Article

Food for thought: Risks of non-native species transfer to the Antarctic region with fresh produce

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Abstract

To understand fully the risk of biological invasions, it is necessary to quantify propagule pressure along all introduction pathways. In the Antarctic region, importation of fresh produce is a potentially high risk, but as yet unquantified pathway. To address this knowledge gap, >11,250 fruit and vegetables sent to nine research stations in Antarctica and the sub-Antarctic islands, were examined for associated soil, invertebrates and microbial decomposition. Fifty-one food types were sourced from c. 130 locations dispersed across all six of the Earth’s inhabited continents. On average, 12% of food items had soil on their surface, 28% showed microbial infection resulting in rot and more than 56 invertebrates were recorded, mainly from leafy produce. Approximately 30% of identified fungi sampled from infected foods were not recorded previously from within the Antarctic region, although this may reflect limited knowledge of Antarctic fungal diversity. The number of non-native flying invertebrates caught within the Rothera Research Station food storage area was linked closely with the level of fresh food resupply by ship and aircraft. We conclude by presenting practical biosecurity measures to reduce the risk of non-native species introductions to Antarctica associated with fresh foods.

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... Antarctica was the last continent to be touched by the direct influence of humans, with the first people landing in 1819 and the first overwintering in 1897/1898 (Headland, 2009). The region's isolation and extreme climate have limited the level of human activity, in contrast to the other continents where humans have been present for tens of thousands of years at least, and large population migrations have occurred (Hughes et al., 2006(Hughes et al., , 2011aHeadland, 2009). As a result of the brief and limited influence of humans on the region, relatively few non-native species have been deliberately or inadvertently introduced to Antarctica, with the majority of those that have become established occurring on the sub-Antarctic islands (Frenot et al., 2005;Convey, 2008;Convey and Lebouvier, 2009;Hughes and Convey, 2012;Hughes et al., 2015a). ...
... In contrast, the risk of plant propagule, invertebrate and non-sterile soil introductions by anthropogenic means has been reasonably well characterized (Houghton et al., 2016;Newman et al., 2018). Human-mediated transport of propagules and/or soil has been recorded associated with cargo (Lee and Chown, 2009a, b;Osyczka, 2010;Tsujimoto et al., 2010), vehicles, including aircraft and ships (Hughes et al., 2010a, b), wood, sand and aggregate (Osyczka et al., 2012;Hughes et al., 2018), fresh foods (Hughes et al., , 2011a and with visitors' clothing and personal possessions (Whinam et al., 2005;Chown et al., 2012a). Risk assessments have been attempted for certain groups such as springtails and flowering plants (Chown et al., 2012a;Duffy et al., 2017). ...
... Further south, the barriers to invasion by non-native species include the severe climatic conditions and the continent's extreme isolation. Although the introduction of non-native microorganisms has received relatively little scientific investigation (Hughes and Nobbs, 2004;Convey, 2008;Cowan et al., 2011;Hughes et al., 2011aHughes et al., , 2018, the presence of humans in Antarctica will result in human skin commensal bacteria being shed (Cowan et al., 2011;Hughes et al., 2015b). Humans may also act as unintentional vectors of microorganisms through the soil and dirt attached to cargo, clothing and fresh foods distributed throughout the region (Hughes et al., 2010a(Hughes et al., , b, 2011a(Hughes et al., , 2018. ...
Chapter
South Africa is a mega-diverse country situated at the southern tip of Africa flanked by two unique marine systems, one cool and one warm. Species introductions to the region have also been diverse. Given the major and growing threat to biodiversity and ecosystem functioning from biological invasions, there has been significant research on this topic. Biological invasions continue to expand and new species continue to arrive. Climate change is expected to affect invasions directly, influencing species’ distributions according to individual species’ tolerances and interactions with other species; and indirectly, through new introductions, and by altered pathways linked to human responses to climate change. The uncertainty relating to climate projections has narrowed considerably since the release of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Sixth Assessment Report, permitting a more focused assessment of its potential interaction with the impacts of biological invasions than was possible before. This chapter summarizes the projected changes for rainfall and temperature in the medium and long term using a middle-of-the-road socio-economic scenario based on ‘downscaled’ projections. Overall, projected shifts in climate, even over the long term, are less extreme than had previously been projected in national and regional assessments for South Africa, although the rate and extent of change is projected to be more extreme for southern African regions north of South Africa. Future biological invasions can be divided into: (i) expansion of existing invasions; (ii) new invasions that result from changes in the nature, volume and timing of trade and travel; and (iii) invasions that result from climate change mitigation and adaptation such as carbon sequestration projects and assisted migration. Expansion of native species, notably ‘bush encroachment’ in savannas, is also predicted to increase. We discuss likely patterns of change in terrestrial, freshwater and marine systems, considering first the change in current invasions and native species and then changes in pathways that are likely to affect future invasions in each realm. Species losses and gains are expected in all realms. On land, rising atmospheric CO2 has likely already facilitated widespread increases in cover of indigenous tree and shrub species, and may also exacerbate invasions of alien woody plants. Managing invasions in the future will require significant efforts in pathway control. Careful balance in permitting and even facilitating range expansions, while controlling undesirable native range expansions and preventing the introduction and expansion of generalist, highly invasive alien species is paramount. Policies aimed at using indigenous species in rehabilitation and carbon sequestration projects, as well as cross-border collaboration on biosecurity and biodiversity safeguards, are critical.
... Czarnecki and Bialasiewicz (1987), Osyczka et al. (2012) and Augustyniuk-Kram et al. (2013) analysed of fungal propagules from the air, food, timber, clothes, boots and equipment transported to the H. Arctowski Polar Station. Hughes et al. (2011Hughes et al. ( , 2018 focused on fungi associated with fresh produce (fruit and vegetables) and wooden cargo packaging transferred to the Antarctic region. ...
... This manual includes practical guidelines and resources to support the prevention of the introduction of nonnative species. Hughes et al. (2011) suggested a provisional list of measures reducing the risk of introductions of nonnative species to the Antarctic region associated with fresh food. One of the measures regarding the storage of fresh fruits and vegetables on a station is the use of germicidal lamps (UV-C) in storage areas. ...
... Less than one-third of the identified fungi isolated from the fruits and vegetables were not recorded previously from Antarctica. Similar results were obtained also by Hughes et al. (2011) who examined the microbial decomposition of fresh produce transported to Antarctica and found out that 28% of the food items showed microbial infection and 30% of the identified fungi were not recorded previously from the Antarctic region. Most of the fungal taxa identified in our study are commonly found on fresh food or in soil with cosmopolitan distribution outside Antarctica. ...
Article
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The aim of this study was to investigate the fungal community associated with fruits and vegetables transported into the Antarctic region and observe qualitative changes of their surface mycobiota after UV-C treatment. This measure is used to prevent the post-harvest diseases of stored fruits and vegetables and reduce the risk of introducing non-native species to the Antarctic environment. In total, 82 strains of filamentous fungi were isolated from the surfaces of 64 pieces of fresh fruits and vegetables before and after their UV-C treatment. They were assigned to the genera Penicillium, Fusarium, Mucor, Cladosporium, and Acremonium. After the UV-C treatment of the examined fruits and vegetables, spores of the genera Fusarium, Cladosporium and Acremonium were not detected, while spores of the genera Penicillium and Mucor were more resistant and stayed viable after the treatment. Penicillium strains prevailed in the examined samples. Their introduction to the Antarctic environment could represent a potential risk for endemic autochthonous organisms.
... Antarctica was the last continent to be touched by the direct infl uence of humans, with the fi rst people landing in 1819 and overwintering in 1897/98 (Headland, 2009). Th e region's isolation and extreme climate have limited the level of human activity, in contrast to the other continents, where humans have been present for tens of thousands of years at least and large population migrations have occurred (Hughes et al., 2006(Hughes et al., , 2011aMellars, 2006;Headland, 2009). As a result of the brief and limited infl uence of humans on the region, relatively few non-native species have been introduced to Antarctica deliberately or accidentally, with the majority of those that have become established occurring on the sub-Antarctic islands (Frenot et al., 2005;Convey, 2008;Hughes and Convey, 2012;UK, 2012a). ...
... In contrast, the risk of plant propagule, invertebrate and non-sterile soil introductions by anthropogenic means has been better characterized. Human-mediated tran sport of propagules and/or soil has been recorded associated with cargo (Lee and Chown, 2009a,b;Osyczka, 2010;Tsujimoto et al., 2010), vehicles, including aircraft and ships (Hughes et al., 2010a,b), wood, sand and aggregate (Osyczka et al., 2012), fresh foods (Hughes et al., 2005(Hughes et al., , 2011a and with visitors' clothing and personal possessions Chown et al., 2012a), and risk assessments have been attempted for certain groups such as springtails (Greenslade and Convey, 2011) and fl owering plants (Chown et al., 2012a). Th e sub-Antarctic islands, which form a ring around Antarctica in the Southern Ocean north of latitude 60°S, have been visited by humans for over two centuries, and in that time over 200 non-native plants, vertebrates (including fi sh, rodents, cats, reindeer, sheep and moufl on) and invertebrates have been introduced, with some islands now having more non-native plant species than indigenous plant species (Frenot et al., 2005). ...
... Th e Environmental Protocol does not permit the importation of non-sterile soil within the Antarctic Treaty area, which could be a major source of nonnative fungi, bacteria and other microbial groups (ATCP, 1991). However, fresh foods are imported routinely to Antarctica by most national programmes, and root vegetables can often be associated with soil and plant material infected by food spoilage microorganisms (Hughes et al., 2011a). Should such species be released accidentally into the Antarctic terrestrial environment, they could cause disease in indigenous plants and/or alter existing microbial communities (Klopper and Smith, 1998;Hughes et al., 2011a). ...
Article
Antarctic terrestrial biodiversity is simple compared to other regions of the Earth, with many higher taxonomic groups not represented, due to the continent's isolation, the severe climatic conditions and the relative scarcity of suitable habitats. So far, Antarctic biodiversity has been little affected by nonnative species introductions, due to (i) the late arrival of humans on the continent (c.1820), (ii) the overall low intensity of human activity and (iii) the concentration of most of that activity around a limited number of research stations and tourist sites, such as exist onthe Antarctic Peninsula. However, human activity is increasing, and Antarctica is increasingly vulnerable to the human-mediated importation of non-native species and the redistribution of indigenous Antarctic species. While the Antarctic Peninsula is one of the most rapidly warming regions on the planet, the Antarctic continent has, so far, experienced relatively little climatic change, but this is expected to change over the next century. Consequently, terrestrial communities are increasingly vulnerable, as climate change increases the risk of non-native species establishment and dispersal. Th is chapter describes non-native species in Antarctica that have already become established. Also described are the eradications that have been attempted and the practicality of minimizing microbial introductions. Finally, the chapter discusses recent policy developments relating to nonnative species and suggests that more needs to be done by the Antarctic Treaty Parties to implement biosecurity practices and eradicate existing non-native colonists, before fragile Antarctic communities are changed irreversibly.
... In addition, these studies showed that transport vehicles, specifically aircraft and ships, contribute significantly to the transport of non-native species seeds. It has also been demonstrated that the transport of food is a significant contributor to the arrival of non-native species to the region (Hughes et al., 2011). As is often observed in biological invasions, of the broad spectrum of propagules arriving in Antarctica, only a low proportion is able to establish due to the edaphoclimatic conditions of these ecosystems. ...
