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Gender, computer experience and computer-based problem solving

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Abstract

This paper reports a study involving 65 children (31 boys and 34 girls) aged between 10 and 11, which further examined the effect of software type by comparing children's performance on a male stereotyped version of the software with their performance on a structurally identical, but female stereotyped version of the software. We found that girls performed worse than boys on both versions of the software and this effect persisted even when the effect of computer experience was removed. There was also a gender difference in the children's preference. Girls preferred the female version more than the boys and there was also a significant relationship between the girls' preferences and their performance. There was no relationship between the boys' preferences and their performance. The implications and explanations for these findings will be discussed.

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... A final issue regarding the content of educational tools is the importance of creating applications that address students' different interests. Girls' learning results were found to improve when the educational tool addressed their interests, whereas this effect was not found with boys (Joiner, Messer, Littleton, & Light, 1996). ...
... These gender differences in attitudes might have larger consequences, as girls' learning performances have been found to improve when educational tools address their interests (Joiner et al., 1996). Ease of use is particularly important for girls, as they report less ICT knowledge than boys (Volman & Van Eck, 2001) and generally show a lack of self-confidence in ICT matters (Agosto, 2001). ...
... In general, girls seemed to value more inclusive tools because of the feedback and support of self-esteem these tools provide. These results show similar patterns as those pointed out by Joiner et al. (1996) in the learning performances of boys and girls in relation to interesting subjects in educational tools. Learning performances of boys are not different whether they are interested in the subject or not, whereas girls' learning performances improve when an interesting subject is provided. ...
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The use of technology (information and communication technology, ICT) in secondary education is an important aspect of the current curriculum and of teachers' pedagogy. Learning supported by computers is supposed to be motivating for students and is, therefore, assumed to have positive effects on learning experiences and results. However, the question remains whether these motivating effects are equal for all students. Although the gender gap in the use of ICT and knowledge about it has diminished, there are still indications that the use of technology in education affects girls and boys differently. The present empirical study focuses on the relationship between the inclusiveness of educational tools and the learning experiences of girls and boys. The results show that gender scripts are embedded in educational tools, which are reinforced in classroom practice and affect learner experiences. A greater inclusiveness of the tools appears to improve the participation of students, enhances positive attitudes toward learning and technology, and improves the learning effects as reported by girls and boys. Girls especially tend to benefit from the inclusiveness of educational tools.
... Research into the effects of the inclusiveness of ICT applications on learning outcomes is even scarcer. The only example we found is the work by Joiner et al. (1996). Further, we came across publications in which detailed analyses of software or websites are presented, or in which curriculum design is the central issue (Biraimah 1993;Hodes 1996;Bigelow & Larson 1999;Furner et al. 2000). ...
... Later, several studies investigated what kinds of software girls find attractive, and software has now been developed that tries to take this into account. Joiner et al. (1996) experimentally compared the effects of different versions of software that were assumed to appeal more either to boys or to girls. They investigated the performance of girls and boys in two versions of an adventure game, namely a 'male' version with pirates and a 'female' version with princesses. ...
... Female students tend to be more interested in school subjects when they are dealt within the context of their practical International Journal of Inclusive Education 3 applications. A final issue regarding the content of educational ICT tools is the importance of creating ICT applications that address students' different interests (Joiner et al. 1996). ...
... Another important element why girls seem to be attracted to an application, according to our research results, is how interesting they find the subject. We consider this to be an important result because Joiner et al. (1996) found positive effects on girls' performance, when they could work with software they liked, a relationship that was not found in boys. Fiore (1999) formulated a number of recommendations on girls' preferences regarding software content. ...
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This paper presents the results of a study on students’ appreciation of information and communication technology (ICT) applications in schools for general secondary education. We investigate to what extent students from different gender and ethnic backgrounds appreciate various characteristics of ICT tools. The research question is, ‘How are students’ characteristics related to their appreciation of ICT tools in secondary education?’ A survey was conducted on 495 students from schools in the Netherlands. A questionnaire was developed based on the literature on cultural sensitivity and gender-inclusiveness in educational software. The results of the study firstly show that the questionnaire is an appropriate instrument for distinguishing between tools which are positively and negatively evaluated by different groups of students. Secondly, regarding group differences, the results show that girls appreciate applications that deal with an interesting subject, are easy to work with and provide good support. Different appreciations between students from different origins were found in regard to language achievements and ICT skills. The results are discussed, as well as the possible educational implications for the design and selection of ICT tools.
... Research into the effects of the inclusiveness of ICT applications on learning outcomes is even scarcer. The only example we found is the work by Joiner et al. (1996). Further, we came across publications in which detailed analyses of software or websites are presented, or in which curriculum design is the central issue (Biraimah 1993; Hodes 1996; Bigelow & Larson 1999; Furner et al. 2000). ...
... n, most research in this area focuses on gender. It was argued early on that many computer games are modelled after games typically played by boys, thus alienating girls from using the computer. Later, several studies investigated what kinds of software girls find attractive, and software has now been developed that tries to take this into account. Joiner et al. (1996) experimentally compared the effects of different versions of software that were assumed to appeal more either to boys or to girls. They investigated the performance of girls and boys in two versions of an adventure game, namely a 'male' version with pirates and a 'female' version with princesses. Girls scored less well than boys in both ...
Article
Abstract This paper presents the results of a literature review on gender, ethnic and socioeconomic status differences related to ICT in primary and secondary education. The review was conducted in order to develop an index for analysing the inclusiveness of educational ICT applications. The research question was: ‘How and to what extent do the characteristics of educational ICT tools enhance or inhibit learning for different groups of students?’ A discussion of both research- and practice-oriented literature results in a proposal for such an index. The paper concludes with a discussion of various dilemmas associated with the idea of the index, and of the ways in which it may be used in research and educational practice.
