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Status of Hunter Recruitment and Retention in the United States
Abstract
Participation indicators of hunter recruitment and retention in the United States (U.S.) point to decreasing trends, although some regions of the country are experiencing slight increases in hunter-education graduates and license buyers. If the overall declining trends persist, they could have serious implications for continuation of some wildlife agency programs that depend on hunters for political, financial, or harvest-related support. Superficially, these trends also might be interpreted to indicate lessening need for programs aimed at providing hunting recreation or maintaining cultural benefits relating to hunting. Consequently, it is important to understand whether participation indicators tell the whole story regarding hunter recruitment and retention. Social-psychological indicators also need to be taken into account and definitions of recruitment and retention need to be considered carefully. Integrating social-psychological and participation indicators suggests that recruitment and retention may be decreasing, but at a rate slower than participation indicators alone would depict. More emphasis on measuring social-psychological indicators could have several important benefits that lead to more positive implications for wildlife agency programs.
... While other sports and recreational activities have seen dramatic progress towards gender parity in recent decades, female hunters still only make up 10% of the current hunting population (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and U.S. Census Bureau, 2016). However, while the overall hunting population has been declining since the early 1990s (Enck, Decker, & Brown, 2000;Gigliotti & Metcalf, 2016), the number of females who hunt has been growing (McFarlane, Watson, & Boxall, 2003;Metcalf, Graefe, Trauntvein, & Burns, 2015). ...
... This demographic shift among U.S. hunters is an area ripe for academic inquiry and scholarship. Specifically, given that hunter education, skills training programs, and outreach materials have been designed and developed within a context of a predominately male audience, there is a need to build on existing scholarship related to hunter recruitment, retention, and reactivation (i.e., "R3") (e.g., Enck et al., 2000;Larson, Stedman, Decker, Siemer, & Baumer, 2014;Ryan & Shaw, 2011;Vayer et al., 2021), with a focus on the needs of women hunters across their lifespan. This paper aims to begin that conversation. ...
... Social support can be defined as confidence derived through camaraderie, meaningful interpersonal connection, and the feeling of belonging when pursuing an activity or challenge (Prokopy, Floress, Klotthor-Weinkauf, & Baumgart-Getz, 2008;Vealey et al., 1998). Literature regarding hunting and social dynamics has shown that social support is an important predictor of whether or not individuals are more likely to be motivated to hunt or to continue to hunt in the future (Enck et al., 2000;Hrubes, Ajzen, & Daigle, 2001;Stedman, 2012;Voorhees, 2007). These findings are consistent with broader scholarship on leisure participation and constraints (Godbey, Crawford, & Shen, 2010;Sharaievska, Stodolska, & Floyd, 2014;Stodolska et al. 2020;White, 2008). ...
Self-efficacy, or the belief we have in our own abilities, plays an important role in determining individuals’ participation and success in outdoor activities. In the U.S., managers have increasingly sought ways to support underrepresented groups’ participation in outdoor recreation. Hunting provides a particularly illustrative example, where female hunters and hunters of other racial and ethnic groups remain a starkly underrepresented, albeit growing constituent of the U.S. hunting population. In this study, we investigated the role of self-efficacy as it relates to female hunter participation to inform managers’ innovative efforts to recruit and retain this important constituency. Specifically, we look at how self-efficacy and its components change as female hunters gain experience. In a sample of female Oregon hunters (n = 147) drawn from the 2008 big game license database conducted in the summer of 2010, we found that hunters with fewer years of experience had lower overall self-efficacy compared to more experienced hunters. While skills-based components of self-efficacy were lower for less experienced hunters, there was less of a difference in the social support-based components of self-efficacy as hunters gained experience. These findings suggest that social support is important for the recruitment and retention of all female hunters regardless of skill level or experience.
Management implications
Managers seeking to bolster or maintain hunter participation might consider tailoring recruitment and retention efforts to address the social support needs and unique motivations of female hunters as they seek to achieve the goals of inclusivity in hunting as well as conservation and wildlife management more broadly.
... Furthermore, hunting related data have been collected nationally by the USFWS every five years since 1955 using the Fishing, Hunting, and Wildlife-Associated Recreation (FHWAR) survey (e.g., U.S. Department of the Interior Fish and Wildlife Service and Department of Commerce Census Bureau 2006 [1]). While the annual state-reported data provide a wealth of information on specific game species and harvest rates, most historical trend analyses across the US have used the FHWAR data (e.g., [2][3][4][5]). ...
... Evaluating hunting trends has rarely utilized state-reported data due to the types of questions being investigated, data availability and access, and the fact that most analyses are simply interested in national scale trends (see [2][3][4]). Though the FHWAR data do provide useful insights into national trends, they provide less insight into state level issues that are critical for wildlife management actions and policies. ...
... In general, national hunting trends are determined from hunter participation data (e.g., number of hunters, hunter recruitment, hunter retention, and number of days spent hunting [2][3][4][5]. In Hawai'i, however, participation indicators alone are unlikely to accurately represent hunting trends for several reasons. ...
At present, 21 game species have been successfully established in Hawai'i for the purpose of recreational and subsistence hunting. However, it is unknown how these management efforts have affected hunting and recreation trends in Hawai'i and how the patterns may parallel national data. Consequently, managers and biologists in Hawai'i have little reliable harvest and hunting participation information on which to base current and future management goals. This study provides the first ever analysis of public hunting data in the state of Hawai'i, and is one of only a handful nationally to investigate long-term hunting dynamics in the United States. Our goal was to understand historical hunting trends in the state of Hawai'i in order to provide baseline information to assist in current and future management efforts. Based upon this goal, our objectives were to investigate the influence that time, location, and species have had on both game harvest and hunter participation from 1946 to 2008 across the inhabited islands of Hawai'i. We used 62 years of data from Pittman-Robertson reports to evaluate temporal trends in game harvest and hunter participation for all species, individual species, and taxonomic groups (mammals and birds) at both state and island levels. Since 1946, trends in game harvest and hunter participation in Hawai'i have varied widely by island and species, suggesting that game management may be most effective when approached at the island or species level. Across the state the overall harvest has declined, with only a handful of species being harvested in greater numbers over time on several islands. However, our findings do highlight inconsistencies and potential biases in harvest collection data that are critical for science-based management. In particular, because every game species in Hawai'i has been introduced, there is a critical need to improve harvest data collection and couple it with monitoring data in order to provide management and policy recommendations and develop better conservation planning guidelines.
... Furthermore, hunting related data have been collected nationally by the USFWS every five years since 1955 using the Fishing, Hunting, and Wildlife-Associated Recreation (FHWAR) survey (e.g., U.S. Department of the Interior Fish and Wildlife Service and Department of Commerce Census Bureau 2006 [1]). While the annual state-reported data provide a wealth of information on specific game species and harvest rates, most historical trend analyses across the US have used the FHWAR data (e.g., [2][3][4][5]). ...
... Evaluating hunting trends has rarely utilized state-reported data due to the types of questions being investigated, data availability and access, and the fact that most analyses are simply interested in national scale trends (see [2][3][4]). Though the FHWAR data do provide useful insights into national trends, they provide less insight into state level issues that are critical for wildlife management actions and policies. ...
... In general, national hunting trends are determined from hunter participation data (e.g., number of hunters, hunter recruitment, hunter retention, and number of days spent hunting [2][3][4][5]. In Hawai'i, however, participation indicators alone are unlikely to accurately represent hunting trends for several reasons. ...
At present, 21 game species have been successfully established in Hawai‘i for the purpose of recreational and subsistence hunting. However, it is unknown how these management efforts have affected hunting and recreation trends in Hawai‘i and how the patterns may parallel national data. Consequently, managers and biologists in Hawai‘i have little reliable harvest and hunting participation information on which to base current and future management goals. This study provides the first ever analysis of public hunting data in the state of Hawai‘i, and is one of only a handful nationally to investigate long-term hunting dynamics in the United States. Our goal was to understand historical hunting trends in the state of Hawai‘i in order to provide baseline information to assist in current and future management efforts. Based upon this goal, our objectives were to investigate the influence that time, location, and species have had on both game harvest and hunter participation from 1946 to 2008 across the inhabited islands of Hawai‘i. We used 62 years of data from Pittman-Robertson reports to evaluate temporal trends in game harvest and hunter participation for all species, individual species, and taxonomic groups (mammals and birds) at both state and island levels. Since 1946, trends in game harvest and hunter participation in Hawai‘i have varied widely by island and species, suggesting that game management may be most effective when approached at the island or species level. Across the state the overall harvest has declined, with only a handful of species being harvested in greater numbers over time on several islands. However, our findings do highlight inconsistencies and potential biases in harvest collection data that are critical for science-based management. In particular, because every game species in Hawai‘i has been introduced, there is a critical need to improve harvest data collection and couple it with monitoring data in order to provide management and policy recommendations and develop better conservation planning guidelines.
... Listening to hunting stories, eating game meat, and sharing responsibilities associated with hunting helps to socialize individuals from hunting households into hunting (Decker & Mattfeld, 1988). Yet, individuals raised in non-hunting families rarely experience these connections to hunting unless they can find close friends or mentors to substitute for family support (Decker et al., 2001;Enck et al., 2000;Purdy et al., 1985;Stedman & Heberlein, 2001). At first, this may not seem to be supported by our findings as hunters from non-hunting families rated neighbors and friends as less important pathways into hunting than did hunters from hunting families, but neighbors and friends were relatively more important than family for individuals from non-hunting families compared to traditional hunters (Figure 3). ...
... By 2050, more than 50% of Americans will be Black, Indigenous, or people of color (U.S. Census Bureau, 2012). Research has shown that individuals who are not white have limited connections to hunting and are drastically under-represented in the hunting population (Enck et al., 2000;Floyd & Lee, 2002;Poudyal et al., 2008). Recruitment and retention of racial and ethnic minorities have proven difficult, but could provide a new base of support for hunting. ...