... Species that have successfully germinated on the Antarctic Peninsula are: Puccinellia svalbardensis, Cerastium sp., Alopecuris geniculatus, Puccinellia distans, Rumex pulcher, Stellaria media and Chenopodium rubrum (Table 5.1) . Recently, the establishment of the species Nassauvia magellanica has been recorded on Deception Island (Hughes et al., 2011), and Juncus bufonius in samples from the nearby Polish station Arctowski (Cuba-Díaz et al., 2013). Two species of the genus Poa have been the most successful non-native species to establish: P. pratensis and P. annua. ...
... pg g − 1 ) and S27 (1503.7 pg g − 1 ) (Fig. 2), which were close to the station areas, possibly indicating local sources of pollution. Hughes et al. (2011) reported that at least 51 different varieties of fresh produce were delivered to Antarctica from the other continents, with soil found on 12% of all fresh produce (Hughes et al., 2011). Additionally, fresh produce is generally transported refrigerated, which fosters the retention of OCPs. ...
... pg g − 1 ) and S27 (1503.7 pg g − 1 ) (Fig. 2), which were close to the station areas, possibly indicating local sources of pollution. Hughes et al. (2011) reported that at least 51 different varieties of fresh produce were delivered to Antarctica from the other continents, with soil found on 12% of all fresh produce (Hughes et al., 2011). Additionally, fresh produce is generally transported refrigerated, which fosters the retention of OCPs. ...
Article
Antarctica is widely regarded as a sink for persistent organic pollutants (POPs). However, there is a scarcity of data on the occurrence and spatial pattern of POPs in Antarctica, especially in the cold-xeric East Antarctica. Here, organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in soils from the Larsemann Hills, the second-largest ice-free area along East Antarctica, were investigated. It is shown that the main OCP contaminants were HCB, p,p’-DDD and δ-HCH (3.7–1522.3 pg g⁻¹, 38.2–2276.6 pg g⁻¹ and < LOD–570 pg g⁻¹, respectively). OCPs in soils were primarily caused by long-distance atmospheric transport, but local sources can be found in areas heavily impacted by local human activities. Among DDTs and HCHs, only p,p’-DDD and δ-HCH were detected, indicating that DDTs and HCHs have aged. For PCBs (14.1–993.4 pg g⁻¹), low-chlorinated PCB congeners were found in soil samples far from the station areas (Zhongshan, Progress II, and Progress I), possibly due to long-range atmospheric transport, while high levels of high-chlorinated PCB were found in the soils inside the station area (Law Base) and close to the main road, possibly associated with local station activities. Among the measured PBDEs (81.8–695.5 pg g⁻¹), BDE-209 was the most frequently observed species, and the low-BDE found in soil samples could be from BDE-209 photodegradation. The majority of samples containing high concentrations of BDE-209 are concentrated in the station areas, implying that its source may be related to local station activities.
... By contrast with the growing number of studies of establishment potential (Duffy et al. 2017;Pertierra et al. 2017), investigations of the actual numbers of species (colonization pressure, sensu Lockwood et al. 2009) and propagules (propagule pressure) being transported to the Antarctic region are less common. Typically, these studies have focused on plants Lee and Chown 2009;Chown et al. 2012), with fewer studies documenting other groups (Hughes et al. 2011). Invertebrate colonization and propagule pressure on the Antarctic continent associated with either scientific or tourist activities have been the subject of only limited investigations (Hughes et al. 2005(Hughes et al. , 2015. ...
... Based on the available information, reported introductions are categorized by five main vectors. These are based on previous work (e.g. Lee and Chown 2009;Hughes et al. 2011;Chwedorzewska et al. 2013;Huiskes et al. 2014;Houghton et al. 2016) that had identified the importance of distinguishing vectors: aircraft and air cargo; clothing and equipment; original packaging of items; food; shipping containers. The level of reporting for other introductions (e.g. ...
Article
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Despite the significance of invertebrate species in the alien and invasive faunas of both sub-Antarctic and, increasingly, some Antarctic locations, little information exists on the numbers and identity of species being transported to the Antarctic region. Here we provide information on a decade (2006/2007–2016/2017) of detections in the surveillance program established at Scott Base in the Ross Sea region of continental Antarctica. The program found 233 individuals in 134 detection events, belonging to at least 14 Orders and 51 Families. Among these were alien, pest and synanthropic species recorded elsewhere on the globe or in the broader Antarctic region. These included sciarid flies known to have established in station sewage-treatment plants elsewhere on the continent. Flies, spiders and moths were most commonly detected, and typically in food (60% of interceptions), and then in clothing and equipment (11%), aircraft and cargo (11%) and packaging material (11%). Detected groups were similar to those found in the two other extensive surveillance efforts (King George Island and East Antarctica), highlighting the need to continue and improve surveillance across the region. For invertebrates, further control of the supply chain prior to embarkation of cargo and personnel may be the most effective management option to prevent further transport of non-indigenous species to the Antarctic.
... Moreover, increasing human activity in the polar regions combined with the effects of ongoing climate change stands to promote the possibility of high-latitude invasions (Cowan et al. 2011, Gederaas et al. 2012. Concern exists that disease transmission to and between wildlife populations might occur at high latitudes (Curry et al. 2005, Kerry andRiddle 2009), as might the introduction of pathogens (Cowan et al. 2011, Hughes et al. 2011, invertebrates (Hughes et al. 2011) and invasive plants (Chown et al. 2012, Alsos et al. 2015a). The consequences of such introductions are as yet largely unknown, but are likely to impact on existing community structure and functioning (Litchman 2010) and may cause disease to both fauna and flora (Kerry andRiddle 2009, Hughes et al. 2011). ...
... Moreover, increasing human activity in the polar regions combined with the effects of ongoing climate change stands to promote the possibility of high-latitude invasions (Cowan et al. 2011, Gederaas et al. 2012. Concern exists that disease transmission to and between wildlife populations might occur at high latitudes (Curry et al. 2005, Kerry andRiddle 2009), as might the introduction of pathogens (Cowan et al. 2011, Hughes et al. 2011, invertebrates (Hughes et al. 2011) and invasive plants (Chown et al. 2012, Alsos et al. 2015a). The consequences of such introductions are as yet largely unknown, but are likely to impact on existing community structure and functioning (Litchman 2010) and may cause disease to both fauna and flora (Kerry andRiddle 2009, Hughes et al. 2011). ...
Article
Full-text available
Biosecurity measures are commonly used to prevent the introduction of non-native species to natural environments globally, yet the efficacy of practices is rarely tested under operational conditions. A voluntary biosecurity measure was trialled in the Norwegian high Arctic following concern that non-native species might be transferred to the region on the footwear of travellers. Passengers aboard an expedition cruise ship disinfected their footwear with the broad spectrum disinfectant Virkon S prior to and in-between landing at sites around the remote Svalbard archipelago. The authors evaluated the efficacy of simply stepping through a disinfectant foot bath, which is the most common practice of footwear disinfection aboard expedition cruise ships in the Arctic. This was compared to a more time consuming and little-used method involving drying disinfected footwear, as proposed by other studies. The two practices were evaluated by measuring microbial growth on paired footwear samples before and after disinfection under both conditions. Step-through disinfection did not substantially reduce microbial growth on the footwear. Allowing disinfected footwear to dry, however, reduced the microbial burden significantly to lower levels. Thus, the currently adopted procedures used aboard ships are ineffective at removing microbial burden and are only effective when footwear is given more time to dry than currently granted under operational conditions. These findings underscore results from empirical research performed elsewhere and suggest the need to better relay this information to practitioners. It is suggested that footwear should minimally be wiped dry after step-through disinfection as a reasonable compromise between biosecurity and practicability.
... Introductions of non-native species into Antarctic environments have also been reported Hughes et al., 2011;Houghton et al., 2014). Research has demonstrated that national program and tourist operations are vectors for non-native species and propagules Hughes et al., 2009;Chown et al., 2012;IAATO, 2012;Houghton et al., 2014). ...
... Incursions of non-native flora and fauna are occurring, with increasing ranges into natural habitats (Hughes and Worland, 2010;Olech and Chwedorzewska, 2011;Chwedorzewska et al., 2014). Although most species arriving are outside their climatic range, the diversity of species arriving Hughes et al., 2011;Houghton et al., 2014), and warming temperatures in Antarctic regions (Mulvaney et al., 2012), increases the possibility of establishment (Frenot et al., 2005;Chown et al., 2012;Hughes et al., 2012;Molina-Montenegro et al., 2014;Pertierra et al., 2016;Lee et al., 2017). ...
Article
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Research stations in Antarctica are concentrated on scarce ice-free habitats. Operating these stations in the harsh Antarctic climate provides many challenges, including the need to handle bulk fuel and cargo increasing the risk of environmental incidents. We examined 195 reports of environmental incidents from the Australian Antarctic Program, spanning six years, to investigate the impacts and pathways of contemporary environmental incidents. Fuel and chemical spills were most common, followed by biosecurity incursions. The majority of reports were assessed as having insignificant actual impacts. Either the incidents were small, or active, rapid response and mitigation procedures minimised impact. During the period only one spill report (4000 l) was assessed as a 'high' impact. This is despite over 13 million litres of diesel utilised. The majority of incidents occurred within the existing station footprints. The pathways leading to the incidents varied, with technical causes predominately leading to spills, and procedural failures leading to biosecurity incursions. The large number of reports with inconsequential impacts suggest an effective environmental management system with a good culture of reporting environmental incidents. Our findings suggest that the key to continual improvement in an ongoing environmental management system is to learn from incidences and take action to prevent them occurring again, with an end-goal of minimising the residual risk as much as possible.
... There is an exception, however, for carefully controlled importation of food into the Antarctic. Nevertheless, fresh foods, particularly leafy green or salad vegetables, do not store well over the long winter periods, and are known vectors for transportation of non-native species (Hughes et al. 2011;Houghton et al. 2016). For example, the presence of flying insects in food storage bays at Rothera station was found to correlate with ship and air resupply times (Hughes et al. 2011). ...
... Nevertheless, fresh foods, particularly leafy green or salad vegetables, do not store well over the long winter periods, and are known vectors for transportation of non-native species (Hughes et al. 2011;Houghton et al. 2016). For example, the presence of flying insects in food storage bays at Rothera station was found to correlate with ship and air resupply times (Hughes et al. 2011). ...
Article
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A non-native incursion of the collembolan, Xenylla sp. was found within the hydroponics facility at Davis Station, East Antarctica in May 2014. A rapid response was implemented to eradicate the incursion, including localised insecticide use, incineration of plants and growing media, sterilisation of the facility and three cycles of freezing/thawing of both internal rooms and external sub floor areas. Two consecutive years of summer monitoring programs have not detected any Collembola in station buildings or in the surrounding environment, suggesting the eradication was successful. This case highlights the importance of a multiple barrier approach to non-native species risks, and how activation of the last barrier—regular surveillance—resulted in early detection. The use of an online, real-time incident reporting system facilitated efficient communication between scientific experts, operational managers and expeditioners on site, resulting in a rapid and effective response following detection and potentially the first successful eradication of a non-native microarthropod in Antarctica. Monitoring will continue to confirm eradication.
... It has been suggested that in-situ food production can actually reduce the risks of non-native species introduction [5]. These assertions are not without basis considering that Antarctic station food is sourced from over 750 worldwide locations (a varying level of quality control is certain) [58]. In addition to soils, invertebrates and microbial plant pathogens having been found on food shipments, there have also been more dramatic examples, such as the discovery of a frog within shipped stores of fresh salad [58,59]. ...