... Earlier, scholars attributed this divide to (1) underestimation of technical skills by women, leading to lower self-efficacy and confidence in using ICT (Busch, 1995;Joiner et. al., 1996) and (2) different attitudes towards computers (Shashaani, 1994). Thus, women were seen as largely technophobic (Hilbert, 2011) and technology was perceived as being gendered (Lohan and Faulkner, 2004;Puente, 2008), while ICTs were just another 'boy thing' (Faulkner, 2001). In the context of India, women were often stereotyped as inept u ...
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We explore the digital gender gap through an examination of mobile phone ownership, usage, and perceptions within the unique regional context of Kerala, India. Our analysis provides an overview of similarities and differences between women and men in the use of the Internet, mobile phones, and social media based on pre-pandemic survey data collected in 2018 from 296 households in four impoverished areas of Thiruvananthapuram. We analyse perceived advantages and disadvantages of mobile and social media use as well as their relative impacts on both men and women. The paper concludes with a discussion of the gendered implications of technology within Kerala and suggest several areas of investigation for future research.
... Sin embargo, se ha constatado que no hay diferencias de rendimiento en matemáticas (bleeker y Jacobs, 2004;brynes, 2005;Tiedemann, 2000;watt, 2005); así como tampoco en ciencias naturales (Stewart, 1998) o en informática (beyer, Rynes, Perrault, hay y haller, 2003;Coffin y MacIntrye, 1999;Fletcher-Flinn y Suddendorf, 1996). No obstante, otros estudios corroboraron que había diferencias de rendimiento en matemáticas, ciencias naturales o informática a favor de los chicos (burkam, Lee y Smerdon, 1997;Joiner, Messer, Littleton y Light, 1996;Lapan, Shaughnessy y boggs, 1996;Nagy, Trautwein, baumert, Köller y Garrett, 2006). Otros estudios confirman que las chicas puntúan más que los chicos en matemáticas (birenbaum y Nasser, 2006;Linver y Davis-Kean, 2005;Stewart, 1998), en informática (Papastergiou, 2008;Shashaani, 1997) o en ciencias naturales (britner y Pajares, 2001Pajares, , 2006Stewart, 1998). ...
Article
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Las mujeres son mayoría en todos los niveles de enseñanza; sin embargo, todavía existen diferencias en la elección de determinadas opciones académicas. En el caso de la universidad están infrarrepresentadas en los estudios científico-tecnológicos. Tomando en consideración esta situación, en el artículo realizamos un desarrollo teórico sobre las investigaciones que han analizado la influencia de las creencias de autoeficacia en la elección vocacional de las estudiantes. Estudios realizados en otros países han constatado que esta variable tiene un peso específico muy importante en dicha elección. De modo que aquellas estudiantes que se creen competentes en el dominio científico-tecnológico están más dispuestas a seleccionar carreras de esta rama, trabajan más duramente para completar las actividades con éxito y perseveran cuando se encuentran ante dificultades. Por ello, se indica que las creencias de autoeficacia son una variable relevante para explicar las elecciones académicas y el desarrollo de la carrera de las mujeres.
... However, evidence to the contrary quickly emerged, making this a more controversial than definitive claim. While there is research that has found little evidence for gender differences in communication or group outcomes [24], they are outnumbered by the those that have identified inequitable findings between females and males in group interactions [7] [42]. This research has highlighted the differences that exist in group interaction between female and male students perceptions [31], motivation [7], communication style [33], and outcomes [9]. ...
Chapter
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The availability of naturally occurring educational discourse data within educational platforms presents a golden opportunity to make advances in understanding online learner ecologies and enabling new kinds of personalized interventions focused on increasing inclusivity and equity. However, to gain a more substantive view of how peer interaction is influenced by group composition and gender, learning and computational sciences require new automated methodological approaches that will provide a deeper understanding of learners’ communication patterns and interaction dynamics across digitally-meditated group learning platforms. In the current research, we explore learners’ discourse by employing Group Communication Analysis (GCA), a computational linguistics methodology for quantifying and characterizing the discourse sociocognitive processes between learners in online interactions. The aim of this study is to use GCA to investigate the influence of gender and gender pairing on students’ intra- and interpersonal discourse processes in online environments. Students were randomly assigned to one of three groups of varying gender composition: 75% women, 50% women, or 25% women. Our results suggest that the sociocognitive discourse patterns, as captured by the GCA, reveal deeper level patterns in the way individuals interact within online environments along gender and group composition lines. The scalability of the methodology opens the door for future research efforts directed towards understanding, and creating more equitable and inclusive online peer-interactions.
... Early studies on gender gaps in internet use from industrialized countries attributed it to a combination of socio-economic differences, particularly gender gaps in income, employment and education between men and women (Ono & Zavodny, 2007;Bimber, 2000) as well as lack of confidence resulting from women underestimating their actual usage skills (Cooper, 2006;Hargittai & Shafer, 2006;Joiner, Messer, Littleton, & Light, 1996). Studies from the US and Canada have found that gender gaps have generally disappeared with increasing internet penetration (DiMaggio et al., 2004;Haight et al., 2014), and there is ''some support at the macro level that the gender divide moves in the same direction with overall internet penetration" (Hafkin & Huyer, 2007, p. 35). ...
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Gender equality in access to the internet and mobile phones has become increasingly recognised as a development goal. Monitoring progress towards this goal however is challenging due to the limited availability of gender-disaggregated data, particularly in low-income countries. In this data sparse context, we examine the potential of a source of digital trace ‘big data’ – Facebook’s advertisement audience estimates – that provides aggregate data on Facebook users by demographic characteristics covering the platform’s over 2 billion users to measure and ‘nowcast’ digital gender gaps. We generate a unique country-level dataset combining ‘online’ indicators of Facebook users by gender, age and device type, ‘offline’ indicators related to a country’s overall development and gender gaps, and official data on gender gaps in internet and mobile access where available. Using this dataset, we predict internet and mobile phone gender gaps from official data using online indicators, as well as online and offline indicators. We find that the online Facebook gender gap indicators are highly correlated with official statistics on internet and mobile phone gender gaps. For internet gender gaps, models using Facebook data do better than those using offline indicators alone. Models combining online and offline variables however have the highest predictive power. Our approach demonstrates the feasibility of using Facebook data for real-time tracking of digital gender gaps. It enables us to improve geographical coverage for an important development indicator, with the biggest gains made for low-income countries for which existing data are most limited.