Participation in hunting has been declining and organizations have increased efforts to recruit non-traditional path hunters (NTPHs) such as adults who did not hunt as children, urban residents, and women. Anecdotal evidence suggests that NTPHs could be interested in hunting if recruiters emphasized certain aspects of the hunting experience such as connecting to nature or harvesting sustainable meat. To explore effects of non-traditional backgrounds on recruitment and retention, we measured the importance of socialization pathways, recruitment motives, and retention motives of a group of current hunters in Alabama Wildlife Management Areas (n = 700). A generalized ordinal logit regression model determined effects of different non-traditional backgrounds (e.g., non-hunting family, adult-onset hunters, urban resident, female, millennial) on recruitment and retention. We found that each non-traditional background has a unique influence on recruitment and retention, indicating a need for investigating specific NTPH backgrounds rather than a single homogenous NTPH group.
... Participation in hunting and fishing in the United States (U.S.) has been declining since the mid-1980s and this is likely to continue into the future (Burkett & Winkler, 2019;U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 2018;Winkler & Warnke, 2013). With this decline in participation come over-arching consequences for wildlife conservation and management, including the loss of revenue to support conservation and management of habitat and biota (Vrtiska et al., 2013), cultural tradition (Arnett & Southwick, 2015), political support (Enck et al., 2000), and connection to nature (Peterson et al., 2011). To address this decline in participation, there is greater effort among fish and wildlife agencies and NGOs to increase the relevancy of wildlife conservation among stakeholders, as well as enact strategies seeking to increase the number of participants (Larson et al., 2014;Price Tack et al., 2018). ...
... To address this decline in participation, there is greater effort among fish and wildlife agencies and NGOs to increase the relevancy of wildlife conservation among stakeholders, as well as enact strategies seeking to increase the number of participants (Larson et al., 2014;Price Tack et al., 2018). Therefore, gaining a better understanding of what influences participation in wildlife-based recreation has increased in importance as agencies become concerned about future funding prospects and other conservation efforts (Enck et al., 2000;Hinrichs et al., 2020). An important step in addressing the decline in hunting and fishing participation is understanding the motivation to engage in such activities. ...
Motivations for hunting and fishing extend beyond harvesting game and include social, psychological, emotional, and physical benefits. We used data from a web-based questionnaire to compare relationships between preferred hunting or fishing activity types, state of residence, and motivations of hunters and anglers across the central United States (U.S.). Exploratory factor analysis yielded four motivation factors: nature, social, food, and challenge. Differences in terms of state were negligible across all motivation factors ( η p 2 < .01 ), indicating similarity across states. Nature ( η p 2 = .01 ) and social ( η p 2 < .01 ) factors were the first and second most important factors across activity types. We observed larger differences among the challenge ( η p 2 = .03 ), and food ( η p 2 = .15 ) factors, primarily driven by big game hunters. Big game hunters rated the food motivation factor greater than the other activity types. Overall, our results indicate that there might be a greater universality in these motivation factors among activity types and locations in the U.S.
... Hunter education programmes tend to focus on the skills of hunting with little focus on social competence critical to the development of a longterm hunter (Schulz et al., 2003;Wentz & Seng, 2000). Long-term participation depends on personal/cultural identity development in relation to hunting and shooting (Blair, 2007;Enck et al., 2000;Response Management, 2004). ...
... Examples consist of statewide efforts to retain and enhance hunting culture and heritage such as the 600 agencies in Wisconsin working to preserve and promote hunting heritage (Enck et al., 2000). In addition, Enck et al. indicate that hunter participation indicators of recruitment and retention may not tell the whole story. ...
A systematic literature review for the Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies (U.S.A.) focused on benefits of outdoor skills education contributions to health, learning, and lifestyle. The purpose was to determine the extent to which positive impacts of outdoor skills education and wildlife-related outdoor education were documented with respect to health, lifestyle, and student learning. Results came from review of 100+ documents (from 2000–2010) on adult learning, education, health, leisure, recreation, sport, therapy, and at-risk-youth highlighting evidence of positive contributions of outdoor skills education on hunting, fishing, and other outdoor activity participation. Opportunities offered via outdoor skills education within both natural and social environments illustrate situations in which positive connections can be made with the self, others, and the environment. Outdoor skills activities provide opportunities for the connection of individuals with nature and the outdoors, with social networks, and more importantly, with themselves. Specifically, the benefits lie in the strength and placement of these connections from the leisure context to everyday lives.
... Turkey hunter numbers in the United States (U.S.) increased throughout the 1970s-1990s in response to rapidly growing turkey populations and the liberalization of hunting opportunities that followed [1,2,3,4]. Thus, in the face of general declines of hunter participation and concerns over wildlife management funding models that ensued [4,5,6,7,8], the number of hunters pursuing turkeys actually increased. For example, participation in spring turkey hunting in North America increased by 21% from 1994-1999 and by 6% from 1999-2004 to approximately 2.8 million hunters [3,9]. ...
... Our analyses provided little evidence that factors creating opportunity for quality hunting had sizable effects on spring and fall turkey hunter population at a county scale, at least not during recent periods where hunter success and satisfaction measures remain high (i.e., high quality hunting was normal). The motivations of individual hunters that affect their decision to hunt or not may be complex, but managers often measure satisfaction to assess the degree to which those motivations are fulfilled [5,33]. Yet, our analyses demonstrated that hunter satisfaction was in fact a poor predictor of hunter numbers at the county scale across southern Michigan. ...
Wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo; hereafter turkeys) are an important game animal whose popularity among hunters has increased in recent decades. Yet, the number of hunters pursuing turkeys appears to be in flux, patterns of hunter abundance have primarily been described at broad spatial scales, and the ability of management to impact hunter numbers in the post-restoration era of management through opportunity for quality hunting is unclear. We used county-scale estimates of turkey hunter numbers collected over a 14-year period (2001–2014) and time-series analyses to evaluate the spatial scales at which spring and fall turkey hunter populations fluctuate, and also used generalized linear mixed models to evaluate whether attributes related to quality turkey hunting explain recent patterns in hunter abundance. We found heterogeneity in turkey hunter population growth at finer spatial scales than has been previously described (i.e., counties and management units), and provide evidence for spatial structuring of hunter population dynamics among counties that did not always correspond with existing management units. Specifically, the directionality of hunter population change displays spatial structure along an east-west gradient in southern Michigan. We also found little evidence that factors providing opportunity for quality turkey hunting had meaningful impacts on recent spatial-temporal patterns of hunter numbers. Our results imply that providing quality turkey hunting opportunities alone may be insufficient for sustaining populations of turkey hunters in the future, and that modern determinants of hunter participation extend beyond the availability of abundant turkey populations. Moreover, our results demonstrate that interpretation of harvest data as indices of abundance for turkey populations is difficult in the absence of hunter effort data, as changes to turkey harvest are a function of potentially fine-scaled changes in populations of hunters, not simply changes to turkey populations.
... Further, research suggests that harvest is a major driver of hunter satisfaction (Gruntorad, 2019;Bradshaw et al., 2019). Low game populations can lead to dissatisfied hunters and decreased participation (Enck et al., 2000;Schroeder et al., 2006). Alternatively, increased opportunity to harvest game has the potential to lead to more satisfied hunters, and subsequently, increased hunter participation. ...
... Boomers. Focused efforts have been made to increase youth recruitment into the hunting population since the 1980s (DiCamillo & Schaefer, 2000;Enck et al., 2000). High ...
The number of individuals actively participating in waterfowl hunting has substantially declined since the 1980s, despite relatively abundant waterfowl populations and hunting opportunities. To avoid further losses in political support for wildlife management, losses in habitat conservation revenue, and broaden the base of waterfowl and wetland conservation support, there has been an increased focus on growing the number of waterfowl hunters and waterfowl and wetland conservation supporters. The purpose of this study was to estimate resident waterfowl hunter and Ducks Unlimited (DU) member recruitment rates, retention probabilities, and license/membership purchase probabilities; provide a better understanding of the factors influencing these populations and provide a foundation for measuring the success of R3 programs aimed at these populations. To estimate both waterfowl hunter and DU member recruitment rates, retention probabilities, and license/membership purchase probabilities, we analyzed five state electronic license systems and DU membership databases (Nebraska, Kansas, Missouri, Montana, South Dakota) using a Pradel model in a mark-recapture framework. We included five covariates (gender, generation, hunting opportunity, rurality, and DU membership class) to improve parameter estimates. For waterfowl hunters, the top models indicated that recruitment and retention rates decreased over time for all groups, and that while males had higher retention rates than females, females had higher recruitment rates. In addition, as DU membership class increased so did retention and license purchase probabilities. For DU members, we found similar trends with males having higher retention rates and membership purchase probabilities than females, but females having higher recruitment rates. Additionally, we found in most states, that Baby Boomers had the highest retention and membership purchase probabilities compared to other generations. These results confirmed some assumptions that we have about both waterfowl hunters and DU members. Additionally, they suggest that social habitat for hunters and developing a conservationist’s identity for DU members is important for recruitment and retention. These results can be used to both inform and evaluate future R3 programs focused on waterfowl hunters and DU members. Advisor: Christopher J. Chizinski
... Non-hunting wildlife stakeholders have increasing effects on harvest regulations through lobbying and the use of ballot initiatives (DeVos, Shroufe, & Supplee, 1998;Manfredo, Teel, Sullivan, & Dietsch, 2017). There are also growing concerns about 45 a decrease in the number of hunters (Enck, Decker, & Brown, 2012;Heberlein, 1991;Ryan & Shaw, 2011) and a potential decrease in hunter interest due to a generally aging hunter population and increasingly restricted access to hunting land (Boxall, Watson, & McFarlane, 2001;Miller & Vaske, 2003;Stedman, Bhandari, Luloff, Diefenbach, & Finley, 2008;Winkler & Warnke, 2013). At the same time, there is often a perceived need by 50 managers to set quotas to fill demand and increase hunter numbers or improve hunter satisfaction (Hammitt, McDonald, & Noe, 1989;Heberlein & Kuentzel, 2002), which is often tied to achievement and success of the hunt (Ebeling-Schuld & Darimont, 2017;Hammitt et al., 1989). ...