... These assertions are not without basis considering that Antarctic station food is sourced from over 750 worldwide locations (a varying level of quality control is certain) [58]. In addition to soils, invertebrates and microbial plant pathogens having been found on food shipments, there have also been more dramatic examples, such as the discovery of a frog within shipped stores of fresh salad [58,59]. ...
Conference Paper
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The development of plant production facilities for extreme environments presents challenges not typically faced by developers of greenhouses in more traditional environments. Antarctica represents one of the most inhospitable environments on Earth and presents unique challenges to facility developers with respect to environmental regulations, logistics, waste management, and energy use. The unique challenges associated with plant production in Antarctica heavily influence the selection of subsystem components and technologies as well as the operational paradigms used to operate the facilities. This paper details a wide array of the early design choices and trade-offs that have arisen in the development of Antarctic plant production facilities. Specific requirements and several guidelines stemming from the Antarctic Treaty's Protocol on Environment Protection and their influence on Antarctic plant production facilities are described. A review of guidelines for Antarctic greenhouses published by several national Antarctic operators is also described. The specific technology choices of several past and present Antarctic greenhouses are summarized, as are the general operational strategies, such as solid and nutrient solution waste handling. Specific lessons learned input was compiled directly from developers and operators of a number of these facilities. A discussion on the Antarctic climate, differences in Antarctic installation locations, internal versus external station plant growth facilities, preshipment testing programs, carbon dioxide enrichment and numerous other Antarctic facility design trade-offs are elaborated. It is hoped that this paper can serve as a useful checklist for future Antarctic plant production facility developers.
... pg g − 1 ) and S27 (1503.7 pg g − 1 ) (Fig. 2), which were close to the station areas, possibly indicating local sources of pollution. Hughes et al. (2011) reported that at least 51 different varieties of fresh produce were delivered to Antarctica from the other continents, with soil found on 12% of all fresh produce (Hughes et al., 2011). Additionally, fresh produce is generally transported refrigerated, which fosters the retention of OCPs. ...
... pg g − 1 ) and S27 (1503.7 pg g − 1 ) (Fig. 2), which were close to the station areas, possibly indicating local sources of pollution. Hughes et al. (2011) reported that at least 51 different varieties of fresh produce were delivered to Antarctica from the other continents, with soil found on 12% of all fresh produce (Hughes et al., 2011). Additionally, fresh produce is generally transported refrigerated, which fosters the retention of OCPs. ...
Article
Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a systemic autoimmune disease characterised by chronic inflammation of joint synovial tissue and subsequent destruction of associated bone, cartilage and soft tissues. RA is commonly treated with non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), traditional disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs (DMARDs), glucocorticoids and biologic inhibitors of TNF, IL-1, IL-6, T cells and B cells. The use of these drugs especially biological agents has greatly improved the treatment of RA. Although the pathogenesis of RA remains unclear, T-cell mediated immune response is considered as a critical contributor in RA initiation and progression. It has been hypothesized that arthritogenic T cells (autoreactive T cells) escaping negative selection can recognize arthritogenic antigens and lead to autoimmunity and tissue destruction. Due to the important role of autoreactive T cells in the mechanisms of RA, they might be a novel therapeutic target. Many vaccines targeting autoreactive T cells which can establish immunological self tolerance have been developed. The efficacy of these vaccines has been justified in experimental models of RA and clinical trials. Inhibition of autoreactive T cell response by vaccination might provide a new treatment opinion in RA.
... Non-native species have become established in new areas with human assistance, either intentionally or unintentionally. Species have predominately been accidently transported through the horticultural trade (van Kleunen et al., 2018), but also often through other transport means such as importation of timber (Liebhold et al., 2012), transport of fresh produce (Hughes et al., 2011), and via tourists (Chown et al., 2012), as well as being intentionally transported and introduced through the pet trade or deliberate release (e.g. for biological control, food) (Hulme, 2015). This 'adventive' mode of colonisation is considered to largely be a consequence of the globalisation of trade and transport (Amano et al., 2016;Hulme, 2009;Liebhold et al., 2012;Seebens et al., 2015;van Kleunen et al., 2018). ...
Article
Around the world, the number of species establishing outside of their native range has and continues to increase rapidly. Some of these non‐native species are invasive and can cause negative environmental, economic, and social impacts, including declines in native biodiversity. Species can become established either through natural dispersal or with intentional or inadvertent human assistance, but the relative importance of these two modes over time has been little studied. We compiled data on 116 moth species that became established in Great Britain (GB) between 1900 and 2019. We classed each species as either an immigrant, which had colonised naturally, or an adventive, which had colonised through human assistance, and categorised species as feeding on either native or non‐native larval host plants. We found that the rate of moth species establishment has accelerated steadily, at 21% increase per decade, showing no signs of saturation. Immigrant species showed a steady rate of establishment between 1900 and 1935, followed by a significant acceleration of 11% per decade thereafter, which most closely matches the rate of immigrants that feed on native host plants. Immigrants that feed on non‐native host plants show a slower increase across the whole time period compared to all species, of 13% per decade. Adventive species show a similar rate of increase in establishment to all moth species, at a rate of 26% per decade. Adventives on non‐native host plants show a similar trend, but we find evidence for a post‐1980s increase in the rate of establishment for adventives that feed on native host plants. Our results indicate that the global case for enhanced biosecurity, around both the monitoring of natural colonisations and for the horticultural trade, remains very strong as non‐native colonisations are showing no signs of saturation with ongoing environmental and economic change.
... In case the airstrip cannot be used, the evacuation route by sea takes at least two days to cross the rough sea of Drake Passage (Carron et al. 2016(Carron et al. , 2019. The time estimates for evacuation from stations can be also deduced from resupply logistics, usually ranging from several hours in case of air to days and weeks in naval transportation (Hughes et al. 2011). Despite being one of the more accessible locations in Antarctica, stations near the Antarctic Peninsula still face extreme isolation challenges due to the complex and potentially delayed nature of medical evacuations, as documented in the literature (Carron et al. 2016(Carron et al. , 2019Cornelius 1991, Mills andMills 2008). ...
Article
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This critical review aims to compare the conditions of summer Antarctic expeditions in seasonal stations with key characteristics of long-duration space exploration missions (LDSEM). Utilizing NASA's Analog Assessment Tool and data from the COMNAP Antarctic Station Catalogue, along with scientific literature, the review identifies significant parallels for LDSEM analog research. We assess how seasonal and year-round stations differ and highlight aspects of where seasonal stations serve as a better or worse analog for LDSEM. Key findings include that while summer expeditions allow for more feasible evacuations than winter-overs, their access to medical care is more limited. Crowdedness in summer stations with shared rooms better represents LDSEM conditions than the lower density of winter-over settings. Varying daylight hours in summer stations provide a closer parallel to Mars or Moon surface missions than the continuous darkness of winter-over conditions. Additionally, constant hazards, risk management strategies, isolation, sensory deprivation, workload, leadership structures, autonomy, and communication challenges in summer stations align well with LDSEM scenarios. Conclusively , we propose a shift in perceptions, recognizing seasonal Antarctic expeditions as a valuable analog of planetary LDSEM with several advantages over traditionally accepted winter-over settings. Further comparative and longitudinal studies between seasonal and year-round Antarctic stations should be pursued to enhance LDSEM analog research and support interdisciplinary collaboration. This approach will not only advance progress in space exploration research but also improve the quality of life and safety in remote and extreme environments.
... Non-native species are detected at various stages along transportation pathways to Antarctica, including within the cargo and packing facilities of national operators, on ships or planes en-route to Antarctica and within the station buildings and facilities on the sub-Antarctic islands and the Antarctic continent (Hughes et al. 2010(Hughes et al. , 2011Houghton et al. 2016Houghton et al. , 2019Bergstrom et al. 2018;Remedios-de León et al. 2021). Antarctica's terrestrial communities have low species richness, simple community structure and narrow habitat ranges and the growing pressures of a changing climate makes them vulnerable to invasive species impacts (Convey et al. 2006). ...
Article
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The continent of Antarctica has remained relatively free of the impacts of invasive species to date. However, Antarctica is under increasing anthropogenic pressure from human activity and climate change, elevating the risk of alien species introductions. Scientific research and the maintenance of research stations by Antarctic Treaty Parties requires the transfer of large amounts of equipment and cargo, which can harbour biosecurity risk material. Here, we assess two decades of data collected by the Australian Antarctic Division on the detection of biosecurity risk material in its facilities and vessels, both during transport and in Antarctica. We use these data to identify emerging risk species or pathways, to compare the variability in detections over time and to construct a consequence table to facilitate effective responses and resource allocation to future detections, translating our research findings into guidance for decision-makers. We find that, despite the development of policy instruments, monitoring and management for the prevention of alien species introductions to Antarctica, the risk of introductions is ongoing. We highlight areas of concern, including the transport of live spiders and the continuing potential for cargo to harbour biosecurity risk material and the benefit of ongoing training and investment and support for staff and expeditioners in the reporting of non-native species detections. Finally, we provide tools and recommendations for decision-makers and on-ground managers in the Antarctic biosecurity space, based on our research. Future studies on the establishment risk of commonly transported species would assist in improving these tools.
... P. fallaciosus Fungi Grape n/a n/a n/a [95] Pleospora spp. P. bjoerlingii Fungi Garlic Air n/a n/a [96] Ramichloridium spp. R. cucurbitae Fungi n/a n/a No n/a ...
Article
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The industry predominantly depends on synthetic or artificial additives, occasionally permitting the inclusion of natural molecules sourced from plants or replicated from their original counterparts. The production of bakery products increasingly uses sourdough to improve the quality of bread or to obtain “clean label” products (free of artificial additives). The additive production sector contributes to this concern through the synthesis of potentially harmful compounds, the utilization of hazardous chemicals and solvents, the management of resulting by-products, and reliance on non-renewable resources for manufacturing. One percent of the world’s population suffers from celiac disease. Celiac disease is treated by excluding gluten from the diet. Most gluten-free bakery products have low nutritional and sensory quality. Therefore, sourdough is being used to replace chemical yeast to improve the sensory and nutritional quality and increase the shelf life of gluten-free bakery products. Three gluten-free sourdoughs were prepared with different flours: brown rice, quinoa and amaranth, in order to compare them with traditional sourdough (wheat) and optimize the most suitable temperature for the conservation of sourdoughs. Physicochemical analysis (pH, titratable acidity and color), antioxidant activity (FRAP, ORAC and ABTS), total phenolic compound content (Folin–Ciocalteu), total aflatoxin content, lactic and acetic acid content and microbiological analysis (mold and yeast content and bacterial and fungal composition (microbiota composition)) were carried out during the elaboration process and at different storage temperatures. A higher microbiological quantity of molds and yeasts (7.97 log CFU/mL), non-Saccharomyces yeasts (7.78 log CFU/mL) and lactic acid bacteria (8.10 log CFU/mL) and fungal composition were observed in the amaranth sourdough. The wheat sourdough obtained a higher total content of phenolic compounds (33.03 mg GAE g−1) and antioxidant capacity in ABTS and FRAP, but the quinoa sourdough had the highest ORAC content. In addition, it was observed that the adequate temperature for the conservation of the doughs is 25 °C, due to the predominance of Lactobacillus spp. and Pediococcus spp. bacteria in the sourdough. Therefore, pseudocereal sourdoughs (quinoa and amaranth) could be an alternative to incorporate into the preparation of gluten-free bread, since their microbial composition, physicochemical composition, antioxidant activity and total phenolic compounds would contribute to gluten-free bread and thus produce health benefits for people with celiac disease.