... The overall similarities in changes between the student groups further supports the finding that having a learning disability is not related to how students view computers. Of note, there have been a number of studies of differences in computer attitudes based on gender, including studies of school-aged students [33][34][35][36]. This is despite the fact that in public schools, students are not typically grouped for instruction by gender, but are often grouped according to special needs like disabilities. ...
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Little research exists regarding the use of computers among students with learning disabilities. This study investigated the attitudes and opinions of students with and without learning disabilities regarding the use of computers for school-related work. Using a quasi-experimental design with three non-equivalent groups, within and between subjects effects were studied using a survey instrument. The students, in grades five through twelve, at three school sites, completed pre-and post-test computer use and attitude surveys at the beginning and end of the school year. One site served as the "treatment" group, while the other two were comparison groups. At the beginning of the school year a campus-wide computer network for use by all students was installed at one of the schools. The survey results indicated that students at the school with new computers did not exhibit better attitudes toward computers than the students at the other schools. Furthermore, there were no differences in computer use or attitudes across students with and without learning disabilities. There were also no differences in the factors predictive of attitudes toward computers (prior computer skills, use of games, frequency of use) across students with and without learning disabilities. The results support the notion that students with disabilities could be successfully included in computer-based instruction in general education classrooms.
... 1980s: images were examined in computer magazines, female representations in school books and journals Very few women were featured in text and images (journals, teaching material, software), they appeared in stereotypical roles (secretary, assistant) 1990s: careful analysis of gender stereotypical roles, women as well as non-whites and non-Anglo-American characters were depicted less frequently and in passive stereotypical roles(Brownell 1992) Research proposals: consideration of socio-cultural context, of software design (games etc. to attract the interest of girls and minority groups) (Joiner et al. 1996 ...
... Littleton, Light, Joiner, Messer, and Barnes (1992, United Kingdom, primary education) found that gender differences in performance in a computer game disappeared when the masculine stereotyping in that game was reduced. In a follow-up study they investigated the performance of girls and boys in two variations of an adventure game (Joiner, Messer, Littleton, & Light, 1996). Two versions of the game were developed, a "male" version with pirates and a "female" version with princesses. ...
Article
This article presents a review on gender differences and information and communication technology (ICT) in primary and secondary education. First the rapid development of the use of ICT in education is outlined. Then the topics of access to computers, computer-related learning processes, and educational outcomes are discussed. The review also provides insight into the background of gender differences in participation in computer activities and performance in relation to ICT. The research reviewed focused on the role of teachers and fellow classmates, on the different approaches of girls and boys to ICT, and on the preferences of girls regarding the structure and design of software. The research also analyzed the complex meaning of computer attitudes as both a cause and a consequence of differences in the participation and performance of girls and boys. The extent and nature of these differences vary from application to application.
... Littleton, Light, Joiner, Messer, and Barnes (1992, United Kingdom, primary education) found that gender differences in performance in a computer game disappeared when the masculine stereotyping in that game was reduced. In a follow-up study they investigated the performance of girls and boys in two variations of an adventure game (Joiner, Messer, Littleton, & Light, 1996). Two versions of the game were developed, a "male" version with pirates and a "female" version with princesses. ...
... In addition, gender differences in attitudes toward computers have been widely reported, with males having a more positive attitude (e.g. Comber, Colley, Hargreaves, & Dorn, 1997;Griswold, 1983;Jacobson, 1991;Joiner, Messer, Littleton, & Light, 1996;Rosen et al., 1987). None of the studies listed above directly consider the possible impacts of attitudes toward computers on reading from a computer screen. ...
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ABSTRACT Previous research that examines reading differences between paper and computer has focused upon performance outcomes, such as reading speed and recall. Until now, no research has examined,whether display medium,might influence reader judgements of a text document. The present study addressed whether reader judgements of text quality and credibility would be systematically different between paper and computer. The primary hypothesis was that reading from computers would produce negative quality and credibility judgements,relative to paper. Two secondary hypotheses were: (a) differences in judgements between the two media would be positively correlated with emotional response; (b) emotional response would be influenced by attitudes toward computers and computer,experience. Emotional responses can exert a congruent influence on judgments; features of computer displays for reading, such as glare, body position, and navigation complexity could provoke a negative emotional response for computers relative to paper, and might have a negative impact on judgements of documents presented on a computer. In addition, negative attitudes toward computers or low computer experience might contribute to a negative emotional response from simply using a computer. Two replications of a controlled experiment were conducted, first using senior-year high school students from a boys’ school, followed by students from a girls’ school of a similar age
... Webster, 1989). Research in children's engagement with computers has suggested that significant differences between how boys and girls perform on problem-solving tasks may be due to differences in the levels of experience each group has with using software (Joiner, Messer, Littleton, & Light, 1996;Light, Littleton, Bale, Joiner, & Messer, 2000). ...
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760 children aged 8 to 12 years old composed 1,696 short melodies using a computer-based software application. As well as providing an appropriate composing environment, the software maintained a detail event-driven log of all user interactions. Session logs were used as the basis of a detailed behavioural analysis of children's composing processes, exploring the influence of three variables (age, task familiarity and formal instrumental music tuition) on composing processes. Results suggested that older children tended to engage in less exploratory composing behaviour in comparison to younger participants, such as listening to their emerging melodies or trying out different notes. Participants receiving formal instrumental music tuition were far less likely to use the exploratory functions of the software in comparison to their non-expert peers. Older children worked faster than younger children, and were more efficient in their use of the software functions. Increased familiarity with the software was accompanied by greater speed in interaction, regardless of instrumental expertise. Implications for music composition pedagogy and future research in musical creativity are discussed.