... A decrease in the availability of permits was also correlated with increases in the number of applications for permits and hunter participation, whereas the increased interest (applications and participation) was also correlated with success (percent of filled 260 permits). These increasing trends may run counter to trends of decreasing or stable hunter populations across much of North America (Enck et al., 2012;Heberlein, 1991;Ryan & Shaw, 2011). Since instituting the quota system in 1992, participation by bobcat hunters (the number of hunters with permits who actively participate) has increased from approximately 50% in the 1990s to more than 80% in the last few years. ...
Management of wildlife populations has changed in the last century, coinciding with decreasing hunter populations and interest. Supply and demand suggest that reducing available harvest permits should increase the perceived value of permits, leading to an increase in hunter interest and motivation. We used annual harvest data and hunter surveys to study the effects of decreasing the supply of permits over two decades in Wisconsin. The number of permits issued was important in the top models for annual bobcat harvest and hunter participation. The decrease in the supply of permits was strongly correlated with increases in the number of applications for permits (R2 = .82) and hunter participation (R2 = .93), whereas increased hunter interest (applications and participation) was correlated with hunter success (percent of filled permits; R2 applications = .90, R2 participation = .93). This increasing trend in hunter populations and interest runs counter to general decreasing trends across North America and highlights the critical role of permit supply in wildlife management.
... Recruitment and retention of conservationists are key issues for many natural resources agencies and organizations (e.g., Enck et al. 2000, Adams et al. 2004). Hunting and fishing provide substantial economic benefits to local and state economies (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service [USFWS] and U.S. Census Bureau 2017). ...
... Additionally, consistent with our predictions andSchorr et al. (2014), individuals in Generation Z had the highest recruitment rates, followed by Millennials, Generation X, and finally, Baby Boomers. Many states and conservation organizations have focused recruitment efforts on youth since the 1980s (DiCamillo and Schaefer 2000,Enck et al. 2000). High ...
The number of waterfowl hunters in the United States has declined since the 1980s despite relatively abundant waterfowl populations and liberal hunting regulations. Programs focused on recruiting, retaining, and reactivating (R3) waterfowl hunters have become important to avoid further losses in traditional revenue for habitat management and protection and political support for waterfowl conservation and management. We focus on 4 waterfowl hunter population vital rates (i.e., recruitment rate, retention probability, license purchase probability, realized population growth rate), which can be used to improve the effectiveness of waterfowl hunter R3 activities and initiatives by providing a deeper understanding of waterfowl hunter population dynamics to determine who programs should target, where programs should be targeted, and finally the evaluation of programs. To do so, we analyzed Nebraska state electronic license data from 2012–2019 using Pradel survival and recruitment models in a mark‐recapture framework. Female waterfowl hunter recruitment was higher than males; however, retention and license purchase probabilities were lower. Recruitment was highest in younger generations and retention highest in older generations. License purchase probabilities were highest among those in the oldest and youngest generations. The availability of hunting opportunity increased license purchase probabilities but had a minimal influence on retention and no association with recruitment. There were weak relationships between rurality and recruitment, and retention and license purchase probabilities. Finally, belonging to Ducks Unlimited was positively associated with higher license purchase and retention probabilities. Targeting an increase in license purchase probability by promoting social support for hunters through conservation organization membership should be a focus of waterfowl hunter R3 efforts to have the greatest influence on increasing waterfowl hunter participation.
... Wildlife managers are facing declines in hunting participation across the U.S. (Enck et al., 1996(Enck et al., , 2000Mehmood et al., 2003;Miller and Vaske, 2003;US DOI et al., 2016;US DOI et al., 2011). While permit fees have historically been kept low, with marginal fee increases disproportionately low in relation to changes in the cost of living (Sutton et al., 2001), reduced hunting participation forces wildlife managers to increase permit prices or create new permits in order to maintain funding for wildlife management (Brunke et al., 2006). ...
We use contingent valuation to estimate hunter and trapper willingness to pay (WTP) for a hypothetical bobcat harvest permit being considered in Indiana. Harvest permits would be rationed, with limits on aggregate and individual harvests. A model of permit demand shows that WTP may be subject to “congestion effects” which attenuate welfare gains from relaxing harvest limits. Intuitively, relaxing limits may directly change an individual’s expected harvest and, hence, WTP. Participation may subsequently change, with congestion offsetting welfare increases. These effects may lead to apparent scope insensitivity that may be endemic in the context of rationed goods.
... However, scientific evaluation of R3 programming remains limited, and efforts that exist typically lack theoretical grounding in their curriculum and evaluation (Enck et al. 2000, Larson et al. 2014) and tend to focus on singular outputs such as post-program license sales (Wildlife Management Institute 2022). For example, R3 programs designed to minimize potential barriers to hunting rarely account for the full array of constraints identified by previous research (Wright et al. 2001, Miller and Vaske 2003, Metcalf et al. 2015, Stodolska et al. 2020. ...
Declines in hunter numbers across the United States make hunter recruitment, retention, and reactivation (R3) a high priority for wildlife management. As wildlife management agencies and nongovernmental organizations seek to reach new audiences, college campuses present a unique opportunity to cultivate nontraditional path hunters. Despite recent proliferation of R3 initiatives, little research has evaluated effects of hunting programs on knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors of new hunters. We designed and implemented Getting Started Outdoors: Hunting 101 workshops specifically targeting college students without previous hunting experience, and we assessed workshop efficacy with a theoretically‐grounded approach to workshop evaluation. Using quantitative and qualitative analysis of surveys conducted before, shortly after, and 12–18 months after workshops, we assessed impacts of R3 efforts at large public universities in 16 different U.S. states. Across all states, 19 workshops attracted 314 total participants, with 255 completing both pre‐ and post‐workshop assessments and 133 completing the follow‐up surveys. Workshops significantly increased participants' confidence in hunting, reduced barriers related to inadequate knowledge and skills, and fostered positive views of hunters and hunting. Immediately after workshops, most participants said they would definitely (50%) or probably (34%) hunt in the future; 82% said they would likely (or very likely) purchase a hunting license. Over one year after the workshops, 34% of workshop participants reported having hunted, and another 45% said they would probably hunt in the future. Overall, workshops attracted a diverse population of potential hunters, increased interest in future hunting, and created hunting advocates. Findings highlight the potentially powerful impact that R3 programs focused on diverse college students can have on the future of hunting across the United States.
... Because these license sales contribute significantly to natural resources agency budgets [16], deer hunting can have a strong influence on agency operations and the management of resources beyond deer [2]. Further, many of these agencies are already financially strained because of a decades long decline in hunter numbers [17]. CWD's negative effect on deer hunter participation and license sales, even if lasting only several years [12][13][14]18], may be exacerbating already thinned agency budgets. ...
Cervids are economically important to a wide range of stakeholders and rights holders in the United States. The continued expansion of chronic wasting disease (CWD), a fatal neurodegenerative disease affecting wild and farmed cervids, poses a direct and indirect threat to state and federal government agency operations and cervid related economic activity. However, the scale of this disease’s direct economic costs is largely unknown. I synthesized existing publicly available data and stakeholder-provided data to estimate CWD’s costs within the continental United States. Federal government agencies collectively spent over 203.6 million of this total being spent by the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service. In fiscal year 2020, state natural resources agencies and state agriculture/animal health agencies spent over 2.9 million, respectively, on CWD-related work. Natural resources agencies in states with known CWD cases spent over 8 times as much on CWD as agencies from states with no known cases. The farmed cervid industry spent at least $307,950 on CWD sampling in 2020, though a lack of available data prevented a complete assessment of costs to this industry. Based on limited data, CWD’s economic effects on the hunting industry (i.e., outfitters and guides, companies leasing land to cervid hunters), may be negligible at this time. Overall, however, the realized economic costs of CWD appear considerable, and it is likely that the number of stakeholders financially affected by this disease and regulations meant to stem its spread will continue to grow. By understanding the current economic impacts of CWD, we are better positioned to assess the costs and benefits of investments in management and research and to understand the magnitude of this disease’s broader societal impacts.
... big game hunting, elk hunting, lottery based permit systems State fish and wildlife agencies rely on hunters to assist in managing game populations and fund management actions through revenue generated from permit sales and excise taxes on hunting equipment (Mehmood et al. 2003, Winkler andWarnke 2013). Hunting participation has been steadily declining over the past 2 decades (Mozumder et al. 2007, Ryan and Shaw 2011, Vrtiska et al. 2013, Larson et al. 2014, Bureau of the Census and United States Fish and Wildlife Service 2018) and constitutes a threat to wildlife conservation and management in North America (Enck et al. 2000, Li et al. 2003). State agencies concerned over reduced hunter numbers are increasingly investing in efforts to better understand their constituents , Hinrichs et al. 2020, Wszola et al. 2020a and assessing shifting demographics of hunter participation (Vaske and Manfredo 2012, Keogh George 2016, Rodriguez et al. 2016). ...
Opportunities to hunt big game species such as elk ( Cervus canadensis ) are often rationed through a lottery permit system when demand for permits exceeds the population's ability to sustain harvest levels. We conducted a survey of elk hunters and would‐be elk hunters in the summer of 2016 to compare elk‐hunting constraints among 3 groups of individuals. Groups consisted of 1) individuals who possessed a landowner hunting permit at some point between 2011 and 2016 (Landowner), 2) individuals who did not possess a landowner permit but did possess a general hunting permit between 2011 and 2016 (General), and 3) individuals who had not possessed a Nebraska elk‐hunting permit of any kind between 2011 and 2016 but had attempted to draw a permit from the lottery system at least once during these years (Lottery). We used latent class regression to classify survey participants based on their responses to 7 questions related to constraints to elk hunting that were either experienced (Landowner and General) or perceived (Lottery) on a 5‐point scale (Strongly Disagree to Strongly Agree). Probability of latent class membership was estimated for each hunter group. Latent class regression revealed 6 latent classes with Landowner participants most likely to belong to classes who exhibited the least difficulty negotiating all constraints. General and Lottery participants were most likely to fall into classes exhibiting more difficulty negotiating constraints related to interactions with property owners for permissions to hunt on their land. Our findings can assist policy makers and managers with tailoring lottery permit systems, particularly in locations where most of the hunting opportunity is restricted to privately owned land.
