and performance. Hindrance Stressors had a negative direct effect on performance, as well as negative indirect effects on performance through strains and motivation. Challenge Stressors had a positive direct effect on performance, as well as offsetting indirect effects on performance through strains (negative) and motivation (positive). Results suggest research and practice could benefit by distinguishing among challenge and hindrance Stressors.
This study examined the relationship between pre-performance motivational states (challenge vs. threat) and subsequent performance in athletic competition. Prior to the season, college baseball and softball players imagined and gave a speech about a specific baseball/softball playing situation while cardiovascular indexes of challenge and threat were recorded. These physiological challenge/threat indexes significantly predicted athletic performance during the subsequent season, such that players who experienced challenge in the laboratory performed better relative to those who experienced threat. The implications for personnel selection and the biopsychosocial model of challenge and threat are discussed.
Many negotiations provide opportunities for integrative agreements in which parties can maximize joint gains without competing for resources in a direct win-lose fashion. However, negotiators often settle for suboptimal compromise agreements rather than search for mutually beneficial, or integrative, agreements. We hypothesized that misperceptions of the other party's interests are a primary cause of suboptimal outcomes. Two studies examined the role of social perception in negotiation and the relationship between judgment accuracy and negotiation performance. Results indicated that: most negotiators enter negotiation expecting the other party's interests to be completely opposed to their own; negotiators learn about the potential for joint gain during negotiation; most learning occurs within the first few minutes of interaction; accurate perception of the other party's interests leads to better negotiation performance; negotiators who learn about the other party's interests in the early stages of negotiation earn higher payoffs than do those who learn during the later stages of negotiation; a substantial number of negotiators fail to realize when they have interests that are completely compatible with those of the other party and settle for suboptimal agreements; and the two types of judgment error, Fixed Sum Error and Incompatibility Error, appear to be unrelated, distinct judgment errors. We discuss the role of social judgment in negotiation and the generalizability of the results to real world negotiations.
In a series of four studies, we examined whether and how negotiators’ task-related self-efficacy affects their performance. In the first two studies, we identified two theoretically meaningful self-efficacy constructs—distributive self-efficacy (DSE) and integrative self-efficacy (ISE)—and provided evidence of construct validity. In the third study, task-congruent self-efficacy was positively associated with negotiators’ self-reports of tactical decision-making. In the fourth study, we measured negotiators’ tactics and found that ISE and DSE affected negotiators’ initial choice of tactics. We conclude that ISE and DSE predisposes negotiators to select certain tactics, which then guide the course of the negotiation, and, ultimately, affect the quality of deals.
We tested the hypothesis that the positive affect of powerful negotiators shapes the quality of negotiation processes and outcomes more than the positive affect of less powerful negotiators. Findings from two studies supported the hypothesis: powerful individuals' trait positive affect was the best predictor of negotiators' trust for each other and of whether they reached integrative outcomes. Positive affect predicted joint gains above and beyond negotiators' trait cooperativeness and communicativeness. However, positive affect was unrelated to distributive outcomes; thus, there were no observed disadvantages of being positively affective.
This study tested the situational effects of goals and stress on the performance of complex tasks and on adaptation to change in the task. Difficult goals often exceed the individual's resources and thus create stress. However, stress may be appraised as either challenge or threat. Challenge is experienced when there is an opportunity for self-growth with available coping strategies, whereas threat is experienced when the situation is perceived as leading to failure with no available strategies to cope with it. We hypothesized that participants who appraised the situation as a challenge would perform better and adapt better to changes under difficult goal conditions, as compared with general goals or strategy goals. By contrast, threat appraisals would be better addressed by strategy goals rather than difficult goals. One hundred and fifty five students performed a task, which required their making predictions concerning the value of 120 companies' stocks based on three manipulated cues. We used a three by three by two factorial design in which goals, stress, and change (as a repeated factor) were varied to test the hypotheses. Results supported the main hypotheses and demonstrated that the same level of goal difficulty may lead to high or low performance and adaptation to change depending on the appraisal of the situation as challenging or threatening. The theoretical and practical implications of these findings are further discussed.
The present study investigated the influence of positive affect and visual access on the process and outcome of negotiation in an integrative bargaining task. Visual access was crossed with positive affect in a 2 × 2 design. The results supported the hypotheses that positive affect would reduce the use of contentious tactics and would increase joint benefit, just as had been found for the presence of a barrier that eliminated visual access to the other negotiator (S. Lewis & W. Fry, 1977, Organizational Behavior and Human Performance20, 75–92). This latter finding was also replicated. Only when bargainers were face to face and not in a positive state was there heavy use of contentious tactics, reduced trade-offs, and fewer integrative solutions. This means that positive affect can overcome the competitive processes and poor outcomes normally observed in face-to-face integrative bargaining. The results are discussed in terms of the cognitive dynamics of negotiation.