... Researchers claimed that those gender-specific differences had their origins in the fact that women underestimated their actual usage skills, which lead to lower self-efficacy to use ICT (Busch, 1995; Joiner, et.al, 1996; Hargittai and Shafer, 2006), as well as in their general attitudes toward computers (Shashaani, 1994). It was concluded that ―men are more interested in technology than women, and they are also more tech savvy‖ (Fallows, 2005: 5). ...
Article
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The discussion about women’s access to and use of digital Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) in developing countries has been inconclusive so far. Some claim that women are rather technophobic and that men are much better users of digital tools, while others argue that women enthusiastically embrace digital communication. This article puts this question to an empirical test. We analyze data sets from 12 Latin American and 13 African countries from 2005-08. This is believed to be the most extensive empirical study in this field so far. The results are surprisingly consistent and revealing: the reason why fewer women access and use ICT is a direct result of their unfavorable conditions with respect to employment, education and income. When controlling for these variables, women turn out to be more active users of digital tools than men. This turns the alleged digital gender divide into an opportunity: given women’s affinity for ICT, and given that digital technologies are tools that can improve living conditions, ICT represent a concrete and tangible opportunity to tackle longstanding challenges of gender inequalities in developing countries, including access to employment, income, education and health services.
... While boys may be unaffected by task format and context, girls are considerably more sensitive to even slight changes; Littleton et al. found that girls engaged much better with a planning task involving 'Honeybears' than the same task with 'King's men and pirates' as characters. In a later study, girls preferred a female stereotyped version of the software ('Princesses') and performed better with it, whereas boys were motivated regardless of the software (Joiner et al., 1996). The authors concluded that software should be designed for girls. ...
Article
This article begins by reviewing the relevant research literature concerning the portable revolution in education. It outlines the advantages and disadvantages of portable forms of technology, with an emphasis on their potential impact upon student learning and attitudes. (The focus is on mathematics as far as possible, but writing is touched upon too as it is the main use for computers in school and hence the subject of much research.) A detailed discussion is then undertaken of the research on students' understanding of graphing and studies with graphic calculators and portable computers. We also discuss the related trend towards investigative learning in mathematics, the use of 'real world' activities, issues concerning collaborative use of portable computers and research on relevant gender issues. The review concludes that portable graphing technologies present an important opportunity to help students develop understanding and skills in the traditionally difficult curriculum area of graphing.
... While boys may be unaffected by task format and context, girls are considerably more sensitive to even slight changes; Littleton et al. found that girls engaged much better with a planning task involving 'Honeybears' than the same task with 'King's men and pirates' as characters. In a later study, girls preferred a female stereotyped version of the software ('Princesses') and performed better with it, whereas boys were motivated regardless of the software (Joiner et al., 1996). The authors concluded that software should be designed for girls. ...
Article
The PIGMI (Portable Information Technologies for supporting Graphical Mathematics Investigations) Project investigated the role of portable technologies in facilitating development of students' graphing skills and concepts. This paper examines the impact of a recent shift towards calculating and computing tools as increasingly accessible, everyday technologies on the nature of learning in a traditionally difficult curriculum area. The paper focuses on the use of graphic calculators by undergraduates taking an innovative new mathematics course at the Open University. A questionnaire survey of both students and tutors was employed to investigate perceptions of the graphic calculator and the features which facilitate graphing and linking between representations. Key features included visualization of functions, immediate feedback and rapid graph plotting. A follow-up observational case study of a pair of students illustrated how the calculator can shape mathematical activity, serving a catalytic, facilitating and checking role. The features of technology-based activities which can structure and support collaborative problem solving were also examined. In sum, the graphic calculator technology acted as a critical mediator in both the students' collaboration and in their problem solving. The pedagogic implications of using portables are considered, including the tension between using and over-using portables to support mathematical activity.
... Many girls are put off by computers because of violent and immature games, with girls adopting an attitude of 'we can but we won't' [19]. Girls have strong preferences to the type of software they are using and this means that unless they like the software they lose interest and their performance drops [10]. Socialisation is also important with parents and teachers considering learning tools to be for males' [22]. ...
Article
UK government policies are heralding the use of ICT’s in education with the hope that on-line learning will bring skill development attractive to industry and improved employment opportunities for today’s learners. One feature of this is increasing the use of technology in teaching and learning across the curriculum. In this atmosphere of euphoria and expectation, is this opportunity for all or just a few? There has been little empirical work on the gender impact of using technology in education. This paper takes a case study approach and critically evaluates an on-line course developed for IT undergraduate students at the University of Salford, as part of a major flexible learning initiative. Our research raises many questions. Why should women students be motivated to learn using technology? Previous studies have suggested that boys show a marked improvement when using educational technology to support their learning. For girls the results are much less clear. In this context we questioned the gender impact of an increased use of technology in the teaching and learning process. We investigated the gender divide in attitudes, and effects on learning outcomes, within the initiative. We also discuss our evaluation methodology that included gender impact elements and suggest ways in which to create a woman-friendly on-line learning environment.
Chapter
With a view to understanding the changes taking place, studying their impact, and identifying potential opportunities for achieving gender equality, the chapter aims to look at women in the labour market and at the gender digital divide. It discusses the structural change for equality in the information and knowledge society and analyses women's autonomy in the new technology paradigm. It provides four different gendered perspectives to understand women in the labour market in the era of technological development. A gendered perspective on new forms of employment highlights how job markets can be opened up in new and inclusive ways to women. The chapter discusses that if the digital gap is bridged, then it can provide new sources of global economic growth.