... Since the 1980s, the U.S. hunting population has dropped by approximately 2 million participants (USFWS, 2020), and the number of active hunters has declined by approximately 30% (USFWS, 2018). The decline is particularly sharp among young adults born after 1980 (Enck, Decker, & Brown, 2000;Winkler & Warnke, 2013). Waning participation has been attributed to factors including urbanization, structural shifts in demographics (e.g., aging, increasing racial/ethnic diversity), land ownership changes that impact hunting access, negative media coverage, and competing demands for time and money (Larson, Stedman, Decker, Siemer, & Baumer, 2014;Peterson, Hansen, Peterson, & Peterson, 2011;Poudyal, Cho, & Bowker, 2008). ...
Insufficient funding is a major impediment to conservation efforts around the world. In the United States, a decline in hunting participation threatens sustainability of the “user-pay, public benefit” model that has supported wildlife conservation for nearly 100 years, forcing wildlife management agencies to contemplate alternative funding strategies. We investigated support for potential funding options among diverse college students, a rapidly expanding and politically active voting bloc with a potentially powerful influence on the future of conservation. From 2018 to 2020, we surveyed 17,203 undergraduate students at public universities across 22 states. Students preferred innovative approaches to conservation funding, with 72% supporting funding derived from industry sources (e.g., natural resource extraction companies), 63% supporting state sources (e.g., general sales tax), and 43% supporting conventional user-based sources such as license fees and excise taxes associated with outdoor recreation activities (e.g., hunting). Findings emphasize the need to broaden the base of support for conservation funding and highlight the importance of considering the preferences and perspectives of young adults and other diverse beneficiaries of wildlife conservation.
... Based on our findings, new, nontraditional turkey hunters, who potentially rely more on public land for access to hunting opportunities, may also suffer from a lack of mentorship to help them understand where these activities are allowed (Stayton 2017). Formal mentoring programs focused on public lands could encourage more mentoring participation among turkey hunters and support efforts to recruit new hunters, especially if those new hunters are relying on access to public lands for opportunity (Enck et al. 2000, Wentz and Seng 2000, Stayton 2017. ...
Across the United States, conservation leaders have been concerned about declines in hunting participation because hunting license sales and taxes on the sale of equipment used for hunting generate a significant portion of wildlife conservation funding. Natural resource agencies have begun focusing on recruitment, retention, and reactivation (R3) initiatives to reverse this decline. These initiatives, in part, seek to increase participation in hunting and shooting sports of currently nonhunting audiences. One of the primary techniques used by the R3 initiative is to develop mentoring programs that provide hunting opportunities for participants with an experienced hunter. Because of its unique and flexible tactics (e.g., calling, still hunting vs run and gun hunting), turkey hunting affords a natural opportunity for mentoring to take place. However, to make mentoring programs efficient and effective, R3 practitioners must have an understanding of the demographics of mentors and what challenges or incentives may exist to participating in a mentoring program. Therefore, we surveyed Florida turkey hunters to (1) understand the demographics of turkey hunters who mentor and (2) assess the challenges, benefits, and incentives to mentoring other turkey hunters in Florida. In 2015, we collected a random sample of 2,817 Florida hunters eligible to hunt turkeys from the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission hunting license registry. A total of 710 respondents actively hunted turkeys in the state of Florida. Experienced turkey hunters who mentor perceived challenges (lack of time, interferes with their own hunting opportunity, unfamiliar with mentoring opportunities) less and viewed incentives less than novice and intermediate experienced mentoring hunters. Among wild turkey hunters in Florida, the propensity to mentor was greater among men and those who hunted private land and increased with level of turkey‐hunting experience. To recruit new mentors, agencies must increase awareness of formal mentor programs that focus a connection to public land access and provide recognition to the individuals attending.
... Since the 1980s, the U.S. hunting population has dropped by approximately 2 million participants (USFWS, 2020), and the number of active hunters has declined by approximately 30% (USFWS, 2018). The decline is particularly sharp among young adults born after 1980 (Enck, Decker, & Brown, 2000;Winkler & Warnke, 2013). Waning participation has been attributed to factors including urbanization, structural shifts in demographics (e.g., aging, increasing racial/ethnic diversity), land ownership changes that impact hunting access, negative media coverage, and competing demands for time and money (Larson, Stedman, Decker, Siemer, & Baumer, 2014;Peterson, Hansen, Peterson, & Peterson, 2011;Poudyal, Cho, & Bowker, 2008). ...
Insufficient funding is a major impediment to conservation efforts around the world. In the United States, a decline in hunting participation threatens sustainability of the “user‐pay, public benefit” model that has supported wildlife conservation for nearly 100 years, forcing wildlife management agencies to contemplate alternative funding strategies. We investigated support for potential funding options among diverse college students, a rapidly expanding and politically active voting bloc with a potentially powerful influence on the future of conservation. From 2018 to 2020, we surveyed 17,203 undergraduate students at public universities across 22 states. Students preferred innovative approaches to conservation funding, with 72% supporting funding derived from industry sources (e.g., natural resource extraction companies), 63% supporting state sources (e.g., general sales tax), and 43% supporting conventional user‐based sources such as license fees and excise taxes associated with outdoor recreation activities (e.g., hunting). Findings emphasize the need to broaden the base of support for conservation funding and highlight the importance of considering the preferences and perspectives of young adults and other diverse beneficiaries of wildlife conservation.
... However, a steady decline in hunting participation in the United States , Larson et al. 2014) has reduced contributions to the MBCF, with estimated revenue losses in the millions of dollars (Vrtiska et al. 2013, U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, and U.S. Department of Commerce, U.S. Census Bureau 2017). Because of the potentially large economic and political ramifications of a declining hunter base (Brown et al. 2000, Peterson et al. 2010, there is increased emphasis on integrating social objectives in resource allocation decisions to achieve hunter and birdwatcher recruitment, retention, and reactivation goals (Devers et al. 2017). Compatible uses and social objectives are not considered explicitly under the current approach to land acquisition by the NWRS. ...
Resource allocation for land acquisition is a common multiobjective problem that involves complex trade‐offs. The National Wildlife Refuge System (NWRS) of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service currently uses the Targeted Resource Acquisition Comparison Tool (TRACT) to allocate funds from the Migratory Bird Conservation Fund (MBCF; established through the Migratory Bird Hunting and Conservation Act of 1934) for land acquisition based on cost–benefit analysis, regional priority rankings of candidate land parcels available for acquisition, and the overall biological contribution to duck population objectives. However, current policy encourages decision makers to consider societal and economic benefits of lands acquired, in addition to their biological benefits to waterfowl. These decisions about portfolio elements (i.e., individual land parcels) require an analysis of the difficult trade‐offs among multiple objectives. In the last decade the application of multicriteria decision analysis (MCDA) methods has been instrumental in aiding decision makers with complex multiobjective decisions. In this study, we present an alternative approach to developing land‐acquisition portfolios using MCDA and modern portfolio theory (MPT). We describe the development of a portfolio decision analysis tool using constrained optimization for land‐acquisition decisions by the NWRS. We outline the decision framework, describe development of the prototype tool in Microsoft Excel, and test the results of the tool using land parcels submitted as candidates for MBCF funding in 2019. Our results indicate that the constrained optimization outperformed the traditional TRACT method and ad hoc portfolios developed using current NWRS criteria.
... Bones collected by Japanese hunters have contributed to the detection of a historical shift in the brown bear diet caused by human activities (Matsubayashi et al., 2015). However, in many countries, hunters are decreasing in number and/or aging (Enck, Decker, & Brown, 2000;Riley et al., 2003;Ueda, Kanzaki, & Koganezawa, 2010). For example, the Japanese Ministry of the Environment reports that the number of Japanese hunters has declined by 65% over the past four decades, and approximately 65% of hunters are over age 60. ...
Large carnivores encounter various threats from human activities. Population trend detection among carnivore species and implementation of management policies based on monitoring are urgently needed for human–carnivore coexistence. We demonstrate how young citizens have helped reveal long‐term trends in brown bear field sign detection rates following a government policy change (i.e., abolishment of the spring cull). We used a 40‐year dataset of field signs collected by volunteer college students in northern Japan and analyzed the resulting data using state‐space models. The spring cull had a significant negative impact on the number of grids with field signs; the detection rate under spring cull pressure declined from 19 to 0% between 1976 and 1990. However, abolishment of the spring cull in 1990 had a significant positive effect on the number of grids with field signs; the detection rate increased from 0 to 13% between 1991 and 2015, suggesting that the government policy change strongly affected the threatened brown bear population. Structured monitoring schemes, simplicity and/or attractiveness in monitoring targets may ensure the data quality and duration of citizen‐based monitoring. These findings suggest a high potential for engaging college students in developing sustainable monitoring of large carnivore populations and in supporting wildlife management.
... fishing equipment. The continued decline in hunting and fishing [1][2][3][4], therefore, constitutes a threat to conservation and management in North America [5,6]. Non-governmental organizations and state agencies concerned over the loss of sportspersons are increasingly investing in programs focused on improving recruitment, retention, and reactivation of sportspersons (hereafter R3 programs); however, the success of R3 programs remains largely unknown in part because agencies lack a detailed understanding of patterns and processes that drive sportsperson participation. ...