... Human impacts on ecosystems and biodiversity can be destructive. Locally in Antarctica, human activities introduce species (Bergstrom, 2022;Hughes et al., 2011b), disturb fauna and vegetation, compact soil (O'Neill et al., 2013), cause sewage and hydrocarbon contamination (Camenzuli & Freidman, 2015), and compete for space (Putzke et al., 2020). Cumulative impacts are magnified by human activities being mostly constrained to ice-free areas (Brooks et al., 2019a), and will increase with climate change (Bennett et al., 2015), intensified research activities (i.e., Figure 3) and expanding tourism (Brooks et al., 2019a;Lee et al., 2017). ...
Preprint
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Monitoring and understanding Antarctica is critical for conservation of its values. Remote sensing has been increasingly employed to observe large areas at higher frequency than traditional monitoring methods, enabling systematic assessments at low cost. However, currently there are limitations in the ability of the available remote sensing tools to answer the most pressing scientific, ecological, and biological questions associated with anthropogenic impacts, including climate change, in Antarctica. Here we summarise the latest findings on remote sensing tools and techniques, identifying the gaps and highlighting priority areas for future development. Major ongoing challenges concern the intensive cloud coverage and ephemeral snow cover that prevent ongoing observations of ice-free areas and the fine spatial scales required to undertake assessments of terrestrial ecosystems, their biota, and the human footprint. Opportunities arise in the realms of advanced statistical techniques to harness the potential of increasingly available data from orbital satellites and Unmanned Aerial Systems also commonly known as drones, at multiple scales and resolutions. We conclude that harnessing emerging technological advances in remote sensing will enable new understanding and ultimately protection of Antarctic ecosystems.
... Eine Einschleppung infolge menschlicher Aktivitäten gilt jedoch als viel wahrscheinlicher (z. B. Frenot et al., 2005;Osyczka, 2010;Hughes et al., 2011;Chown et al., 2012;Litynska-Zajac et al., 2012) und wurde bereits mehrfach nachgewiesen (z. B. Block et al., 1984;Peter et al., 2008;Litynska-Zajac et al., 2012;Peter et al., 2013). ...
Technical Report
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Antarctica and the surrounding Southern Ocean are under increasing pressure from cumulative impacts of climate change, pollution, fisheries, tourism and a variety of other human activities. These changes pose a high risk both to local polar ecosystems and to the regulation of the global climate, as well as through global sea-level rise. Thus, long-term monitoring programmes serve to assess the state of ecosystems as well as to make projections for future developments. The Fildes Region in the southwest King George Islands (South Shetland Islands, Maritime Antarctica), consisting of the Fildes Peninsula, Ardley Island and several offshore islands, is one of the largest ice-free areas in the Maritime Antarctic. As a continuation of a long-term monitoring programme started in the 1980s, local breeding bird and seal populations were recorded during the summer months (December, January, February) of the 2018/19 and 2019/20 seasons and supplemented by individual count data for the 2020/21 season. This study presents the results obtained, including the population development of the local breeding birds. Here, some species showed stable populations in a long-term comparison (brown skuas, southern polar skuas) or a significant increase (gentoo penguin, southern giant petrel). Other species, however, recorded significant declines in breeding pair numbers (Adélie penguin, chinstrap cenguin, Antarctic tern, kelp gull) up to an almost complete disappearance from the breeding area (cape petrel). In addition, the number of seals at their haul-out sites was recorded and the distribution of all seal reproduction sites in the Fildes Region was presented. Furthermore, data on the breeding bird population in selected areas of Maxwell Bay were added. Additionally, the rapid expansion of the Antarctic hairgrass was documented with the help of a completed repeat mapping. The documentation of glacier retreat areas of selected areas of Maxwell Bay was updated using satellite imagery and considered in relation to regional climatic development. Furthermore, the distribution and amount of marine debris washed up in the Fildes Region and the impact of anthropogenic material on seabirds will are addressed. In addition, the current knowledge of all introduced non-native species in the study area and the need for further research are presented.
... Here we outline the main regulatory frameworks relevant to NNMS in Antarctica (Figure 2.6). concern has grown over biosecurity measures in place for Antarctica, particularly for terrestrial environments (Chown et al., 2012;Hughes et al., 2011Hughes et al., , 2015Hughes & Convey, 2010Lewis et al., 2003;McGeoch et al., 2015) and a decisionmaking process for dealing with suspected introduced species has been formulated (Hughes & Convey, 2012). While response plans for eradication and management of nonnative terrestrial species are in development, the limited information about non-native marine species has created difficulties for the development of marine-focused policies (Hughes & Pertierra, 2016). ...
Thesis
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Invasive non-native species are a major threat to global biodiversity. For at least 15 million years coastal Antarctica has been poorly connected to nearby temperate ecosystems due to physical and physiological barriers. Yet, Antarctica is experiencing significant environmental change and becoming increasingly exposed to ship-borne human activity that crosses the physical barriers. These factors may facilitate the establishment of non-native marine species. This doctoral research adds insight into the risk of non-native marine species being transported to Antarctica via ships’ hulls and internal seawater systems, with particular focus on pathways of introduction and species found within those pathways. To begin my research, I assessed the current knowledge of non-native marine species in the Antarctic region: the physical and physiological factors that resist establishment of non-native marine species; changes to resistance under climate change; the role of legislation in limiting marine introductions; and the effect of increasing human activity on vectors and pathways of introduction. Evidence of non-native marine species was limited: up to 2019 just four marine non-native and one cryptogenic species that were likely introduced anthropogenically had been reported free-living in Antarctica or in the sub-Antarctica islands, but no established populations have been reported. An additional six species had been observed in pathways to Antarctica that are potentially at risk of becoming invasive. I estimated there may be approximately 180 vessels and 500+ voyages in Antarctic waters annually. However, these estimates are necessarily speculative because relevant data are not recorded comprehensively. In response to the scarcity of data on ship movements into the Southern Ocean, I obtained data on ship activity in the Southern Ocean from 2014-2018 inclusive and developed a ship traffic network for Antarctic-going vessels. I analysed the ship movements and conducted a spatially-explicit assessment of introduction risk for non-native marine species in all Antarctic waters. I found that vessels connect Antarctica via an extensive network of ship activity to all global regions, and especially South Atlantic and European ports. Ship visits were more than seven times higher to the Antarctic Peninsula and the South Shetland Islands than elsewhere around Antarctica. I found that, while the five recognised ‘Antarctic Gateway cities’ are important last ports of call, an additional 53 ports had vessels directly departing to Antarctica from 2014-2018. I identified ports outside Antarctica where biosecurity interventions could be most effective and the most vulnerable Antarctic locations where monitoring programmes for high-risk invaders should be established. Biofouling communities within the major pathway to Antarctica from Europe via the South Atlantic, identified in the network analysis, became my next focus. I obtained biofouling samples from the polar research vessel RRS James Clark Ross and found that niche (protected) areas of the hull represent significantly greater colonisation (species richness) and propagule pressure (individual abundance) than exposed areas of the hull. The composition of the biological communities did not differ among exposed and niche areas, but did change significantly among the three surveys conducted. Only six species were found on the ship’s hull in Antarctica, but they included a known invasive bryozoan, Tricellaria inopinata, and barnacles that have no counterparts in Antarctica. While the role of hull fouling is recognised as a globally important vector for introductions of non-native marine species, the role of a vessel’s internal pipework has been overlooked. I conducted the first comprehensive study of biofouling macrofauna living inside an Antarctic vessel’s internal seawater systems, finding breeding communities of Jassa marmorata (Amphipoda) and mytilid mussels throughout the internal pipework system. I found fouling communities that occluded ~9-17% of a pipe’s cross-sectional area, increasing running costs for ships. Since ships are constantly pumping their water through their pipework, they are likely to be releasing propagules at all stages of their voyages, including in polar regions. Before I started my research, Antarctic operators and policy-makers were unaware of the total number of vessels that visit Antarctica. Now, I have provided comprehensive insight into the most traversed routes to Antarctica and identified Antarctic locations that are the most likely recipient locations for non-native marine species. I found that non-native species from temperate regions can survive passages through polar areas and that sheltered sections of the hull and internal systems are especially important sites for both propagule and colonisation pressure. Together, these results demonstrate that Antarctica is well connected to worldwide marine ecosystems and that biofouling on ships poses an important and growing introduction risk to Antarctica.
... The spatial isolation of the Antarctic continent, its extreme weather conditions and the very small extent of appropriate habitat offer some protection against colonization by non-native species . Within the Antarctic Treaty area (the area south of latitude 60°S) human activities, particularly those of tourism and national government operators, increasingly contribute to the risk of non-native species being transported to the continent along anthropogenic pathways (Frenot et al. 2005;Whinam et al. 2005;Hughes et al. 2005Hughes et al. , 2011Convey et al. 2012;Lee and Chown 2009;IAATO 2015). The South Shetland Islands, located north-west of the Antarctic Peninsula, have been identified as the region of Antarctica most at risk from non-native species introductions, due to a combination of high human activity levels, relatively benign climatic conditions compared to other Antarctic regions, and predicted climate change impacts, with species being transported to the region from countries across the planet (Chown et al. 2012;Huiskes et al. 2014;Convey and Peck 2019;Hughes et al. 2020). ...
Article
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Antarctica currently has few non-native species, compared to other regions of the planet, due to the continent’s isolation, extreme climatic conditions and the lack of habitat. However, human activity, particularly the activities of national government operators and tourism, increasingly contributes to the risk of non-native species transfer and establishment. Trichocera (Saltitrichocera) maculipennis Meigen, 1888 (Diptera, Trichoceridae) is a non-native fly originating from the Northern Hemisphere that was unintentionally introduced to King George Island in the maritime Antarctic South Shetland Islands around 15 years ago, since when it has been reported within or in the vicinity of several research stations. It is not explicitly confirmed that T. maculipennis has established in the natural environment, but life-history characteristics make this likely, thereby making potential eradication or control a challenge. Antarctic Treaty Parties active in the region are developing a coordinated and expanding international response to monitor and control T. maculipennis within and around stations in the affected area. However, there remains no overarching non-native invasive species management plan for the island or the wider maritime Antarctic region (which shares similar environmental conditions and habitats to those of King George Island). Here we present some options towards the development of such a plan. We recommend the development of (1) clear mechanisms for the timely coordination of response activities by multiple Parties operating in the vicinity of the introduction location and (2) policy guidance on acceptable levels of environmental impacts resulting from eradication attempts in the natural environment, including the use of pesticides.
... Human activity in the Antarctic is primarily scientific, located around research stations and associated logistics, i.e. transport of vast quantities of equipment and cargo, including food, with which propagules of non-native species of plants, animals and microorganisms are accidentally transported (Hughes et al. 2011;Augustyniuk-Kram et al. 2013;Chwedorzewska et al. 2013b;Huiskes et al. 2014;Molina-Montenegro et al. 2014). In recent years there has also been a significant increase in tourism, which is mainly concentrated in West Antarctica, where, among others, Henryk Arctowski Polish Antarctic Station is localized (Chwedorzewska, and Korczak 2010). ...