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Compelling reasons fuel enthusiasm about the potential of games for learning on the part of learning scholars, teachers, and game designers. The chapters in this volume portray games for entertainment as fun, appealing, and important, yet complicated -- an alluring colorful rose garden, complete with thorny gender issues. In this chapter we consider whether games for learning are experienced differently by girls and boys in the classroom, compare the impacts of different in-game reward structures on male and female players in Life Preservers (a game we designed to teach about adaptation and evolution), and offer considerations for learning game design and deployment. Engaging games tend to embody great pedagogy (Gee, 2003). Players problem-solve through trial and error, think strategically and build implicit knowledge about the game. A constant cycle of progressive challenge involving action, feedback, and reaction according to the constraints of the rules helps drive the learning and engagement that occurs during games. What happens to the intended pedagogical model, though, if a player in a learning game struggles to figure out how to play, doesn’t want to shoot the sea monsters who keep interrupting her as she collects undersea specimens, feels incompetent rather than empowered, and is not so sure she wants to earn a higher score than her best friend?
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Considering e-learning as a socio-cultural system acknowledges that individuals are embedded within different contexts, influenced by the culture and the society the individual lives in. Designing beneficial e-learning scenarios means respecting these socio-cultural contexts and providing appropriate framing. This chapter introduces several aspects influencing e-learning from an individual and socio-cultural perspective. It firstly deals with the aspect of learners' collaborative knowledge construction in e-learning and introduces what this perspective means for the design and implementation of e-learning scenarios. The chapter looks at tools and shared external representations and shows how they can beneficially support learning processes and outcomes. In a third step, it looks at the individual's learning characteristics, for example an individual's prior knowledge, and socio-cultural biases relating to gender, ethnicity, and socio economic background, and discusses how these may be an obstacle for e-learning and how e-learning may help learners to overcome their biases. Finally, the chapter focuses on the issue on evaluation and provides suggestions to evaluate environments for e-learning from a socio-cultural perspective.
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Computer-assisted learning, including simulated experiments, has great potential to address the problem solving process which is a complex activity. It requires a highly structured approach in order to understand the use of simulations as an instructional device. This study is based on a computer simulation program, 'The Growth Curve of Microorganisms', which required tenth grade biology students to use problem solving skills whilst simultaneously manipulating three independent variables in one simulated experiment. The aims were to investigate the computer simulation's impact on students' academic achievement and on their mastery of science process skills in relation to their cognitive stages. The results indicate that the concrete and transition operational students in the experimental group achieved significantly higher academic achievement than their counterparts in the control group. The higher the cognitive operational stage, the higher students' achievement was, except in the control group where students in the concrete and transition operational stages did not differ. Girls achieved equally with the boys in the experimental group. Students' academic achievement may indicate the potential impact a computer simulation program can have, enabling students with low reasoning abilities to cope successfully with learning concepts and principles in science which require high cognitive skills.
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The study examined the effects of gender, expectations of success and social comparison on children's performance on a computer‐based task. The children (32 boys and 30 girls) were aged between 10 and 11 and were randomly allocated to either a high‐expectation group or a low‐expectation group and to one of two conditions either an individual condition or a social comparison condition. Children worked on their own in the individual condition. In the social comparison condition, they worked in the presence of three same‐sex peers, who were working on comparable problems. The presence of comparable others facilitated the performance of girls who had high expectations of success, but was detrimental to the performance of girls with low expectations of success. The presence of comparable others had the opposite effect for boys. The implications of these findings for the use of computers in schools are discussed.
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From all corners of the globe, the on-line revolution is proclaimed. The imperative is to connect; to shop, work, learn, be governed, even fall in love on-line. Government initiatives proliferate globally, stressing the urgency for citizens to become part of the so called Information Society. In the midst of all this euphoria the question must be raised 'Is this opportunity for all, or just a few?' Information and Communication Technologies (ICT's) are being introduced to the teaching and learning process at an increasing pace. E-government ministers are particularly concerned about the 'have-nets' and 'have-nots' in this 'digital revolution' (e.g. see www.UKonline). Our research in schools and the HE (Higher Education) sector, looking at women learning on-line, has indicated barriers. We discuss how gendered relations in the home, work and education go far beyond having access to IT (Information Technology). We illustrate how these relations contribute to the shaping of the gendered experiences of using technology in education. So whilst women are urged to get connected, we ask whether or not they will want to use technology as a tool to learn with. We suggest that the current gendered discourse surrounding technology and its use in all areas of society should inform government on-line learning policies globally, cutting through the euphoric hype.
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The paper shows how international foresight exercises, through online and offline tools, can make policy-making in developing countries more participatory, fostering transparency and accountability of public decision-making. A five-round Delphi exercise (with 1454 contributions), based on the priorities of the 2005-2007 Latin American and Caribbean Action Plan for the Information Society (eLAC2007), was implemented. This exercise aimed at identifying future priorities that offered input into the inter-governmental negotiation of a 2008-2010 Action Plan (eLAC2010). It is believed to be the most extensive online participatory policy-making foresight exercise in the history of intergovernmental processes in the developing world to date. In addition to the specific policy guidance provided, the major lessons learned include (1) the potential of Policy Delphi methods to introduce transparency and accountability into public decision-making, especially in developing countries; (2) the utility of foresight exe
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Previous studies have found that gender differences in computer-based problem solving can be ameliorated by changes in the software content. A study is reported in this paper which tests the hypothesis that this finding can be explained in terms of gender differences in software engagement. The children (16 boys and 16 girls) were aged between 10 and 11 and were shown four versions of the same computer-based problem: a male stereotyped version (the Pirates); a female stereotyped version (the Princesses); a gender neutral version (the Honeybears) and an abstract version (Blocksworld). The boys preferred the Pirates significantly more than the Princesses. There was no significant differences in the girls’ preference for either the Honeybears, the Pirates or the Princesses. Although these findings do not support the hypothesis, they are consistent with research concerned with the effects of gender stereotyping on children’s toy selections.