State fish and wildlife agencies rely on hunters and anglers (i.e., sportspersons) to fund management actions through revenue generated from license sales and excise taxes on hunting and fishing equipment. There is a need to develop new techniques that bridge the information gap on participation and provide agencies with an understanding of sportspersons at a resolution that can more directly inform efforts to engage sportspersons. Monitoring sportsperson participation using information about their license-purchasing behavior has the potential to reveal important patterns in recruitment (first-time purchase of a hunting or fishing license), retention (continued purchase of licenses across multiple years), and reactivation (purchase a license after several years with no purchases). Providing up-to-date information on what licenses are purchased, when and by whom may prove invaluable to managers and policy makers. We present a customizable, open-source, web-based application—huntfishapp—that allows the user to query and interact with a structured query language (SQL) hunting and fishing license database. The huntfishapp serves as an informational resource and tool that provides a framework to share information on license sales across an agency, with intent of increasing understanding of (a) sportspersons and (b) how management decisions affect sportspersons. Data dashboards, like the huntfishapp, allow agencies and non-governmental organizations to become more knowledgeable of their customer base and provide a greater understanding of management-decision effects on hunting and fishing participation.
... However, the current hyper-sensitive political climate surrounding this issue has affected AFWA and its affiliates to the point where they are unwilling to act and resist any incremental steps. The primary reason for inaction is declining number of hunters due to multiple shifting demographic factors (Enck et al., 2000;Quartuch et al., 2017;Schulz et al., 2003). These declines are the primary reason most state agencies are risk-averse to anything perceived as accelerating these declines and their associated permit revenues (Prukop and Regan, 2005). ...
Wildlife and human health are at risk of lead exposure from spent hunting ammunition. Lead exposure persists for bald eagles due to bullet fragments in game animal gut piles and unretrieved carcasses, and is also a human health risk when wild game is procured using lead ammunition. Programs encouraging the voluntary use of nonlead ammunition have become a popular approach mitigating these effects. This study explored attitudes and experiences of United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) staff implementing an outreach program encouraging deer hunters to voluntary use nonlead ammunition on 54 National Wildlife Refuges (NWRs) in the Upper Midwest, U.S. to understand factors affecting program implementation. We conducted 29 semi-structured interviews of USFWS staff along with 60 responses from an open-ended survey question. Twelve themes emerged from the data and were grouped into three broad categories: (1) challenges of dealing with complex issues, (2) importance of messengers and messages, and (3) resistance from staff. Challenges of dealing with complex issues included administrative restraint and uncertainty, scope and scale of program, human health not an agency responsibility, contextual political influences, and public-private collaborations. Importance of messengers and messages included the importance of experience, and salience of human health risk. Finally, resistance from staff included skepticism of the science and motives behind the program, competing priorities for refuge staff, differing perceptions of regulatory and voluntary approaches, cost and availability of nonlead ammunition, and disregard by some about lead ammunition and human health risks. Staff identified numerous challenges implementing the program, many of which were external factors beyond the control of the participants. Understanding the factors affecting program implementation may help guide future efforts encouraging the voluntary use of nonlead ammunition.
... There are some signs that hunting in Guadeloupe is also on downward trajectory, but not as rapid as in Barbados. As is the case in many places on the world, the overall numbers of hunters are declining as fewer younger hunters are recruited (Enck et al. 2000;Mahoney 2009;Ryan and Shaw 2011). There is also some indication that fewer birds are being shot in Guadeloupe each year (GU-16 -NGO Representative). ...
After precipitous declines in shorebird populations in North America in the late 1800s, the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918 banned commercial hunting of almost all shorebird species. Despite increased protection, many populations continued to decline. Recent investigations by Canadian and American wildlife agencies found that habitat loss on breeding and wintering grounds was not the only pressure shorebirds were facing. Although poorly understood, shorebird hunting on some Caribbean Islands and in South America were higher than expected. The small country of Barbados, an island with a long history of shorebird hunting, was ideal for investigating questions around shorebird hunting, conservation, and sustainability. The research documents rich cultural hunting legacies beginning in the mid-1600s and continuing today, decreasing hunting pressure due to several factors, and increasing conservation interest and investment. Potential effects of historical island hunting are described, as are conservation efforts implemented through cooperative and adaptive co-management approaches.
... Human-related causes of increased ungulate populations in Europe and eastern North America include a decrease in the number of hunters, climate change, increased number of people in urban areas, management for increased population sizes in rural areas, and land use changes (Maillard et al. 2010). The number of hunters has declined over time as people have developed other social and cultural interests (Enck et al. 2000). Only 5% of the population in the USA (US Department of the Interior 2016) and 0.5% of the population in Europe hunts (Reimoser and Reimoser 2016). ...
Landscape and harvest indices are frequently used to represent white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) density. However, the relationship between deer density and specific landscape indices is unclear. Harvest is another metric often used to estimate deer density. Our objective was to model the relationship among deer density, landscape metrics, and harvest density of deer in TN, USA. We estimated deer density across 11 regions in 2011 using distance sampling techniques. We developed 18 a priori models to assess relationships among deer density, harvest density, and landscape metrics. Estimates of deer density ranged from 1.85 to 19.99 deer/km2. Deer density was best predicted by harvest density and harvest density + percent woody area. However, harvest density was the only important variable in predicting deer density (Σωi = 0.700). Results of this study emphasize the significance of harvest density in deer management. While the importance of harvest as a management tool for deer is likely to increase as landscapes are fragmented and urbanized, specific management guidelines should be based upon deer densities and landscape metrics when they are important.
... Part of the problem is that because of the strong hunting tradition in North America, hunter numbers largely have been taken for granted in management decisions. The persistent decline in hunter numbers, in spite of good hunting opportunities in recent years for many species, has forced managers to reconsider their approach and increase their effort into assessing hunter satisfaction and identifying the factors that drive their motivation (Enck et al. 2000, Vrtiska et al. 2013. ...
From 1991 to 2005, we surveyed American woodcock (Scolopax minor; hereafter, woodcock) hunters in 3 Canadian provinces to assess hunter satisfaction. Across all submitted reports, 42.0% of the respondents reported a 'poor' experience, 35.2% of the hunters reported an 'average' experience, and 22.1% of the hunters reported a 'good' experience. We analyzed hunter satisfaction rate with an ordered logistic regression that included province, Singing Ground Survey Population Index (SGS index), number of woodcock harvested, hunting effort (hours hunted), environmental conditions before and during the nesting and brood-rearing periods (i.e., prior to the hunting season), precipitation during the post-fledging period, and year as explanatory variables. We also included a random effect for each individual hunter, to account for repeated answers, and for year, to account for short-term irregular perturbations in hunter satisfaction. Hunters from Nova Scotia were on average more satisfied than hunters from Ontario. Hunter satisfaction was positively correlated with the SGS index and the number of woodcock harvested by the hunter during a hunting trip. Hunter satisfaction was negatively correlated with the amount of precipitation during the nesting period and positively correlated with the amount of precipitation during the post-fledging period. However, there was considerable variation in individual hunter response, with 27.7% of the hunters more satisfied than average and 22.8% less satisfied than average. In fact, the individual hunter response accounted for approximately 75.0% of the variability observed in the model, indicating that accounting for hunter satisfaction would require further investigation. In the meantime, promoting woodcock habitat conservation in southern Canada could increase woodcock populations, harvest opportunity, and, by extension, hunter satisfaction.
... Modern urban hunters have fewer social connections to rural landowners and therefore are often more limited in their access to places to hunt (Lauber and Brown 2000, Heberlein and Ericsson 2005, Walberg et al. 2018. Illustrating the complexity of the social and ecological interactions that shape the hunting experience, a hunter's site choice, rate of game encounter, and satisfaction is influenced by the hunting lands accessible to a hunter; indeed, hunters limited to hunting locations open to the public may be more likely to drop out of hunting entirely if they lack people to hunt with, spend less time hunting, or harvest fewer animals (Enck et al. 2000. Despite the potential costs and limitations of hunting exclusively on public lands, members of an increasingly urban hunting constituency may lack alternative access options, contributing to the rise of a new group of public lands hunters whose needs and identities are poorly understood. ...
Ring‐necked pheasant (Phasianus colchicus; i.e., pheasant) hunting participation is declining across North America, reflecting a larger downward trend in American hunting participation and threatening benefits to grassland conservation and rural economies. To stabilize and expand the pheasant hunting population, we must first identify factors that influence pheasant hunter participation. We used an extensive in‐person hunter survey to test the hypothesis that hunter demographics interact with social‐ecological traits of hunting locations to affect hunter decisions, outcomes, and perceptions. We built a series of Bayesian mixed effects models to parse variation in demographics, perceptions, and hunt outcomes of pheasant hunters interviewed at public access hunting sites across 3 regions in Nebraska, USA, that varied in pheasant abundance and proximity to urban population centers. Among pheasant hunters in Nebraska, access to private lands was negatively related to the human population density of a pheasant hunter’s home ZIP code and the distance a hunter had traveled to reach a hunting location. Pheasant hunters interviewed closer to metropolitan areas tended to be more urban and travel shorter distances, and their parties were more likely to include youth but less likely to include dogs. Hunter satisfaction was positively associated with seeing and harvesting pheasants and hunting with youth. Whereas youth participation and the number of pheasants seen varied by study region, hunter satisfaction did not differ across regions, suggesting that hunters may calibrate their expectations and build their parties based on where they plan to hunt. The variation in hunter demographics across hunting locations and disconnects between social and ecological correlates of hunter satisfaction suggests that diverse pheasant hunting constituencies will be best served by diverse pheasant hunting opportunities.
... Others have raised concerns over reduced ability to control free-ranging ungulate populations and associated human-wildlife conflicts (Bissonette et al. 2008, Williams et al. 2013, Kilpatrick et al. 2014, Boulanger and Curtis 2016, negative impacts to natural ecosystems (Waller and Alverson 1997, Côté et al. 2004, Jenkins et al. 2014, and diminished hunting culture in rural areas (Larson et al. 2013). Decreased hunting participation prompted hunter recruitment and retention (HRR) related research to investigate why people hunt and strategies for reversing this downward trend (Enck et al. 2000, Boxall et al. 2001, Adams et al. 2004, Larson et al. 2014). In addition, natural resource agencies and nongovernmental organizations responded by increasing recruitment, retention, and reactivation, or R3, outreach programming (Council to Advance Hunting and the Shooting Sports 2017). ...