Article
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Filamentous fungi relatively easily disperse and colonize a variety of substrates, inhabiting various, often extreme environments. Therefore, they spread all over the world. The purpose of the research was to determine whether the propagules of filamentous fungi brought (accidentally transported) into the Antarctic biome by tourists and members of scientific expeditions are capable of developing at low temperatures. In the studies were used seven isolates of fungi: Penicillium sp., Aspergillus flavus, Alternaria alternata, Cladosporium cladosporioides, Trichoderma viride, Geotrichum candidum and Botrytis cinerea. The isolates came from samples collected from tourists and members of scientific expeditions arriving at the Henryk Arctowski Polish Antarctic Station on King George Island in the South Shetland archipelago. Fungal growth was measured at 0, 5, 10, 22°C (as a control) and 10° C, but after having frozen inoculum at -15°C for a period of 7 days. Penicillium sp., Alternaria alternata, Cladosporium cladosporioides, Trichoderma viride, Geotrichum candidum and Botrytis cinerea were found to be capable of growing at low temperatures (5 and 10oC as well as after one freezing cycle, down to -15oC and thawing, up to +10oC). They did not produce a macroscopically visible mycelium at temp. 0oC, however, it was not a lethal temperature for them, as when they were transferred to higher temperatures, they continued to develop even after a fairly long time following the beginning of the experiment. The most vulnerable was Aspergillus flavus. At lower temperatures (from about to 5oC) it did not develop, while freezing and thawing were lethal for this species. Some species (G. candidum, T. viride and B. cinerea), despite the development of mycelium, did not produce spores at lower temperatures.
... El aislamiento del continente Antártida llevaría a pensar que cuenta con pocas especies invasoras, en comparación con otras regiones de la Tierra (Frenot et al., 2005;Hughes & Coney, 2010), sin embargo, desde la llegada de los humanos a las islas subantárticas a fines del siglo XVIII y principios del XIX, la cantidad de especies introducidas han aumentado (Frenot et al., 2005;Convey & Lebouvier, 2009). Las zonas Antárticas en las que se han registrado mayor influencia de especies invasoras, son aquellas que se encuentran más cercanas al continente Sudamericano y con un mayor impacto antropogénico (Frenot et al., 2005;Whinam et al., 2005;Hughes et al., 2011;Convey et al., 2012;Hughes & Convey, 2014). Debido a estas preocupaciones, se aprobó el Protocolo del Tratado Antártico sobre Protección Ambiental, el cual prohíbe la introducción intencional de especies no autóctonas en la Antártida, excepto con un permiso expedido y que estipula su remoción o eliminación antes de la expiración de dicho permiso (Potocka & Krzeminska, 2018). ...
Article
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Las invasiones biológicas se encuentran entre lasamenazas más importantes para la biodiversidad a nivelmundial. En general la introducción de nuevas especiesen regiones geográficas fuera de su lugar de origen seha producido por razones económicas, científicas ysociales teniendo un impacto, muchas veces conconsecuencias imprevistas. La Antártida es uno de loslugares más remotos de la Tierra y uno de los hábitatsmás prístinos. El aislamiento del continente Antárticollevaría a pensar que cuenta con pocas especiesinvasoras, sin embargo, desde la llegada de los humanosa las islas subantárticas, se ha registrado un aumento deespecies no autóctonas. La mayoría de las especiesintroducidas en el territorio Antártico no han podidosobrevivir a las condiciones climáticas, pero hay otrasque si lo han hecho como es el caso del díptero Trichocera(Saltrichocera) maculipennis Meigen, 1818. Dicha especiese registro por primera vez en 2006 en la Base CientíficaAntártica Artigas y continúa siendo reportada en variasBases científicas antárticas. Este trabajo presenta datossobre la abundancia de T. maculipennis en sitios de laBase Científica Antártica Artigas de la Isla Rey Jorgemediante el empleo y la efectividad de trampasalternativas utilizadas en el muestreo de esta especie.Se discuten los datos obtenidos a la luz de planes demitigación hacia programa de control y erradicación másefectivos de esta especie en instalaciones de las BasesCientíficas de la Isla Rey Jorge y evaluar la efectividadde trampas de pegamento utilizadas para el muestreo dela especie.
... Fresh food importation can also transport non-native species, including invertebrates and microbial plant and animal pathogens, on the produce or in associated soil or packaging (Hughes, Cowan, & Wilmotte, 2015;Hughes et al., 2011;Roy et al., 2016). Furthermore, Antarctic hydroponic systems may become infested with non-native microorganisms and invertebrates, which present a risk to local environments should containment measures fail (Bergstrom et al., 2018;Volonterio et al., 2013). ...
Article
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The Antarctic is considered to be a pristine environment relative to other regions of the Earth, but it is increasingly vulnerable to invasions by marine, freshwater and terrestrial non-native species. The Antarctic Peninsula region (APR), which encompasses the Antarctic Peninsula, South Shetland Islands and South Orkney Islands, is by far the most invaded part of the Antarctica continent. The risk of introduction of invasive non-native species to the APR is likely to increase with predicted increases in the intensity, diversity and distribution of human activities. Parties that are signatories to the Antarctic Treaty have called for regional assessments of non-native species risk. In response, taxonomic and Antarctic experts undertook a horizon scanning exercise using expert opinion and consensus approaches to identify the species that are likely to present the highest risk to biodiversity and ecosystems within the APR over the next 10 years. One hundred and three species, currently absent in the APR, were identified as relevant for review, with 13 species identified as presenting a high risk of invading the APR. Marine invertebrates dominated the list of highest risk species, with flowering plants and terrestrial invertebrates also represented; however, vertebrate species were thought unlikely to establish in the APR within the 10 year timeframe. We recommend (a) the further development and application of biosecurity measures by all stakeholders active in the APR, including surveillance for species such as those identified during this horizon scanning exercise, and (b) use of this methodology across the other regions of Antarctica. Without the application of appropriate biosecurity measures, rates of introductions and invasions within the APR are likely to increase, resulting in negative consequences for the biodiversity of the whole continent, as introduced species establish and spread further due to climate change and increasing human activity.
... Since the early 2000s concern has grown over biosecurity measures in place for Antarctica, particularly for terrestrial environments (Chown et al., 2012;Hughes & Convey, 2010Hughes & Frenot, 2015;Hughes et al., 2011;Lewis et al., 2003;McGeoch et al., 2015), and a decision-making process for dealing with suspected introduced species has been formulated (Hughes & Convey, 2012). ...
Article
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Antarctica is experiencing significant ecological and environmental change, which may facilitate the establishment of non‐native marine species. Non‐native marine species will interact with other anthropogenic stressors affecting Antarctic ecosystems, such as climate change (warming, ocean acidification) and pollution, with irreversible ramifications for biodiversity and ecosystem services. We review current knowledge of non‐native marine species in the Antarctic region, the physical and physiological factors that resist establishment of non‐native marine species, changes to resistance under climate change, the role of legislation in limiting marine introductions, and the effect of increasing human activity on vectors and pathways of introduction. Evidence of non‐native marine species is limited: just four marine non‐native and one cryptogenic species that were likely introduced anthropogenically have been reported freely living in Antarctic or sub‐Antarctic waters, but no established populations have been reported; an additional six species have been observed in pathways to Antarctica that are potentially at risk of becoming invasive. We present estimates of the intensity of ship activity across fishing, tourism and research sectors: there may be approximately 180 vessels and 500+ voyages in Antarctic waters annually. However, these estimates are necessarily speculative because relevant data are scarce. To facilitate well‐informed policy and management, we make recommendations for future research into the likelihood of marine biological invasions in the Antarctic region.
... Moreover, variation remains in the level of survey effort and knowledge among taxonomic groups (Convey et al. 2006b). Despite these impacts and improved biosecurity, non-native invertebrates continue to arrive and establish on SOI (Hughes et al. 2011;Houghton et al. 2016;Phillips et al. 2017). Invasions are expected to increase as the climate warms (Chown et al. 2008;Chown and Convey 2016). ...
Article
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Isolation and climate have protected Southern Ocean Islands from non-native species. Relatively recent introductions have had wide-ranging, sometimes devastating, impacts across a range of species and ecosystems, including invertebrates, which are the main terrestrial fauna. In our comprehensive review, we found that despite the high abundance of non-native plants across the region, their impacts on native invertebrates are not well-studied and remain largely unknown. We highlight that non-native invertebrates are numerous and continue to arrive. Their impacts are multi-directional, including changing nutrient cycling regimes, establishing new functional guilds, out-competing native species, and mutually assisting spread of other non-native species. Non-native herbivorous and omnivorous vertebrates have caused declines in invertebrate habitat, but data that quantifies implications for invertebrates are rare. Predatory mammals not only indirectly effect invertebrates through predation of ecosystem engineers such as seabirds, but also directly shape community assemblages through invertebrate diet preferences and size-selective feeding. We found that research bias is not only skewed towards investigating impacts of mice, but is also focused more intensely on some islands, such as Marion Island, and towards some taxa, such as beetles and moths. The results of our review support and build on previous assessments of non-native species in the Antarctic region—that the responses of invertebrate fauna on these islands are under-reported and often poorly understood. Given the importance of invertebrates as indicators of environmental change, and their potential utility in quantifying change associated with island restoration projects (such as eradications), these knowledge gaps need to be urgently addressed.
... Species may be moved between regions within Antarctica by a variety of anthropogenic mechanisms, including ships, aircraft and overland vehicles (see Figs. 4 and 5 and Supplementary Material B). A body of recent scientific work has focussed on the quantification of nonnative species propagule loads being transferred into Antarctica associated with different human-associated pathways, such as cargo (Lee and Chown, 2009a (Hughes et al., 2011b), ships (Lewis et al., 2003;Lee and Chown, 2007;Hughes and Ashton, 2017) and through human clothing and personal equipment Litynska-Zajac et al., 2012;Huiskes et al., 2014). However, with the exception of the study by Lee and Chown (2011), who looked at propagule load on personnel travelling from sub-Antarctic Marion Island to SANAE IV station (ACBR 6), propagule loads are yet to be quantified for personnel moving between biogeographic regions, and detailed information on the number of people and quantities of cargo moving across the boundaries separating biogeographic regions is not readily available. ...
Article
The distribution of terrestrial biodiversity within Antarctica is complex, with 16 distinct biogeographic regions (Antarctic Conservation Biogeographic Regions) currently recognised within the Antarctic continent, Peninsula and Scotia Arc archipelagos of the Antarctic Treaty area. Much of this diversity is endemic not only to Antarctica as a whole, but to specific regions within it. Further complexity is added by inclusion of the biodiversity found on the islands located in the Southern Ocean north of the Treaty area. Within Antarctica, scientific, logistic and tourism activities may inadvertently move organisms over potentially long distances, far beyond natural dispersal ranges. Such translocation can disrupt natural species distribution patterns and biogeography through: (1) movement of spatially restricted indigenous species to other areas of Antarctica; (2) movement of distinct populations of more generally distributed species from one area of Antarctica to another, leading to genetic homogenisation and loss of assumed local patterns of adaptation; and (3) further dispersal of introduced non-native species from one area of Antarctica to another. Species can be moved between regions in association with people and cargo, by ship, aircraft and overland travel. Movement of cargo and personnel by ship between stations located in different biogeographic regions is likely to present one of the greatest risks, particularly as coastal stations may experience similar climatic conditions, making establishment more likely. Recognising that reducing the risk of inter-regional transfer of species is a priority issue for the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting, we make practical recommendations aimed at reducing this risk, including the implementation of appropriate biosecurity procedures.