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Based on the theory of the diffusion of innovations through social networks, the article discuses the main approaches researchers have taken to conceptualize the digital divide. The result is a common framework, which points to different approaches regarding the selected types of technologies (e.g. phones, Internet, digital-TV); the level of analysis (e.g. divide between individuals vs. countries); the diverse attributes of the chosen subjects (e.g. income, education, geography, age, etc); and considerations of the level of digital sophistication (mere access, actual usage or impact). The article shows that the definition affects the respective policy responsibility, which has political, but also budgetary implications. The case of Chile is analyzed to show that the country’s access-oriented Telecommunications Development Fund only represents 3% of the government’s annual expenditure on ICT and related projects. Defining the digital divide in terms that go beyond mere access implies to set up a coherent, horizontal and decentralized strategy that draws from resources and competencies of the entire public sector.
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In this article, we report the observed differential uptake and use of computer programs and activities of seven boys and girls of high, medium and low attainment in a classroom in the UK where over 40 children aged 10 and 11 have a networked PC on their desk all day and every day. We observed the detail of what happened in the small space between the pupil and the screen over the period of 1 year in the social and instructional context of the classroom. We found interesting individual differences superseding the expected variation based on gender and attainment. We suggest some possible ‘within child’ and external factors which may contribute to these differences and consider some of the implications for teaching and learning through ICT and the need for further research to investigate the nature of these differences.
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The digital divide is conventionally measured in terms of information and communication technology (ICT) equipment diffusion, which comes down to counting the number of computers or phones, among other devices. This article fine-tunes these approximations by estimating the amount of digital information that is stored, communicated, and computed by these devices. The installed stock of ICT equipment in the consumer segment is multiplied with its corresponding technological performance, resulting in the “installed technological capacity” for storage (in bits), bandwidth (in bits per second), and computational power (in computations per second). This leads to new insights. Despite the rapidly decreasing digital equipment divide, there is an increasing gap in terms of information-processing capacity. It is shown that in 1996 the average inhabitant of the industrialized countries of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) had a capacity of 49 kibps more than its counterpart from Latin America and the Caribbean. Ten years later, this gap widened to 577 kibps per inhabitant. This innovative approach toward the quantification of the digital divide leads to numerous new challenges for the research agenda.
Article
The aim of the study is to investigate the influence of gender and gender pairing on students’ learning performances and knowledge elaboration processes in Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning (CSCL). A sample of ninety-six secondary school students, participated in a two-week experiment. Students were randomly paired and asked to solve several moderately structured problems concerning Newtonian mechanics. Students’ pretest and posttest performances were analyzed to see whether students’ gender and the gender pairing (mixed or single-gender) were significant factors in their problem solving learning in CSCL. Students’ online interactions were also analyzed to unravel the dynamic process of individual knowledge elaboration. The multilevel analyses revealed that a divergent pattern of knowledge elaboration was a significant predictor for students’ learning achievement, and in mixed-gender dyads students’ knowledge elaboration processes were more inclined to diverge from each other. Moreover, females in single-gender dyads significantly outperformed females in mixed-gender dyads. But this was not the case for male students.
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We estimated the world’s technological capacity to store, communicate, and compute information, tracking 60 analog and digital technologies during the period from 1986 to 2007. In 2007, humankind was able to store 2.9 × 1020 optimally compressed bytes, communicate almost 2 × 1021 bytes, and carry out 6.4 × 1018 instructions per second on general-purpose computers. General-purpose computing capacity grew at an annual rate of 58%. The world’s capacity for bidirectional telecommunication grew at 28% per year, closely followed by the increase in globally stored information (23%). Humankind’s capacity for unidirectional information diffusion through broadcasting channels has experienced comparatively modest annual growth (6%). Telecommunication has been dominated by digital technologies since 1990 (99.9% in digital format in 2007), and the majority of our technological memory has been in digital format since the early 2000s (94% digital in 2007).
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Summary The article presents a model that shows how income structures create diffusion patterns of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs). The model allows the creation of scenarios for potential cuts in access prices and/or required subsidies for household spending in Mexico, Uruguay, Brazil, and Costa Rica. One analyzed scenario would require the reduction of ICT prices to as low as 4% of the current price levels (to US$ 0.75 per month), or alternatively, a subsidy as high as 6.2% of GDP (a figure comparable to public spending on education plus health). This is the income reality of the poor. Neither existing technological solutions nor existing financial mechanisms are sufficient to cope with this economic reality. The alternatives, such as a prolonged period of public access, are discussed.
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The tryptic FAD-peptide carrying the flavin in 8alpha-(N3)histidyl linkage as natural hapten was isolated by HPLC from the bacterial enzyme 6-hydroxy-d-nicotine oxidase. The same flavin protein linkage is found in the mitochondrial succinate dehydrogenase flavoprotein subunit, the predominant flavoprotein with covalently bound FAD in mitochondria of cardiomyocytes. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) were isolated from four patients with acute myocarditis, seven patients with dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) and from four healthy control individuals. The response of PBMC to the FAD-peptide was evaluated by measuring proliferation ([3H]-dThd incorporation) and cytokine secretion [interferon (IFN)-gamma]. PBMC from all patients with acute myocarditis showed positive responses to the FAD-peptide, in contrast to PBMC from patients with DCM or control individuals. Following the recovery of the patients from the acute inflammation of the heart, PBMC no longer exhibited a proliferation response to the FAD-peptide. A chemically synthesized FAD-free peptide with identical amino acid sequence induced no response of PBMC. The results are consistent with a recall response by activated T cells, specific for the normally cryptic mitochondrial flavin-hapten, which may be liberated following cardiomyocyte destruction during the inflammation of the heart.