Achieving state wildlife agency biological goals for deer (Odocoileus spp.) management may often conflict with hunter desires. Concomitantly, better information is needed to optimize agency deer herd management goals with hunters' social goals. In 2016, we surveyed 3,000 North Dakota, USA, resident deer hunters using a self-administered mail survey to gain a better understanding of motivations, satisfaction, and hunter demographics that may be used to inform hunter recruitment and retention (HRR) efforts during a period of reduced statewide deer populations. With deer-gun license availability strictly limited, we explored the possibility that some gun hunters may have been engaging in archery deer hunting as a substitute activity. We also explored motivations for deer hunting in North Dakota by segregating respondents into n = 2 groups: those who preferred deer hunting with a gun vs. those who preferred archery equipment. We then compared ratings of 8 hunting motivations (meat, trophy, nature, excitement, social, skills, challenge, and solitude) by preferred hunting implement and gender differences. We further defined primary motivation by their selection of the most important motivation for participation in North Dakota deer hunting. A majority (58%) of archery hunter applicants preferred to hunt deer with a gun; 42% preferred a bow. Respondents who preferred hunting with archery equipment were slightly more motivated by nature aspects of the hunt whereas those who preferred hunting with a gun placed slightly more value on social aspects. Among motivation ratings, social was rated similarly by females and males, and females rated meat as significantly more important for hunting deer. We used logistic regression to test for differences in satisfaction in relation to deer hunter attributes; probability of satisfaction increased with harvest success, preference for hunting with archery equipment, and nature and social motivations for hunting. A proportion of deer-gun hunters who were restricted by lower license availability via lottery may have turned to archery deer hunting as an alternative. Therefore, typical HRR messages aimed at archery hunters (e.g., nature, challenge) may not resonate as well with North Dakota archery deer license applicants who appeared to be less challenge-oriented than socially-oriented.
... Many of the scenarios simulated under the current harvest rates showed increased bTB impacts as compared to the original harvest rates, emphasizing that hunter harvest remains an important factor controlling bTB in deer. Yet, hunter retention and recruitment are recognized as being in critical decline, and this may have detrimental effects for wildlife disease management (37)(38)(39)(40). For density dependent diseases, such as bTB in deer, population control of wildlife reservoirs is crucial. ...
Although tuberculosis caused by Mycobacterium bovis (bTB) is endemic in white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in northeastern Michigan, USA, baiting and feeding of deer continue despite a regulatory ban. Previous modeling suggests aggregation at bait sites slows the rates at which harvest and/or vaccination decrease bTB prevalence, prolongs time to eradication, and increases the likelihood that once eradicated, bTB will re-establish following an incursion. However, the extent to which specific factors such as food density, attractiveness to deer, and persistence on the landscape influence bTB transmission is unknown. We used an individual-based, spatially-explicit stochastic simulation model of bTB in deer and cattle to investigate effects of feed density, attractiveness, and spatial and temporal persistence on bTB prevalence in deer and the probability of breakdowns in adjacent cattle herds. Because hunter harvest remains key to controlling bTB in deer, and harvest rates are in long term decline, we modeled these feeding-associated factors at harvest rates prevailing both when the model was developed (2003–2007) and in 2018. Food placement at randomized locations vs. fixed sites had little effect on bTB prevalence in deer, whereas increasing the probability that deer move to food piles (attractiveness) had the greatest effect of factors studied on both prevalence and herd breakdowns. Reducing food pile density reduced prevalence, but decreased herd breakdowns only modestly. Consistent availability of food over longer periods of time, as would occur with supplemental winter feeding or persistent recreational feeding, increased both prevalence in deer and cattle herd breakdowns dramatically. Though perhaps implausible to the public, altering how bait and feed for deer are used can reduce cattle herd breakdowns. Baiting and feeding bans have contributed to declining bTB prevalence, but non-compliance and continued legal sales of feed impede eradication. Requiring hunters to move food piles is unlikely to mitigate effects on transmission and is not a useful management tool. Compared to baiting, winter supplemental feeding or extended recreational feeding is likely to magnify bTB transmission by prolonging temporal availability. Because attractiveness of feed is influenced both by type of feed and deer behavior, research to quantify factors influencing deer movement to food should be a priority.
... Despite extensive habitat modification, perhaps because of it, deer populations continue to grow in the Midwestern United States. Their numbers are estimated to be at an all-time high, possibly due to the steadily shrinking popularity of hunting (Enck et al. 2000) and the increase in habitat and food available to the species. Deer prefer the forest edge and browse for food heavily for much of the growing season, whether in natural areas, cropland, or urban/suburban areas. ...
White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) abundance is increasing across North America as habitat is created and populations are protected from predation. Their preferred habitat, the forest edge, surrounds many remnant prairie fragments, providing access to small plant populations that may be sensitive to deer herbivory. This thesis investigated the effects of deer herbivory on plant communities in tallgrass prairie remnants as well as the perennial Helianthus species contained therein. In the community-focused study, I found that white-tailed deer exclusion from study plots over two years led to reduced herbivory but did not change the overall richness, diversity, or community composition of the sites. The edge and interior prairie plots contained distinctly different plant communities, and the edge plots experienced greater counts of herbivory on favored species than the interior plots. Woody species abundance was reduced by deer herbivory, a potentially important result given the effects of woody plant colonization on prairie fragments. Helianthus herbivory was higher at the edge of the prairie than in the interior. These latter results led to a more focused study of deer herbivory on Helianthus using two study methods: exclusion of deer in the prairie and artificial herbivory on stems off site. White-tailed deer remove the apical meristem from plants, often causing the plant to branch. Branching may lead to the production of multiple inflorescences, possibly providing a reproductive benefit through overcompensation. These studies investigate Helianthus response to herbivory to determine if the effect on the plant’s fitness is negative or positive, overall. In the prairie study, stems protected from herbivory were taller and less likely to branch than those exposed to deer herbivory. Helianthus in the exclosures were more likely to produce inflorescences, but there was no difference in the number of inflorescences produced by protected vs. damaged reproductive stems. The same general conclusions were drawn from the artificial herbivory study. However, the herbivory treatment was imposed across the entire rhizome on all stems produced by the plant. In this study, rhizomes with herbivory grew more branches per stem than undamaged rhizomes. Still, there was no evidence of increased reproduction in damaged plants. Thus, deer herbivory may alter the morphology and reproduction of perennial Helianthus, potentially having a long-term effect on their abundance in plant communities. Continuing both studies would reveal the long-term effect of deer herbivory on both prairie plant communities and the population dynamics of individual species. Continued increase of white-tailed deer populations may pose a threat to favored browse species in fragmented plant communities. However, herbivory may play an important role in succession in grasslands. As conservationists consider the management of white-tailed deer in protection of remnant ecosystems, it will be important to consider both the positive and negative effects of herbivory.
... Providing successful hunting opportunities for sportspeople is an important goal for many natural resource professionals because hunter retention helps ensure adequate funding for wildlife conservation (Brennan 2015). In the eastern United States, declines in hunter participation and recruitment are of concern because many conservation activities are financed by sportspeople through license fees, organization dues, and hunting equipment sales (Enck et al. 2000, Heffelfinger et al. 2013, Anderson and Padding 2015, Arnett and Southwick 2015, Brennan 2015. Moreover, declines in hunter participation are worrisome because 1) hunting is a recreational activity that fosters a conservation ethic in its participants; 2) hunters are an invaluable source of data collection for wildlife research; and 3) small game hunting is one way for hunters to become initiated into the activity (Decker et al. 1986, Peterson et al. 2010. ...
Encounter rates may have multifaceted effects on population dynamics, hunter satisfaction, and hunter retention. However, there is currently a lack of knowledge pertaining to those factors affecting small game flush rates. In an effort to address this paucity of information, we investigated factors that may affect flush rates of 3 small game species: ruffed grouse (Bonasa umbellus; hereafter, grouse), northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus; hereafter, bobwhite), and rabbit (Sylvilagus spp.). From 2003 to 2015, we collected cooperator hunting logs for 3,948 grouse hunts, 19,301 rabbit hunts, and 4,798 bobwhite hunts in Kentucky, USA. Hunting success was defined as the number of grouse, rabbit, or bobwhite coveys flushed by a hunting party. We used an information theoretic approach to model variables that may explain variation in hunting success. The number of hunters within a party explained the greatest amount of variation in hunting success for all species, with a positive relationship between the number of hunters and success. Similarly, for grouse and rabbit, we observed a positive relationship between the number of dogs in a party and hunting success. Weather variables and annual abundance indices were not supported in any competing models explaining hunting success, suggesting a possible scale mismatch related to these broad‐scale data and more localized conditions experienced by hunting parties. Our research indicates that increasing hunting party size through the addition of hunters and dogs was a unifying influence on increasing hunting success (likely through increased hunting corridors) across small game species. This information can be useful for agencies seeking to increase or maintain support for small game hunters in the future. © 2018 The Wildlife Society.
... data (Ringelman 1997, Vrtiska et al. 2013. Reductions in hunter numbers not only limit the ability of waterfowl managers to obtain sufficient knowledge required to effectively manage populations, but also decreases revenue from game bird license sales and associated funds that are available for habitat and wetland conservation (Enck et al. 2000, Vrtiska et al. 2013. Thus, in response to perceived reductions in game bird numbers, Fish and Game initiated a 2 year research project aimed at understanding breeding season vital rates, habitat use and selection, and population growth rates. ...