... Furthermore, both Trichoderma and Mucor spp. have been reported in studies examining non-native fungi introduced to research stations on clothing and equipment (Augustyniuk-Kram 2013) and fresh foods (Hughes et al. 2011b), with a Trichoderma strain also having been isolated previously from wood packaging (Kerry 1990a). Moreover, the high isolation frequency of Mucor spp. ...
Article
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The harsh climatic conditions and low levels of human activity in Antarctica, relative to other regions, means few non-native species have established. However, the risk of introductions is becoming greater as human activity increases. Non-native microorganisms can be imported to Antarctica in association with fresh food, cargo and personal clothing, but the likelihood of their establishment is not well understood. In January 2015, a wooden packing crate, heavily contaminated with fungi, was imported by aircraft from Punta Arenas, Chile, to Rothera Research Station, Antarctica. Mucor racemosus Bull. and two strains of Trichoderma viridescens (A.S. Horne & H.S. Will.) Jaklitsch & Samuels were isolated from the wood. Measurements of hyphal extension rates indicated that all three strains were psychrotolerant and capable of growth at 4°C, with M. racemosus growing at 0°C. The imported fungi could grow at rates equivalent to, or faster than, species isolated from Antarctic soils, suggesting that low temperature may not be a limiting factor for establishment. It is recommended that wood heat-treatment standards, equivalent to those described in the International Standards for Phytosanitary Measures No. 15, are employed by national operators importing cargo into Antarctica, and that treated wood is adequately stored to prevent fungal contamination prior to transportation.
... Until now, in most cases, the presence of flying, potentially invasive, invertebrates in Antarctica corresponded with ships' or aircrafts' operations during supply periods for scientific stations (Hughes et al., 2011). The Chilean Frei Station's airport on Fildes Peninsula, King George Island, may be considered as a potential transport hub for non- native species between South America and other regions of King George Island, other islands in the South Shetlands archipelago, and Antarctic Peninsula region. ...
Article
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Antarctica, with its severe conditions, is poor in terrestrial fauna species. However, an increase in human presence together with climate change may cause an influx of non-native species. Here we report a significant increase in colonized area of one of the few known invasive species to date in Antarctica. Non-native flies of Trichocera maculipennis have been recently observed in the Admiralty Bay area on King George Island, South Shetlands Islands, West Antarctica, 10 years after its first record in Maritime Antarctica (Maxwell Bay, King George Island). Its rapid spread across the island, despite geographic barriers such as glaciers, indicates successful adaptation to local environmental conditions and suggests this species is invasive. The mode of life of T. maculipennis , observed in natural and anthropogenous habitat and in laboratory conditions, is reported. The following adaptations enabled its invasion and existence within the sewage system in Antarctic scientific stations: the ability to survive in complete darkness, male ability to mate on the substrate surface without prior swarming in flight, and adaptation of terrestrial larvae to survive in semi-liquid food. Possible routes of introduction to Antarctica and between two bays on King George Island are discussed, as well as further research leading to the containment and eradication of this species.
... Human activities in the Antarctic are concentrated mainly in small, scattered, ice-free coastal zones. Most of the research stations are also located at these coastal areas which are at the same time favorable to development of biological communities (e.g., Hughes and Convey 2014;Hughes et al. 2011). Moreover, the sites most likely visited by tourists coincide with the locations of most scientific bases and high wildlife concentration. ...
Article
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Successful alien species invasion depends on many factors studied mostly in post invasion habitats, and subsequently summarized in frameworks tailored to describe the studied invasion. We used an existing expanded framework with three groups of contributing factors: habitat invisibility, system context and species invasiveness, to analyze the probability of alien species invasions in terrestrial communities of Maritime Antarctic in the future. We focused on the first two factor groups. We tested if the expanded framework could be used under a different scenario. We chose Point Thomas Oasis on King George Island to perform our analysis. Strong geographical barrier, low potential bioclimatic suitability and resource availability associated with habitat invasibility significantly reduce the likelihood of biological invasion in Antarctica. An almost full enemy release (low pressure of consumers), the high patchiness of the habitat, and the prevalence of open gaps also associated with habitat invasibility increase the possibility of invasion. The dynamics of functional connectivity, propagule pressure and spatio-temporal patterns of propagule arrival associated with human activity and climate change belonging to the system context contribute to an increase in the threat of invasions. Due to the still low land transport activity migration pathways are limited and will reduce the spread of alien terrestrial organisms by land. An effective way of preventing invasions in Antarctica seems to lie in reducing propagule pressure and eliminating alien populations as early as possible. The expanded conceptual framework opens up wider possibilities in analyzing invasions taking place in different systems and with multiple taxa.
... The CEP has been aware of the issue of non-native species for many years and initiated further work on the topic, including through the Nonnative Species Workshop in Christchurch, New Zealand, in 2006(Rogan-Finnemore, 2008 following the publication of a comprehensive review of the issue by Frenot et al. (2005) and the delivery of the SCAR lecture on the topic to the ATCM by Prof. Steven Chown in 2005. As a result of SCAR and COMNAP initiatives and international programmes conducted during the International Polar Year 2007-2008 (e.g. the 'Aliens in Antarctica' project; Hughes et al., 2010Hughes et al., , 2011bChown et al., 2012b;Huiskes et al., 2014), the threat to the Antarctic terrestrial and marine environment due to the introduction of non-native species in a context of climate change, was more clearly defined (SCAR, 2012). This issue is of the highest priority for the CEP and, with further substantial input from SCAR, the Committee has agreed guidelines included within the Non-native Species Manual (see: http://www.ats.aq/e/ep_faflo. ...
Article
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The Antarctic has significant environmental, scientific, historic, and intrinsic values, all of which are worth protecting into the future. Nevertheless, the area is subject to an increasing level and diversity of human activities that may impact these values within marine, terrestrial and cryosphere environments. Threats to the Antarctic environment, and to the aforementioned values, include climate change, pollution, habitat destruction, wildlife disturbance and non-native species introductions. Over time, a suite of legally binding international agreements, which form part of the Antarctic Treaty System (ATS), has been established to help safeguard the Antarctic environment and provide a framework for addressing the challenges arising from these threats. Foremost among these agreements are the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty and the Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources. Many scientists working in Antarctica undertake research that is relevant to Antarctic environmental policy development. More effective two-way interaction between scientists and those responsible for policy development would further strengthen the governance framework, including by (a) better communication of policy makers’ priorities and identification of related science requirements and (b) better provision by scientists of ‘policy-ready’ information on existing priorities, emerging issues and scientific/technological advances relevant to environmental protection. The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR) has a long and successful record of summarizing policy-relevant scientific knowledge to policy makers, such as through its Group of Specialists on Environmental Affairs and Conservation (GOSEAC) up to 2002, currently the SCAR Standing Committee on the Antarctic Treaty System (SCATS) and recently through its involvement in the Antarctic Environments Portal. Improvements to science-policy communication mechanisms, combined with purposeful consideration of funding opportunities for policy-relevant science, would greatly enhance international policy development and protection of the Antarctic environment.
... Human activities in this region have developed from their beginnings in the 1820s in connection with seal and whale hunting to the tourism, logistics and scientific activities of the present day. The possible introduction of non-native species as a result of human activities plays a significant role in the colonisation of local biotopes (Frenot et al. 2005;Hughes et al. 2010;Osyczka 2010;Cowan et al. 2011;Hughes et al. 2011;Chown et al. 2012;Litynska-Zajac et al. 2012), including newly-created habitats in the wake of glacial retreat. Among the introduced species already shown to be present on King George Island are grasses such as Poa annua, Juncus bufonis (Chwedorzewska 2008;Olech et al. 2011;Cuba-Diaz et al. 2013;United Kingdom 2014) and Poa sp. ...
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The Fildes Region (King George Island, South Shetland Islands), consisting of the Fildes Peninsula, the neighbouring Ardley Island and all larger, nearby islands, is one of the largest ice-free regions in maritime Antarctica and has a relatively high level of biodiversity. This area also represents the logistical centre of the Antarctic Peninsula with its six permanent stations, numerous field huts and an airstrip which often leads to conflict of interests between the different use groups. Given the great importance of long-term monitoring programmes, especially in regions with natural resources at high risk and in areas of rapid climatic change, the survey of local breeding birds and seal communities started in the 1980s in the Fildes Region was continued in the summer months (December to February) of the 2012/13 to 2014/15 seasons. Besides, a monitoring of breeding birds in all large ice-free areas of Maxwell Bay, which borders the Fildes Region. These included the Barton, Weaver and Potter Peninsulas, Green Point (all on King George Island) and for the Stansbury Peninsula, Martin and Duthoit Points (all on Nelson Island). To analyse long-term trends in the bird and seal populations, extensive data from numerous, still unpublished expedition reports of German scientists from the 1980s and all available literature were added to recent observations. The results of both monitoring focus areas are presented in this research report. It could be shown, that regarding their breeding pair numbers most seabird species depend primarily on environmental factors, whereas others are more affected by anthropogenic impacts. Additionally, considerable glacial retreat in selected regions of the Maxwell Bay with reference to the regional climate changes were documented on the basis of aerial and satellite images.
... Indeed, although meat is generally supplied frozen with long-term storage at -20°C, which itself likely kills introduced microorganisms, imported fruit and vegetables can easily include non-Antarctic soil residue, insect pests (including eggs and early instar stages) and microorganisms [65]. It is estimated that Antarctic fresh foods are sourced from 750 different locations and that the specific locations can vary from year to year [47]. In a recent study more than 11,000 fruit and vegetable items destined for nine different research stations were examined for the presence of significant soil, invertebrate and microbial contamination (51 food types from approximately 130 locations). ...
Conference Paper
Designs for an Antarctic plant production system to be deployed at Germany’s Neumayer Station III are presented. Characterization and testing of several key controlled environment agriculture technologies are ongoing at the German Aerospace Center’s Institute of Space Systems. Subsystems under development at the Evolution and Design of Environmentally-Closed Nutrition-Sources (EDEN) laboratory include, tuned LED lighting, aeroponic nutrient delivery, ion-selective sensors and modular growth pallets. The Antarctic greenhouse module baseline form factor is a standard sea shipping container, which allows for use of nominal Antarctic logistics networks. The facility will be fixed onto a specially constructed platform and co-located near the Alfred Wegner Institute’s Neumayer Station III. The plant production facility will be operated year-round with maximum production per unit volume achieved through the deployment of modular grow units in a stackable rack architecture. In such a configuration the greenhouse module system can provide several kilograms of fresh edible biomass per day. Forty foot and 20 ft container configurations are described as well as the general design requirements, including specifics relevant to operations at Neumayer III. Successful deployment of such a facility will further the technology readiness and operational experience of space-based bioregenerative life support systems. Finally, the general design is presented in the context of an historical review of past Antarctic plant production facilities. This first known inventory of documented Antarctic plant production facilities, organizes the facilities with respect to Antarctic station, dates of operation, internal/external configuration and estimated production area.
... Supported by research quantifying non-native species propagule transfer to Antarctica in association with personal clothing, equipment, cargo, vehicles and fresh foods Lee and Chown, 2009a;Hughes et al., , 2011Chown et al., 2012b;Huiskes et al., 2014), the CEP Manual recognizes prevention of non-native species transfer to Antarctica as the most effective means of minimizing the associated risks. To support Parties in identifying simple cost-effective biosecurity measures to reduce propagule transfer, the Council of Managers of National Antarctic Programs (COMNAP), in association with the Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR), produced the 'Checklist for supply chain managers of national Antarctic programs to reduce the risk of transfer of non-native species' (available at: https:// www.comnap.aq/Publications/Comnap%20Publications/COMNAP_SCAR_ ...