We examined whether the discrete, other-directed emotions of anger and compassion exert a greater influence on negotiations than mood. Drawing on cognitive appraisal theories of emotion, we specifically tested whether negotiators who felt high anger and low compassion for each other would (1) have less desire to work with each other in the future, (2) achieve fewer joint gains, and (3) successfully claim more value for themselves than negotiators who had more positive emotional regard for the other party. The results of a mixed-motive simulation experiment confirmed the first two predictions but not the last. The results confirmed that anger and compassion exerted a greater influence than mood. These findings indicate why prior advice stemming from the conflict and negotiation literature for managing anger has been counterproductive and suggest contrasting prescriptions.
Hypotheses involving mediation are common in the behavioral sciences. Mediation exists when a predictor affects a dependent variable indirectly through at least one intervening variable, or mediator. Methods to assess mediation involving multiple simultaneous mediators have received little attention in the methodological literature despite a clear need. We provide an overview of simple and multiple mediation and explore three approaches that can be used to investigate indirect processes, as well as methods for contrasting two or more mediators within a single model. We present an illustrative example, assessing and contrasting potential mediators of the relationship between the helpfulness of socialization agents and job satisfaction. We also provide SAS and SPSS macros, as well as Mplus and LISREL syntax, to facilitate the use of these methods in applications.
Participants completed anxiety and coping diaries during 10 periods that began 7 days before an academic stressor and continued through the evening after the stressor. Profile analysis was used to examine the anxiety and coping processes in relation to 2 trait anxiety grouping variables: debilitating and facilitating test anxiety (D-TA and F-TA). Anxiety and coping changed over time, and high and low levels of D-TA and F-TA were associated with different daily patterns of anxiety and coping. Participants with a debilitative, as opposed to facilitative, trait anxiety style had lower examination scores, higher anxiety, and less problem-solving coping. Covarying F-TA, high D-TA was associated with a pattern of higher levels of tension, worry, distraction, and avoidant coping, as well as lower levels of proactive coping. Covarying D-TA, high F-TA was associated with higher levels of tension (but not worry or distraction), support seeking, proactive and problem-solving coping.
Negotiators tend to believe that own and other's outcomes are diametrically opposed. When such fixed-pie perceptions (FPPs) are not revised during negotiation, integrative agreements are unlikely. It was predicted that accuracy motivation helps negotiators to release their FPPs. In 2 experiments, accuracy motivation was manipulated by (not) holding negotiators accountable for the manner in which they negotiated. Experiment 1 showed that accountability reduced FPPs during face-to-face negotiation and produced more integrative agreements. Experiment 2 corroborated these results: Accountable negotiators revised their FPPs even when information exchange was experimentally held constant. Experiment 2 also showed that accountability is effective during the encoding of outcome information. Negotiators appear flexible in their reliance on FPPs. which is consistent with a motivated information-processing model of negotiation.
Research on cognitive appraisal of stressful achievement events has emphasized threat appraisals and anxiety. The present research also focused on challenge and positive emotion. Study 1 used hypothetical scenarios of stressful events. Study 2 explored temporal pattems of appraisal and emotion prior to an exam. Compared with threat appraisals, trait and state challenge appraisals were associated with more confident coping expectancies, lower perceptions of threat, higher positive emotion, and more beneficial perceptions of the effects of appraisal and emotion on performance. Beneficial perceptions of state appraisals were associated with higher exam performance. These findings were interpreted in the context of theoretical perspectives on the cognitive appraisal of stressful events and the adaptive functions of challenge and positive emotion.
Researchers often conduct mediation analysis in order to indirectly assess the effect of a proposed cause on some outcome through a proposed mediator. The utility of mediation analysis stems from its ability to go beyond the merely descriptive to a more functional understanding of the relationships among variables. A necessary component of mediation is a statistically and practically significant indirect effect. Although mediation hypotheses are frequently explored in psychological research, formal significance tests of indirect effects are rarely conducted. After a brief overview of mediation, we argue the importance of directly testing the significance of indirect effects and provide SPSS and SAS macros that facilitate estimation of the indirect effect with a normal theory approach and a bootstrap approach to obtaining confidence intervals, as well as the traditional approach advocated by Baron and Kenny (1986). We hope that this discussion and the macros will enhance the frequency of formal mediation tests in the psychology literature. Electronic copies of these macros may be downloaded from the Psychonomic Society's Web archive at www.psychonomic.org/archive/.
This study explores the ways in which information about other individual's action affects one's own behavior in a dictator game. The experimental design discriminates behaviorally between three possible effects of recipient's within-game reputation on the dictator's decision: Reputation causing indirect reciprocity, social influence, and identification. The separation of motives is an important step in trying to understand how impulses towards selfish or generous behavior arise. The statistical analysis of experimental data reveals that the reputation effects have a stronger impact on dictators' actions than the social influence and identification.
Negotiation behavior
- D G Pruitt
Pruitt, D. G. (1981). Negotiation behavior. New York: Academic Press.