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A gender and race/ethnicity gap exists both m computer experience and computer attitudes. The fact that computer-related activities are seen as white and male may influence and discourage women and minorities from making an academic commitment to careers for which high-technology skills are essential. Through these societal perceptions of computers as white and male, and through related instructional biases in our schools, we may be creating a technological underclass. To understand these differences and to help to try to alleviate them, this study was designed to determine how individuals' attitudes toward computing differ, what roles computers play in their lives, and what issues negatively affect their participation and attitudes. A questionnaire was administered to students at a large public urban university. We found that (i) men have more computer experience, (2) men have more favorable attitudes toward computers—women had significantly less favorable attitude scores, (3) persons of different races or ethnicities have differing computer experience—whites had the most years of experience, Hispanics had the fewest years of experience; (4) attitudes toward computing differ by race and ethnicity Several implications for instruction are drawn from the results. Keywords computers, attitudes toward computing, race/ethnicity differences, gender differences, computing experience.
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Investigated whether sex differences in reading comprehension are affected by variations in the interest level of the material. 49 male and 38 female 5th graders' interests were assessed using a picture-rating technique. Each child then read material that corresponded to his or her high- and low-interest areas. The cloze procedure was used to measure comprehension. Results indicate that boys read as well as girls on high-interest material but that they were significantly poorer readers of low-interest material. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Article
Formally equivalent subjective and objective versions of a prolog relational database resource were developed, and two experiments compared the effects of working with these on fourteen- to fifteen-year-old children's attitudes to computers. Both experiments involved a simulated project on pop records. In each experiment, use of a subjective (preference/opinion data) version of the resource was associated with greater attitudinal gains than use of an objective (public/verifiable data) version. With girls and boys equated on initial (relatively low) attitude scores, the effect of database type did not differ between sexes. In the second (repeated measures) experiment, a forced-choice behavioral measure confirmed a preference for the subjective version of the resource. Educational implications of the obtained effects are discussed.
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This article discusses the findings of a research project concerning gender differences in computing in secondary schools, funded by the Equal Opportunities Commission. The research examined the organisation and teaching of computing in secondary schools, assessing the extent and nature of gender differences in participation in computing activities and examined teacher attitudes to girls and computing. The article outlines the main findings of the research and includes a series of recommendations for action by schools.
Article
Teachers have expressed a preference for group work over individual work in an earlier survey of the social organization of the computer‐based classroom, and in a variety of activities a group facilitation effect has been observed. Mixed‐gender groups are reported to be preferred over single‐gender groups. However, girls tend to be dominated by boys in computer‐based tasks which require co‐operative work, even though girls have no disadvantages in these tasks when tested individually or in single‐gender groups. The present experiment observed the performance of three types of pairings in an upper primary school — boys with boys, girls with girls and boys with girls — on a task involving the completion of a short piece of text from which certain letters had been deleted. The task required the co‐operative use of the computer keyboard, and the experiment asked whether there would be gender differences in the success with which the task was completed, in comparison with the same children working individually.Four measures of performance gave consistent results: both types of single‐gender pairs improved in comparison with individuals working alone, but mixed‐gender pairs did not. There were no gender differences in performance other than this effect of groups. Informal observations of group organization suggested that single‐gender pairs tended to share the components of the task and to discuss possible solutions, whereas the mixed‐gender pairs tended to separate the task components and to work on each other's instructions. On the basis of this small‐scale experiment, it is suggested that if group facilitation effects are to be seen in mixed‐gender groups, then cross‐gender discussion and negotiation will need to be encouraged.
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This research examines gender and ethnic group differences in 171 high school students' computer attitudes and computer attributions. Preliminary data analyses indicated no gender or ethnic group differences in semesters of high school computer courses completed, including those currently enrolled in, or in semesters of planned enrollment in high school computer courses. The data were analyzed using four MANOVAs, and the results indicated no significant differences in the eight measures of computer attributions due to ethnic group membership. However, significant differences due to gender were found. The results indicated that compared to male high school students, female students made attributions related to computers and had computer attitudes that were generally less likely to motivate them to study and use computers. Furthermore, the ethnic minority high school students also had less positive computer attitudes than did the White students.
Article
This study examines gender differences in computer attitudes and experiences of adolescents. A sample of students from five Bay Area high schools was surveyed for their uses of computers before and during their high school years, in both formal instruction and informal settings. Adolescent males had greater total exposure to computers, based primarily on higher enrollments in computer programming classes and participation in voluntary experiences, such as home computer use. Fewer gender differences were found in enrollment in classes using computers for purposes other than programming. Overall, males held more positive attitudes of interest in and confidence with computers than did females. Controlling for amount of computer experience, however, males and females responded with similar levels of interest. Social influences, especially those among peer groups, are explored as important factors for differential rates of participation in computer activities.
Article
The development of a Likert-type scale for measuring children's attitudes to computers is described. Items sampled from six independently constructed scales were combined in a pilot scale which was administered to 59 secondary schoolgirls. Item analysis of the data justified retention of 20 of the original items. The final version of the scale was administered to 358 secondary 3 boys and girls, and was shown to discriminate effectively between boys and girls and between children who had and had not opted for computing courses for which they were eligible. The internal consistency (coefficient alpha) of the scale was 0.82. Additional evidence relating to the concurrent and construct validity of the scale is presented. In particular, the scale is shown to be sufficiently sensitive to record differing degrees of attitude change resulting from experimental manipulation of microcomputing experience.
Article
Whether gender differences in performance using computer software are due to sex stereotyping or gender differentiation in the programs was investigated in two studies. An adventure game, "King and Crown," with all male characters, and a gender neutral game, "Honeybears," were played by 26 female and 26 male 11- and 12-year-olds in Milton Keynes (United Kingdom). Both games were essentially route-planning tasks with similar features. In a second study, a new version of "King and Crown," called "Pirates," was compared to "Honeybears" in a study with 24 female and 24 male 11- and 12-year-olds in Milton Keynes. Considered together, results of these studies provide a clear illustration of the way characteristics of the software can exert an effect on the performance of girls. While the performance of boys was relatively unaffected by the software, that of girls was far superior when playing "Honeybears." Further studies will examine the expressed preferences of boys and girls for the two games. (SLD)
Article
In previous experiments we have found that co‐operative working around a computer leads to performance gains, but that not all groups benefit equally. Specifically, we have found that mixed gender pairings have shown the least benefit of co‐operative working and we hypothesised that this was due to the nature of the interaction within these groups. The present experiment attempted to identify the specific components of co‐operative discussion that are associated with variations in performance. A Cloze task and a spatial programming task were used to observe gender pair differences in performance and discussion. Programming generated more co‐operation than did the Cloze task, and pairs of boys were especially reluctant to share the Cloze task. Analyses of dialogues indicated more positive socio‐emotional comments during programming than during the Cloze task, and there were also differences in problem‐focused informative statements between tasks. Programming elicited more suggestions of answers and also more negative socio‐emotional comments, while the Cloze task elicited more analysis and evaluation. These analytic comments were particularly frequent in discussions between girls.