Article
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Antarctic non-native species legislation is contained within the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty, with 2016 marking the 25th anniversary of its adoption. We take this opportunity to evaluate the Antarctic Treaty signatory Parties' collective development and implementation of non-native species policy. In general, scientific and policy outputs have increased in the past decade. However, data detailing Parties' current implementation of biosecurity practices are not readily available. Little widespread, internationally coordinated or systematic monitoring of non-native species establishment has occurred, but available data suggest that establishment of non-native micro-invertebrates may be greatly underestimated. Several recent small-scale plant eradications have been successful, although larger-scale eradications present a greater challenge due to seed bank formation. Invertebrate establishment within research station buildings presents an increasing problem, with mixed eradication success to date. The opportunity now exists to build on earlier successes, such as the ‘CEP Non-native Species Manual’, towards the development of a comprehensive response strategy based upon the principles of prevention, monitoring and response, and applicable to all Antarctic environments. To help facilitate this we identify areas requiring further research and policy development, such as to reduce anthropogenic transfer of indigenous Antarctic species between distinct biogeographic regions, avoid microbial contamination of pristine areas and limit introduction of non-native marine species. A response protocol is proposed for use following the discovery of a potential non-native species within the Antarctica Treaty area, which includes recommendations concerning Parties' initial response and any subsequent eradication or control measures.
... Other pragmatic measures reducing the risk of non-native introductions through non-human vectors also need to be implemented, e.g. fresh food checks, cargo sterilisation (Hughes et al. 2011Hughes et al. , 2013 ). All measures must be efficient and effective, and standardised at all gateway ports and at all landing sites/destinations. ...
Chapter
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Four broad categories of human activities that presently threaten Antarctic wildlife in the Antarctic were identified: (1) tourism and non-governmental activities, (2) scientific research, (3) commercial fisheries and (4) whaling. Two further broad categories of threats that originate from multiple forms of human activities are: (1) shipping-related impacts and (2) the introduction of non-native species or disease-causing agents. These threats are not mutually exclusive, and there are various interactions and synergies present amongst them. We have not incorporated climate change into the assessment of each of these, but briefly assess the hierarchical contribution of climate change to other threats. We confidently expect an expansion of virtually all anthropogenic activities in the Antarctic (primarily tourism, research and fisheries) in the next 50 years. The threats will also increase in their complex synergies and interactions, giving further increasing urgency to adopting a more precautionary approach to managing human activities in the Antarctic. We present predictions for 2060 and list suggested proactive management and conservation strategies to address the predicted threats to Antarctic wildlife and their environment.
... Thorp and Lynch (2000) 2008; Essl et al. 2015). For example, a risk assessment of pathways into the Antarctic found high propagule loads for fresh produce (especially leafy produce; Hughes et al. 2011), infrastructure development activities, and entrainment on the clothing of visiting tourists and scientists (Chown et al. 2012). This knowledge has allowed five particular pathways of introduction to the region to be prioritized for management (COMNAP 2014). ...
... Modified with permission from Thorp and Lynch (2000) 2008; Essl et al. 2015). For example, a risk assessment of pathways into the Antarctic found high propagule loads for fresh produce (especially leafy produce; Hughes et al. 2011), infrastructure development activities, and entrainment on the clothing of visiting tourists and scientists (Chown et al. 2012). This knowledge has allowed five particular pathways of introduction to the region to be prioritized for management (COMNAP 2014). ...
Article
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Prioritization is indispensable for the management of biological invasions, as recognized by the Convention on Biological Diversity, its current strategic plan, and specifically Aichi Target 9 that concerns invasive alien species. Here we provide an overview of the process, approaches and the data needs for prioritization for invasion policy and management, with the intention of informing and guiding efforts to address this target. Many prioritization schemes quantify impact and risk, from the pragmatic and action-focused to the data-demanding and science-based. Effective prioritization must consider not only invasive species and pathways (as mentioned in Aichi Target 9), but also which sites are most sensitive and susceptible to invasion (not made explicit in Aichi Target 9). Integrated prioritization across these foci may lead to future efficiencies in resource allocation for invasion management. Many countries face the challenge of prioritizing with little capacity and poor baseline data. We recommend a consultative, science-based process for prioritizing impacts based on species, pathways and sites, and outline the information needed by countries to achieve this. This should be integrated into a national process that incorporates a broad suite of social and economic criteria. Such a process is likely to be feasible for most countries.
... Davis (2009) , Introduction générale bagages dans la proportion de propagules effectivement libérées dans le milieu et, ainsi, de suggérer des mesures de biosécurité spécifiques à ce vecteur. Plus récemment, Hughes et al. (2011) ont montré que l'approvisionnement des bases scientifiques de la région antarctique en nourriture fraîche est également l'un des vecteurs majeurs d'introduction d'espèces. Des études complémentaires sont nécessaires pour développer des réponses adéquates aux échanges de propagules intra-île (îles subantarctiques) ou intra-région (Antarctique), qui peuvent notamment contribuer à la dissémination et l'invasion d'espèces déjà naturalisées ). ...
Article
The success of invasive species depends on the adequacy between their life history traits and the environmental characteristics (biotic and abiotic) of their new habitats. The invasive success may then rely on pre-adaptation, be triggered by the release of some selection pressures, perturbations, or quick responses of the organism to the new selection pressures. Phenotypic plasticity and evolutionary processes are then prime components in biological invasions, so that invasive species can be considered as key models for monitoring ecological and evolutionary processes in real time. We thus investigated morphological and ecophysiological responses produced in time and space during the invasion of the sub-Antarctic Kerguelen Islands by the predatory ground beetle Merizodus soledadinus and the saprophagous blowfly Calliphora vicina, which possess contrasted life strategies. We show morphological differentiation among populations of M. soledadinus depending on their residence time, as well as rapid changes of the C. vicina's wing morphology in these islands where flightlessness is the rule. The invasion of M. soledadinus was studied with special emphasis on the role played by phenotypic plasticity in colonizing habitats that differ from native ones (physiological plasticity to salinity) and maintaining durable populations despite the negative feedback of this predator on the availability of its own prey (trophic plasticity). As they spread and encounter novel selection regimes, these adjustments at different timescales are of paramount importance in the invasive success of both these insect species.
... Since ca. 1990, there has been a total ban on fresh produce being brought ashore as this was identified as a major introduction pathway for non-indigenous invertebrates (Anonymous 1996; see also Hughes et al. 2011). However, despite some of the most stringent biosecurity protocols in the region, new invertebrate species keep arriving on Marion Island (see Lee et al. 2007 for a list of introductions between 2002 and 2007). ...
Article
Distinguishing between species that are recent natural colonists, recent anthropogenic introductions, or previously unknown, but long-term resident native species, is a challenge for those who manage the conservation of the Antarctic region. Here, we report the discovery of two new arthropod species on sub-Antarctic Marion Island—Nabis capsiformis Germar (Heteroptera: Nabidae) and Tetrag-natha sp. (Araneomorphae: Tetragnathidae). On the basis of their habitat use, dispersal abilities, historic biodiversity survey records, and limited information on genetic diversity , we conclude that the colonization events were natural.
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Spanning the Southern Ocean high latitudes, subantarctic islands are protected areas with high conservation values. Despite the remoteness of these islands, invasive species threaten their native species and ecosystem function. The most ubiquitous and speciose group of invasive species are invertebrates. Due to their cryptic habits and ambiguous establishment history, the impacts of invasive invertebrates on native species and ecosystems in the region remains largely unknown. Understanding how invasive invertebrate species are transported, disperse, establish and colonise new habitats is key to understanding their existing and future impacts. This knowledge is also fundamental to improving biosecurity practise and informing future management of Southern Ocean islands. We undertook invertebrate surveys on Macquarie Island to determine the current status of four non-native macro-invertebrates - Kontikia andersoni and Arthurdendyus vegrandis (Platyhelminthes: Geoplanidae), Styloniscus otakensis (Isopoda: Styloniscidae) and Puhuruhuru patersoni (Amphipoda: Talitridae). We found A. vergrandis, S. otakensis and P. patersoni had not markedly expanded their range. In contrast, K. andersoni has more than doubled its previously mapped area and expanded at a rate of ~500m⁻yr since 2004. We discuss the possible underlying mechanisms for the dramatic range expansion of K. andersoni and consider the implications for the future management of Macquarie Island.
Article
Obecność człowieka w Antarktyce to przede wszystkim działalność naukowa, ale również w ostatnim czasie wzmożony ruch turystyczny. Sprzyja to inwazji obcych gatunków flory i fauny, a także mikroorganizmów, mogących zagrażać gatunkom rodzimym. Grzyby pleśniowe będące przedmiotem badań zaliczane są do organizmów kosmopolitycznych, łatwo rozprzestrzeniających się i zasiedlających różnorodne środowiska, w tym również ekstremalnie zimne, takie jak rejony polarne. Organizmy te, by skutecznie skolonizować nowe środowisko oprócz żywotnych propagul i skutecznych mechanizmów transportu muszą być zdolne do wzrostu i reprodukcji w ekstremalnych warunkach. Celem badań było określenie czy propagule grzybów pleśniowych zawleczone (przypadkowo przetransportowane) do biomu Antarktyki przez turystów i członków wypraw naukowych są zdolne do rozwoju w niskich temperaturach. Stwierdzono, że Penicillium sp., Alternaria alternata, Cladosporium cladosporioides, Trichoderma viride, Geotrichum candidum i Botrytis cinerea były zdolne do rozwoju w niskich temperaturach (5 i 10oC oraz po jednym cyklu zamrożenia do -15oC i odmrożenia do +10oC). Nie wytwarzały one makroskopowo widocznej grzybni w temp. 0oC, lecz nie była to dla nich temperatura letalna, ponieważ po przeniesieniu do wyższych temperatur podejmowały wzrost nawet po dosyć długim czasie od rozpoczęcia eksperymentu. Najbardziej wrażliwy okazał się Aspergillus flavus. Przy niższych temperaturach (od 0 do 5oC) nie rozwijał się, natomiast zamrożenie i odmrożenie było dla tego gatunku letalne. Niektóre gatunki (G. candidum, T. viride i B. cinerea) mimo rozwoju grzybni, w niższych temperaturach nie produkowały zarodników.
Article
Antarctica's status as a unparalleled place of international scientific collaboration was entrenched in the Antarctic Treaty 1959, and its designation as a "natural reserve, devoted to peace and science" formally referenced in the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty (PEPAT) 1991 (PEPAT 1991, Article 2). The continent's importance for maintenance of the global ecosphere has more recently been confirmed by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (Anisimov et al., 2007). However, the expanded scale and scope of commercial tourism in Antarctica over the last quarter century raises issues about whether the laissez-faire approach to tourism management that has been taken under the auspices of Antarctic Treaty System (ATS) governance is sufficient to protect the Antarctic environment and its "wilderness" values from the negative impacts of tourism (PEPAT, Article 3(1)). This is an subject that has occupied a number of the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Parties (ATCPs), who form the decision-making group within the ATS, and resulted in a recent question by The Netherlands to fellow ATCPs as to whether "a system of obligatory or voluntary payments by individual tourists or tourist organizations (as a payment for 'ecosystem services')?" should be established within the ATS (The Netherlands, ATCM XI, 2012).This paper considers the Dutch question about payment for ecosystem services in Antarctica as a potential tourism regulatory tool. It also examines the legal and related political issues that a proposal for introduction of ecosystem services would generate in an area of the earth which, de facto, is treated as an international commons, but is also the site of continuing contestation and challenge over abeyant claims to sovereignty by seven states within the ATCP group. Issues canvassed in this context include: the different political-philosophical approaches to tourism and the environment evinced by the ATCPs; the limited number of states signatory to the Treaty and the increase in non-state actor activity in the Southern Ocean and Antarctic waters, and concomitant difficulties of monitoring and compliance in a geographically expansive and remote area of the earth; and the potential of ecosystem services in Antarctica to help realise some of the United Nations' post-2015 Sustainable Development Goals.