Introduced primarily for sport hunting, mallards (Anas platyrhynchos) became widely established in New Zealand (NZ) following the release of 25,000 individuals during 1940–1960. Hybridisation and introgression between mallards and the native grey duck (A. superciliosa) has been extensive, and today, mallards and mallard-grey duck hybrids (hereafter mallards) are the predominant game bird in NZ. Perceived declines in mallard abundance in some regions have prompted NZ Fish and Game Council to initiate research to better understand causes of population change. During 2014–2015, I collected data from 304 radiomarked female mallards, 491 nests, and 190 broods from 2 study sites in NZ (Southland and Waikato) to answer essential questions about breeding season vital rates and habitat requirements, and to determine factors important in affecting population growth rates. Breeding incidence averaged 0.91 (SE = 0.03), renesting propensity following failure of nests or broods was 0.50 (SE = 0.03), egg hatchability of successful nests was 0.93 (SE = 0.01), partial depredation occurred in 0.16 of nests (SE = 0.16), and daily nest survival was 0.9789 (SE = 0.17). Cumulative nest survival ranged from 0.22 for nests along drainage ditches in Waikato to 0.61 when they were located along roadsides in Southland. Mean daily brood survival was 0.9816 (SE = 0.003) and cumulative survival ranged from 0.16 for second-year (SY) females in Waikato to 0.30 for after-second year females (ASY) in Southland. Female breeding season survival averaged 0.79 (SE = 0.06) and post-fledging survival was 0.51 (SE = 0.008). Older females had higher breeding effort and reproductive success; they nested earlier, laid larger clutches, hatched more eggs per nest, and fledged more ducklings. Predicted fecundity suggested ASY and SY females recruited 0.25 and 0.36 female offspring into the breeding population, respectively. Model-predicted population growth rates suggested an annual decrease of 0.16 per year. Sensitivity analyses indicated that duckling survival, particularly of older females, was the most influential factor regulating growth of mallard populations, followed by breeding survival of ASY females and duckling survival of SY females. Management initiatives that focus on improving survival of ducklings and females will have the greatest potential to increase duck production.
... Caucasian males from suburban and urban areas who did not grow up in a household with one or more hunters and had never hunted before were also included. An additional criterion was applied to this group: they were included only if they had not participated in hunting-related socialization activities defined in previous research, such as having gone afield with a hunter without carrying a firearm or helping process and prepare wild game meat to eat (Enck et al., 2000;Stedman & Decker, 1996). Males from rural areas who did not provide information about race/ethnicity were also subjected to this filter. ...
Anecdotal evidence suggests that adults lacking previous hunting experience and family support for hunting comprise a growing proportion of new hunters. Empirical evidence of such a trend is lacking. Furthermore, hunting motivations and constraints for these “nontraditional path hunters” (NTPHs) have not been well documented. We articulate a strategy for identifying potential NTPHs in New York, describe socialization mechanisms initiating NTPHs into hunting, and explore motivations and constraints of these hunters. Data were collected using a Web-based survey of 3,605 NTPHs identified among 2014 Sportsman Education course graduates in New York. We found that many NTPHs were initiated by friends and co-workers, and their motivations and constraints were similar to traditional hunters. These findings suggest that NTPHs are not a panacea to the trend of declining numbers of hunters in New York.
... Los cazadores de aves canoras y de plumaje en Costa Rica, están perdiendo la batalla sobre la percepción de la cacería y a nivel mundial los cazadores están disminuyendo; incluso en países con grandes tradiciones cinegéticas como España y Estados Unidos, estp pese que los cazadores iniciaron los procesos de conservación y las primeras áreas protegidas en esos países (Enck, et al 2000). En un mundo cada vez mas globalizado y alejado de lo natural, hay una percepción creciente por el respeto de los animales visibles, vertebrados principalmente; (sería visto muy extraño por ejemplo, que alguien denuncie la muerte de cientos de microorganismos e insectos que eliminamos cada día en nuestros hogares y en las áreas naturales). ...
... While recreational hunting is, by definition, not primarily intended to achieve pest control objectives, a recent survey estimated that between 200,000 and 350,000 hunters used public or private land to hunt introduced species in Australia (Finch et al. 2014). Contrary to North America and Europe (Enck et al. 2000, Massei et al. 2015, the number of hunters in Australia appears to have increased in recent decades (Franklin 1996, although numbers remain small when standardised by area (Table 1). There is much uncertainty around the role of recreational hunting as a pest control tool in Australia . ...
Ground-based shooting is commonly used to try and reduce the impacts or abundance of over-abundant animal populations in many parts of the world. It encompasses a wide range of activities carried out by many different types of people driven by a variety of interacting motivations. Given this contextual complexity, it is unsurprising that results of ground shooting operations for pest animal control range from counter-productive to highly effective.
This review systematically examines a sample of published papers that report on the efficacy of ground-based shooting operations in Australasia, North America, Europe and Japan. Although the sample was small and the literature surveyed included many flaws and inconsistencies, several key themes that contribute to effectiveness were identified. These included: 1) the use of tools or methods that enhance efficiency; 2) a manageable geographic area of operations; and 3) the use of highly skilled and committed shooters. Factors repeatedly shown to detract from efficacy included: 1) the inability of harvest-oriented shooters to sustain effort as target populations declined; 2) insufficient spatial or temporal coverage to counter immigration; and 3) the presence of refugia within treatment areas.
It is clear that ground shooting can make important contributions to the management of pest or over-abundant species, but shooting alone is often insufficient or prohibitively inefficient to achieve desired outcomes. Managers planning to use ground shooting as part of a population management strategy should: 1) carefully examine the options to determine what type of shooting operation is likely to be most useful; 2) establish and monitor meaningful objectives; 3) ensure that operations are sufficiently resourced to meet and maintain those objectives; and 4) integrate ground shooting with other control methods wherever possible. Operations that are poorly-planned, resourced, integrated and executed are unlikely to deliver useful outcomes. Ground-based shooting is rarely, if ever, a cheap and easy method for reducing pest impacts or abundance.
This comprehensive chapter covers various aspects of the biology and natural history of the Sika deer (Cervus nippon), including names, taxonomy, subspecies and distribution, descriptive notes, habitat, movements and home range, activity patterns, feeding ecology, reproduction and growth, behavior, and status in the wild and in captivity. The chapter includes a distribution map, at least one or more photos of the species, and a list of key literature.
Hunting is one of the oldest and most relevant extractive activities performed by humans in nature. Over the last century hunting has experienced profound changes in developed countries, shifting from a consumption to a recreational activity and declining in some countries. However, substantial quantitative information on these trends at large temporal scales, as well as the projection of the number of hunters and their demographic structure under future scenarios is lacking at regional scales.
Here we (i) describe the current demography of hunters in a large portion of the Iberian Peninsula, (ii) quantify population and recruitment trends for the last five decades and (iii) starting from those trends, we project the number and structure of hunters for the following decades.
At present, the studied hunting population, with nearly 600,000 hunters, is strongly ageing, with the most abundant cohort being that between 61 and 70 years, and its prevalence is eight times higher on the smallest towns than in the large cities. Over the last 15 years hunters have declined by 26%, while over the last 50 years it has declined by 45%. This trend is linked to a steady decline of recruitment of young hunters that has been overall reduced by 89% in the last 50 years.
By 2050, if following average trends observed during the last five decades, hunters in the whole study area are expected to decrease by 70%, and the proportion of hunters aged over 60 will increase from 40% to 61%.
Overall, our results indicate an ongoing collapse of the population of hunters in the Iberian Peninsula due to lack of recruitment, which began at least five decades ago. This collapse, together with other post‐rural abandonment processes (e.g. livestock and wood‐collection) is likely having a deep impact on wildlife populations and ecosystems, which is largely understudied. In this new post‐abandonment state, approaches to environmental management should be adapted to accommodate these ongoing, long‐term socio‐ecological shifts.
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Several ungulate populations have become overabundant worldwide, resulting in ecological and social effects. Wildlife managers must establish effective population control programs to mitigate these negative influences. Hunting is a significant mortality factor for ungulates, which exhibit sensitive behavioral responses toward hunting activities. Wildlife managers need a comprehensive understanding of the ungulate responses to different hunting pressures across seasons. We developed a conceptual method to evaluate multiple behavioral responses to human hunting pressures and applied this to sika deer ( Cervus nippon ) in Hokkaido, Japan, during August and November in 2015. We measured flight behavior, spatial avoidance, and temporal activity shift during non‐hunting and hunting seasons in 4 regions with different hunting pressures. Although we did not observe a clear difference in flight initiation distance among study areas or seasons, sika deer showed significant spatial avoidance during the hunting season in areas with high hunting pressure. Furthermore, sika deer were more active at night in areas with higher hunting pressures, regardless of the season. Collectively, these results suggest that sika deer responded to hunting pressure by changing diel activity to nocturnal throughout the year and avoiding risky areas (i.e., around hunting roads) during hunting season, rather than by increasing flight distance when they encounter humans. Our method can be used for a more efficient population control program for wildlife managers, as it considers the spatiotemporal variations of flexible ungulate behaviors in response to hunting pressures.
Hunting is an important element in the protection of the natural environment and biodiversity. Demographic changes and people’s distance from nature are causing society to polarize their perception of hunting. Some have ‘’Bambi Syndrome’’ and others so-called ‘’Nature Deficit disorder’’. Factors shaping attitude toward hunting are: sex, age and place of residence: girls and city based children are generally against hunting. Future of wildlife management models largely depends on the attitudes of people towards it in the coming decades. This attitudes are shaping by many different factors but it is lack of knowledge about it. For this purpose, the attitude of young people to hunting should be thoroughly and multidimensionally examined.
A decades‐long decline in hunting participation jeopardizes state wildlife agency funding amid growing conservation and management challenges. College students are being recognized by states and non‐governmental organizations as an important population for hunter recruitment and retention, fueling a proliferation of learn‐to‐hunt programs on college campuses. Nearly 3,000,000 students attend college in a state where they are not a resident and may face constraints to hunting. We analyzed hunting license residency statutes in each state to determine whether non‐resident college students were addressed in statutes or policies, catalog statutory provisions that may exclude populations of students from hunting, and document how students' residency status affects the price of a deer and small game license. Nationwide, 29 states have statutes allowing non‐resident college students to hunt at a resident rate. Among these states, we identified a patchwork of statutory requirements for non‐resident students to be eligible for resident‐rate licenses, including waiting periods, age restrictions, credit restrictions, and unclear or onerous purchasing procedures. Non‐resident college students fell into a gray area of licensing policy in the 21 states without statutes addressing this group. In these states, students often needed to pay non‐resident hunting license rates. Hunting licenses were substantially more expensive for non‐resident college students in states without statutes addressing students, and license sales data from Montana, USA, indicated that high license prices are a constraint for student hunters. With college students becoming a focal point for hunter recruitment efforts, we identify statutory constraints to recruiting and retaining hunters on college campuses and help improve the effectiveness of learn‐to‐hunt programs on college campuses.