Article
Assigned 36 children (aged 9–10 yrs) to take part in a computer-language task 3 times: 1st while working alone, then as a member of a pair, and again while working alone. Pairs were boy–boy, boy–girl, or girl–girl pairs; half of the pairs were instructed to cooperate, and half were asked not to cooperate on the task. Performance measures and informal observations show that work on the computer task produced a disadvantage for gender-mixed pairs and a general improvement in performance for pairs instructed to cooperate. Instructions to cooperate had the least effect on the performance of the mixed pairs, and had a limited effect on pairs of girls. While girls tended to cooperate whether instructed to do so or not, mixed pairs showed little evidence of cooperative working. Pairs of boys showed the greatest gains on measures of keyboard activity and problem-solving effectiveness when organized in cooperative pairs. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Article
Abstract While there has been considerable attention given to gender differences in the use of computers both at school and at home, relatively little has been published about the types of use teenagers make of computers. This paper reports findings about usage from a sample of 1747 14–18 year olds. The data suggest that while games playing is by far the most popular use, it may serve an interest maintenance function that facilitates progression on to more complete use of computer facilities and the learning of programming languages. The implications of these findings for educational practice are discussed.
Article
Abstract  A survey was conducted in Hertfordshire to provide information about microcomputer use both in school and at home. All schools were found to possess microcomputers but only a limited number of pupils reported using the machines. The extent and type of use was found to be affected by gender, access to a home computer, experience, and competence. The survey included a measure of programming competence and factors that influenced this were investigated. Able programmers were frequently found to be male and to have access to home computers.
Article
This paper reports an experimental study in which one hundred and twenty 11 and 12 year olds worked on a computer based problem solving task couched in an adventure game format. Previous results with this type of task (Blaye, Light, Joiner, & Sheldon, 1991) indicated marked facilitative effects of working in pairs, both on children’s paired performance and on their subsequent individual performance. In this study all children were pre-and post-tested individually. For the intervening practice session subjects were assigned at random to work alone or in single- or mixed-gender pairs. Pairs showed a significant advantage over individuals, but this advantage was not carried over to individual post-test. Gender differences were also attenuated relative to previous results. The findings are interpreted in terms of detailed characteristics of the experimental design (in particular the presence of other children even in the ‘individual’ condition) and reduction of gender stereotyping in the software.
Article
An attitude to computers scale for primary age children was piloted and revised following item analysis. The final questionnaire, which yielded scores on the full scale and three sub-scales (fun, ease of use, usefulness), was completed by 721 children in the P3, P5 and P7 classes of 10 randomly selected local schools. A scale was also administered to the teachers of these classes. Except on the ease of use sub-scale, boys had more favourable attitudes than girls, the difference being unaffected by primary level. There was no overall age effect, except on the fun sub-scale on which scores decreased over primary levels, but there was an interaction between primary level and school. Pupil-teacher attitudes were positively correlated, except at the P3 level, where they were unrelated. Attitudes of neither pupils nor teachers were related to school ethos ratings, but both correlated negatively with a deprivation index (percent of children receiving free school meals).
Article
The present study was designed to investigate the attitudes of secondary school students towards computers. Approximately 1750 ninth and twelfth grade students from five different school districts in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, participated in the survey. A significant sex difference in attitudes towards computers was observed. Although both males and females alike were aware of the value and benefits of computers in daily life, girls showed less interest in learning about and using computers. Male and female differences were mostly realized with respect to self-confidence in using computers. Girls reported fear of using computers and feeling helpless around computers. Nevertheless females strongly showed that women have equal competencies in computer use. The results also revealed a strong relationship between students' computer attitudes and their perception of their parents' attitude toward computers. The statistical analysis supported the hypothesis that the differences in attitude (interest, confidence and stereotyping) about computers among girls and boys are significant and reflect gender-role socialization.
Article
This paper reports a study in which 66 eleven and twelve year old children worked in boy-boy, girl-boy or girl-girl pairs on a novel problem-solving task on a computer. All were post-tested a week later individually, using a slight variant of the same task. Interaction in the pairs was analyzed from videotape in terms of verbally explicit planning, negotiation, etc. These interaction variables were examined in relation to the levels of success attained both as a pair and at individual post-test. Significant though fairly modest levels of correlation were obtained. Analysis also focussed on the issue of gender. The different gender pairings did produce different patterns of interaction (with, for example, marked dominance patterns in the mixed pairs), but the substantial advantage of boys over girls in terms of final performance turned out to be largely independent both of pair type and of the verbal interactional measures used.
Article
During the past decade there has been an increase in computing courses in higher education in the United Kingdom, but the number of women participating has fallen steadily. The nature and image of academic computing is examined, with reference to the mathematization of the syllabus in contrast with the linguistic approach of earlier years, the mechanistic view of computing, and the absence of discussion of social, political, ethical, and legal issues. The decline in numbers has been marked as a problem by teachers and government, particularly in the context of vacancies in the computing industry. Responses include “taster” courses for schoolgirls, with the short-term aim of getting more women onto computing courses, and the establishment of a national coordinating body for Women into Computing. Teachers should respond by reviewing the method and content of their teaching, particularly in order to include material on the social and political nature of the use of computers. Without such changes it may remain difficult to attract women in to computing courses.
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