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The result of a three-year devoted work based on a couple decades of Antarctic research, this 368-page edition is an encyclopedic narrative of the principal topics related to Antarctica – nature, history, sovereignty and politics, Antarctic science, resources, fisheries, tourism and Antarctic names, naturally not forgetting Bulgarian participation. The book includes an extensive bibliography (with most of the items available online), and is amply illustrated with over one hundred photographs, old and new maps and paintings, some of them unique. Lyubomir Ivanov is a polar explorer, founding chair of the Bulgarian Antarctic Place-names Commission, and national representative of Bulgaria to the international Standing Committee on Antarctic Geographic Information (SCAGI). Nusha Ivanova has participated in four Antarctic expeditions, and was the first Bulgarian school student to visit Antarctica. A second, revised and expanded (electronic) edition of the book was published on 26 September 2014, ISBN 978-619-90008-2-3
Chapter
Antarctic soils are vulnerable to disturbance due to their physical properties and naturally slow recovery rates that are suppressed by low temperatures and low availability of liquid moisture.
Chapter
Unlike virtually any other area of land on the planet, the Antarctic continent is still largely un-impacted by the introduction of non-native species. Only a handful of non-native plants and animals (all invertebrates) are known, most from the northern Antarctic Peninsula and Scotia Arc. While several are persistent, and slowly increasing in local distribution, none have yet become truly invasive. The same is not the case in many of the subantarctic islands, where two centuries or more of human occupation and exploitation have led to many both deliberate and accidental introductions, and to sometimes drastic and probably irreversible changes in ecosystems. Recent years have seen an upsurge in primary research documenting the presence and impacts of non-native species in Antarctica, and in applying this information to the governance mechanisms within the Antarctic Treaty area and those of the various subantarctic islands. Organisms arriving through human activities, today primarily in the form of governmental (science and support) and tourism operations, numerically far outweigh natural colonisation events to this very isolated continent. Added to this, current and in some areas very strong regional climate change trends act in synergy to increase both the numbers of potential colonists and their establishment probability. Continued and increasing human contact with the Antarctic region is inevitable, and this can never be entirely separated from the risk of new introductions. Practicable control and mitigation measures, based on high levels of awareness and robust monitoring, survey and response protocols, are therefore the primary mechanisms available to slow and control rates of introduction and establishment. © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015. All rights are reserved.
Chapter
Globally, many thousands of species have been redistributed beyond their natural dispersal ranges as a result of human activities. The introduction of non-native species can have severe consequences for indigenous biota with changes in both ecosystem structure and function. The Antarctic region has not escaped this threat. The introduction of invasive species, including vertebrates, invertebrates and plants, has altered substantially the ecosystems of many sub-Antarctic islands. In contrast, the Antarctic continent itself currently has few confirmed non-native species, but numbers are increasing. Possible future increases in human presence in the region, either through tourism, governmental operators or other commercial activities, will increase the risk of further non-native species introductions, while climate change may enhance the likelihood of establishment and range expansion. Ensuring effective biosecurity measures are implemented throughout the Antarctic region in a timely manner is an urgent challenge for the Antarctic Treaty nations and the Antarctic community as a whole.
Article
Antarctic terrestrial habitats are vulnerable to impacts resulting from global and local human activities. Global activities have resulted in climate change affecting parts of Antarctica, stratospheric ozone depletion over the continent and dispersal of pollutants to the poles. Local impacts were initiated with the first arrival of humans on the continent in the early twentieth century, but became more widespread with an increase in human activity and footprint from the 1950s onward. Currently, over 30 nations are active in scientific research in the region, more than two million tourist landings have been made, and human visitation is unlikely to decrease. Terrestrial communities are vulnerable to damage or destruction caused by construction projects, vehicle movements and human trampling. Soils have become contaminated with chemicals leaching from waste dumps, and past and current fuel spills have lead to hydrocarbon pollution, particularly near research stations. Terrestrial ecosystems are also under threat from non-native plants, animals and microorganisms introduced inadvertently by historic industries, national operators and the tourism industry. The 'Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty' sets out minimum standards of environmental practice for Parties operating in Antarctica. The legislation has gone some way in reducing local environmental impacts, but there is clear evidence that the rigour with which it is applied is not consistent within the continent.
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Biological invasions are a growing problem worldwide. In 2004, the South African Department of Science and Technology, through the National Research Foundation, established a Centre of Excellence for Invasion Biology, with the primary goal of providing scientific understanding and building capacity in the field of biological invasions. South Africa is an extraordinary natural laboratory for the study of biological invasions, and the Centre for Invasion Biology (C center dot I center dot B) has capitalised on this situation. During its first decade, the C center dot I center dot B generated over 800 publications, and produced almost 200 graduates at honours, master's and doctoral levels. The C center dot I center dot B has therefore made a considerable contribution to building human capacity in the field of biological invasions. Substantial advances have been made in all aspects of invasion science, which is not limited to biology and ecology, but includes history, sociology, economics and management. The knowledge generated by the C center dot I center dot B has been used to inform policy and improve management practices at national and local levels. The C center dot I center dot B has emerged as a leading institute in the global field of invasion biology, with several unique features that differentiate it from similar research institutes elsewhere. These features include a broad research focus that embraces environmental, social and economic facets, leading to a diverse research programme that has produced many integrated products; an extensive network of researchers with diverse interests, spread over a wide geographical range; and the production of policy- and management-relevant research products arising from the engaged nature of research conducted by the C center dot I center dot B.
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Worldwide, humans have access to a greater range of food plants than does any other species. Examination of phylogenetic patterns in plants consumed by animals has recently uncovered important ecological processes. The same techniques, however, have not been applied to our own species. Here we show that although humans tend to eat more species in certain families (e.g., Rosaceae) and fewer in others (e.g., Orchidaceae), the proportion of edible species in most families is similar to random expectations. Phylogenetic patterning in angiosperm edibility is also weak. We argue that the remarkable breadth of the human diet is the result of humans' huge geographic range, diverse food-collection methods, and ability to process normally inedible items. Humans are thus generalist feeders in the broadest sense. Cross-cultural analyses of diversity in the plant diet of humans could represent a fascinating new field of research linking ecology, anthropology, history, and sociology.
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Antarctic terrestrial ecosystems currently include very few non-native species, due to the continent’s extreme isolation from other landmasses. However, the indigenous biota is vulnerable to human-mediated introductions of non-native species. In December 2005, four construction vehicles were imported by contractors to the British Antarctic Survey’s (BAS) Rothera Research Station (Antarctic Peninsula) from the Falkland Islands and South Georgia (South Atlantic) on board RRS James Clark Ross. The vehicles were contaminated with >132kg of non-Antarctic soil that contained viable non-native angiosperms, bryophytes, micro-invertebrates, nematodes, fungi, bacteria, and c. 40,000 seeds and numerous moss propagules. The incident was a significant contravention of BAS operating procedures, the UK Antarctic Act (1994) and the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty (1998), which all prohibit the introduction of non-native species to Antarctica without an appropriate permit. The introduction of this diverse range of species poses a significant threat to local biodiversity should any of the species become established, particularly as the biota of sub-Antarctic South Georgia is likely to include many species with appropriate pre-adaptations facilitating the colonisation of more extreme Antarctic environments. Once the incident was discovered, the imported soil was removed immediately from Antarctica and destroyed. Vehicle cleaning and transportation guidelines have been revised to enhance the biosecurity of BAS operations, and to minimise the risk of similar incidents occurring. KeywordsAntarctica-Cargo-Human impact-Invasion-Biosecurity-Non-native species-Sub-Antarctic-Vehicles
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The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) confirmed that mean global warming was 0.6 0.2 C during the 20th century and cited anthropogenic increases in greenhouse gases as the likely cause of temperature rise in the last 50 years. But this mean value conceals the substantial complexity of observed climate change, which is seasonally- and diurnally-biased, decadally-variable and geographically patchy. In particular, over the last 50 years three high-latitude areas have undergone recent rapid regional (RRR) warming, which was substantially more rapid than the global mean. However, each RRR warming occupies a different climatic regime and may have an entirely different underlying cause. We discuss the significance of RRR warming in one area, the Antarctic Peninsula. Here warming was much more rapid than in the rest of Antarctica where it was not significantly different to the global mean. We highlight climate proxies that appear to show that RRR warming on the Antarctic Peninsula is unprecedented over the last two millennia, and so unlikely to be a natural mode of variability. So while the station records do not indicate a ubiquitous polar amplification of global warming, the RRR warming on the Antarctic Peninsula might be a regional amplification of such warming. This, however, remains unproven since we cannot yet be sure what mechanism leads to such an amplification. We discuss several possible candidate mechanisms: changing oceanographic or changing atmospheric circulation, or a regional air-sea-ice feedback amplifying greenhouse warming. We can show that atmospheric warming and reduction in sea-ice duration coincide in a small area on the west of the Antarctic Peninsula, but here we cannot yet distinguish cause and effect. Thus for the present we cannot determine which process is the probable cause of RRR warming on the Antarctic Peninsula and until the mechanism initiating and sustaining the RRR warming is understood, and is convincingly reproduced in climate models, we lack a sound basis for predicting climate change in this region over the coming century.
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Over the past two decades seven non-indigenous vascular plant or arthropod species have established reproducing populations at sub-Antarctic Marion Island (46°54′S, 37°55′E). Here we record the eighth establishment, a braconid wasp Aphidius matricariae Haliday, which uses the aphid Rhopalosiphum padi (Linnaeus) as its only host on the island. Molecular markers (18S rDNA and mtCOI) support the conventional taxonomic identification and indicate that all individuals are characterized by a single haplotype. Surveys around the island show that adult abundance and the frequency of aphid parasitism are highest at Macaroni Bay on the east coast, and decline away from this region to low or zero values elsewhere on the coast. The South African research and supply vessel, the SA Agulhas, regularly anchors at Macaroni Bay, and Aphidius sp. have been collected from its galley hold. Current abundance structure, low haplotype diversity, and the operating procedures of the SA Agulhas all suggest that the parasitoid was introduced to the island by humans. Regular surveys indicate that this introduction took place between April 2001 and April 2003, the latter being the first month when this species was detected. The wasp’s establishment has significantly added to trophic complexity on the island. Low haplotype diversity suggests that propagule pressure is of little consequence for insect introductions. Rather, single or just a few individuals are probably sufficient for successful establishment.
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Abstract. More than 1,000 species of fungi have been reported from the Antarctic and sub-Antarctic region. Most are species known from elsewhere in the world, particularly from cool temperate and alpine habitats: few are considered truly endemic to the Antarctic region. Several legislative mechanisms are available that could be used to protect or conserve the Antarctic mycota. Th ese include national legislation within the sub-Antarctic islands, and the Measures and Decisions of the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting which have jurisdiction within the Antarctic Treaty area south of latitude 60° S.
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