This study uses Ribot and Peluso’s access analysis to examine conflicts over elk and elk management in Greater Yellowstone USA, a region where emerging patterns of privatization and commodification have profound influence over the micropolitics of hunting access, and by extension resource governance. In North America, wildlife management via hunting has long relied on social relations and mutual obligations between rural hunters and landowners to facilitate access to game species like elk that frequent private land. However, transformations in the political economy of land use in and around Greater Yellowstone characterized by opportunities to commodify elk and access to them has influenced the region’s access regime, resulting in widespread declines in public hunting access on private lands. Intense conflict over elk and elk management has ensued. Drawing on ethnographic engagement with wildlife managers in rural working landscapes of Wyoming and Montana in and around Greater Yellowstone, our study reveals that facilitating social relations at the crossfires of elk access conflict requires a deftness for navigating interpersonal dynamics, a learned expertise manifested as affective and emotional labor. In the eyes of wildlife managers, these affective and emotional strategies are critical to fostering the social conditions for effective wildlife management and, more specifically, to gaining and maintaining access to privately held wildlife habitat. Our analysis emphasizes the responsibilities and burdens carried by intermediaries in struggles over access and resource management and highlights the threshold dynamics and normative questions that these burdens pose.
Based on prior research about other male-dominated leisure pursuits, we might expect game hunting to present a hostile climate for its women participants. However, our qualitative analysis of 293 threads posted between 2005 and 2019 on an online hunting message board suggests that women were welcomed within the pastime. While they did not overtly exclude women from their ranks, however, posters curated the boundary between masculinity and femininity, as well as staking out the territory of emphasized femininity. In particular, they accomplished this via benevolent sexism, hostile sexism, and sexual objectification. Our findings not only shed additional light on the gendered dynamics of this pastime but also enriched our knowledge of the ways that hegemonic masculinity and emphasized femininity can work in tandem—within male-dominated recreational activities, and more broadly.
Waterfowl hunting participation has been on the decline since the mid‐1980s. We used a web‐based survey to better understand waterfowl hunting constraints (i.e., factors that limit or prohibit participation and enjoyment in leisure activities) among hunters and anglers that hunted or did not hunt waterfowl in the central United States. Forty‐eight constraint items were condensed into 10 constraint factors: Rules and Regulations, Waterfowl Identification, Cost, Waterfowl Hunting Skills, Land Access and Permissions, Interference by Other Hunters, Travel, Social, Waterfowl Populations, and Views of Others. We observed significant effects of both state of residence and activity type (i.e., frequent waterfowl hunters, sporadic waterfowl hunters, dissociated waterfowl hunters, non‐waterfowl hunters, and anglers) but the effect sizes were mostly small. There were few meaningful differences between constraints based on state of residence, indicating that the perception of constraints was largely consistent among the states included in our study. However, Social, Waterfowl Identification, and Waterfowl Hunting Skills constraints had greater differences, particularly between frequent waterfowl hunters and non‐waterfowl hunters. Our assessment of waterfowl constraints did not indicate a single constraint that was inhibiting (or prohibiting) participation of waterfowl hunting among waterfowl hunters or non‐waterfowl hunters. However, there were numerous constraints that were slightly to moderately limiting across all activity groups similarly, which suggests that constraints may act collectively to create a perception of an insurmountable impediment to participation to the individual.
Declining participation in hunting, especially among young adult hunters, affects the ability of state and federal agencies to achieve goals for wildlife management and decreases revenue for conservation. For wildlife agencies hoping to engage diverse audiences in hunter recruitment, retention, and reactivation (R3) efforts, university settings provide unique advantages: they contain millions of young adults who are
developmentally primed to explore new activities, and they cultivate a social atmosphere where new identities can flourish. From 2018 to 2020, we surveyed 17,203 undergraduate students at public universities across 22 states in the United States to explore R3 potential on college campuses and assess key demographic, social, and cognitive correlates of past and intended future hunting behavior. After weighting to account for
demographic differences between our sample and the larger student population, we found 29% of students across all states had hunted in the past. Students with previous hunting experience were likely to be white, male, from rural areas or hunting families, and pursuing degrees related to natural resources. When we grouped students into 1 of 4 categories with respect to hunting (i.e., non‐hunters [50%], potential hunters [22%], active hunters [26%], and lapsed hunters [3%]), comparisons revealed differences based on demographic attributes, beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors. Compared to active hunters, potential hunters were more likely to be females or racial and ethnic minorities, and less likely to experience social support for hunting. Potential hunters valued game meat and altruistic reasons for hunting, but they faced unique constraints due to lack of hunting knowledge and skills. Findings provide insights for marketing and programming designed
to achieve R3 objectives with a focus on university students.
Hunters are often assumed to possess conservation and stewardship values. Research on whether these values translate into active land management is scant and inconclusive, particularly as it relates to family forest landowners (FFOs). We examined how strength of deer hunter identity is associated with land management behaviors and intentions of FFOs in Wisconsin. While identity as a construct has been found to inform behavior, the relationship between hunter identity and land management behaviors has not been examined. We found higher average hunter identity scores were associated with respondents who had cut trees for personal use, planted native seeds, developed/maintained trails or roads, have a management plan, participated in state landowner programs, and those with intentions to cut trees for sale, personal use, or to improve forest conditions; remove built-up plant material; conduct trail or road work; and jointly plan with others to enhance habitat for game species or motorized recreation.
Declining hunter participation threatens cultural traditions and public support for conservation, warranting examination of the forces behind the downward trajectory. Access to lands for hunting, an often-cited reason for non participation, may play a critical role in the retention and recruitment of hunters. Meeting the access needs of a diverse hunting constituency requires understanding how hunters use and perceive access opportunities, particularly public-access sites. Given that perceptions of access are entirely place based and degrade with time, traditional postseason survey methods may fail to adequately quantify the value of public access to the hunting constituency. To overcome the potential limitations of postseason surveys, we conducted on-site assessments of hunter perceptions of habitat quality, game abundance, ease of access, and crowding as well as whether the experience met the hunters’ expectations and their likelihood to return to hunt. Over 3 y, we interviewed 3,248 parties of which 71.5% were hunting. Most parties (65.9%) reported having no private access within the region of Nebraska where they were interviewed. Parties (67.6%) were largely limited to two or fewer hunters, most of whom were adult males (84.3%) who were, on average, 41.2 y old. The perception of public-access sites was generally positive, but 43.1% of parties indicated that game abundance was below average despite 59.2% of parties seeing game and 37.3% harvesting at least one animal. Similar to other explorations of hunter satisfaction, we found game abundance, and in particular harvest success, had the most consistent relationship with hunter perception of public access. By surveying multiple types of hunters across sites that encompass a range of social and ecological conditions, we gained a broader understanding of how hunters perceive public access in real time, which will help to inform future management decisions to foster and improve public-access programs.
The aging population of hunters and anglers, and the low rate of recruitment of new participants, represent major challenges for this sector of activities and for the regions where these activities are practiced, especially in North America. To counter this decline, initiatives and programs aimed at the recruitment and retention of new participants have been developed in recent years. This study tries to identify and evaluate the best practices in recruitment and retention of hunting and fishing clienteles. Generally speaking, these programs are intended to educate, inform, and initiate new participants and beginners about these outdoor activities in an entertaining fashion. They mainly take the form of weekend camps, special events targeting different market segments, competitions, seminars, and educational courses. These initiatives typically combine an educational component with a hands-on experience. In the end, the study highlights the need to develop a global strategy for the recruitment and retention of hunting and fishing clienteles in the province of Québec. Consequently, the programs and initiatives need to have a common vision and need to be developed in such a way as to complement one another, thus contributing to the optimization of financial resources as well as to recruitment and retention of hunters and anglers.
This paper builds upon the multiple satisfaction approach to game management by evaluating the individual and combined effects of three basic dimensions—wildlife, human interaction, and nature/sport—on overall hunting satisfaction. In contrast to previous studies that focused on either hunting in general or deer hunting, this analysis was based on hunter evaluations of a specific waterfowl hunting trip. Results generally support the concept of multiple satisfactions, with a combination of wildlife, human interaction, and nature/sport variables accounting for 36% of the variance in satisfaction. Taken individually, nature/sport items explained more of the variation in satisfaction (R = .23) than either the wildlife (R = .08) or the human interaction variables (R = .14). Some discrepancies were noted between the findings presented here and those reported in previous investigations. For example, contrary to several earlier studies that found success to be an important determinant of satisfaction, the zero‐order correlation between the number of birds bagged by the respondent and overall satisfaction was not significant. Such discrepancies with previous research are attributed to the hunters’ prior experience in the setting, their expectations for success, and the population and setting under investigation.
This paper investigated duck-hunting participation among 1988-1989 small-game license holders in New York. We interviewed 396 sporadic hunters and 400 dissociators by telephone to assess their motivations for hunting ducks and reasons why they temporarily or permanently stopped hunting ducks. All three groups of hunters had multiple motivations for hunting ducks. Achievement motivations was associated more frequently with dissociators and sporadic hunters. Appreciative motivation was most important for consistent hunters. Sporadic hunters may be more likely than consistent hunters to dissociate from duck hunting in the future, and managers may find it difficult to increase their duck-hunting interest. 57% of sporadic hunters indicated they were "too busy' to hunt ducks every year. Confusing regulations about huntable duck species and low waterfowl populations were reported by about one-third of sporadic hunters and dissociators as reasons for not hunting ducks. Lack of a place to hunt ducks and crowded hunting areas were impediments to more sporadic hunters and dissociators than were inconvenient season dates, short seasons, or small bag limits. Cost of duck hunting, short season length, and dislike of steel shot requirements were impediments for a greater number of recent dissociators than for persons who stopped hunting waterfowl before 1980. -from Authors