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Physicochemical changes of oat seeds during germination
Abstract
The physicochemical properties of native and germinated oat seeds cultivated in China and their correlations were investigated. The growth curve during germination of oat seeds was described. The malt yield was 84% at the end of malting. The losses by removing of shoots and rootlets were the major cause of the total dry matter losses in the last 24 h of germination. With total starch enzymes activities increasing continuously, the starch content decreased considerably from 60% to 20%, and the reducing and soluble sugars contents increased. Oat seed kernel protein increased slightly, but the lysine content increased almost 30% at the end of germination. The phytic acid content declined from 0.35% to 0.11% during germination. There is a significant correlation among compositions including starch, protein, free and reducing sugars, free amino acid, and phytic acid. A close correlation also was found between the colour of malt flour dried at 50 °C and the length of shoots and rootlets. The results suggest that oats grown in China are a good food material and that germination can improve their nutritional properties.
... During germination, isoflavones are partially converted to aglycones and quickly absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract into the bloodstream without the need for hydrolysis by bacterial glycosidases Singh et al. 2015). Tian et al. (2010) found that the phenolic compounds of the oat seeds increased four-fold after germination for 120 h, and up to 0.90% in dry weight (Tian et al. 2010). Similarly, horse gram sprouts and mung bean sprouts showed higher total phenolic content compared to raw seeds. ...
... During germination, isoflavones are partially converted to aglycones and quickly absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract into the bloodstream without the need for hydrolysis by bacterial glycosidases Singh et al. 2015). Tian et al. (2010) found that the phenolic compounds of the oat seeds increased four-fold after germination for 120 h, and up to 0.90% in dry weight (Tian et al. 2010). Similarly, horse gram sprouts and mung bean sprouts showed higher total phenolic content compared to raw seeds. ...
... Germination is one method for the conversion of oligomeric proteins to simple proteins and/or the synthesis of proteins that significantly increase total free amino acids (up to 10-fold) (Gan et al. 2017;Maleki and Razavi 2021;Singh et al. 2015;Tian et al. 2010;J. Xu et al. 2012). ...
The second brain of humans has been known as the microbiome. The microbiome is a dynamic network composed of commensal bacteria, archaea, viruses, and fungi colonized in the human gastrointestinal tract. They play a vital role in human health by metabolizing components, maturation of the immune system, and taking part in the treatment of various diseases. Two important factors that can affect the gut microbiome's composition and/or function are the food matrix and methods of food processing. Based on scientific research, the consumption of whole grains can make positive changes in the gut microbiota. Seeds contain different microbiota-accessible substrates that can resist digestion in the upper gastrointestinal tract. Seed germination is one of the simplest and newest food processing approaches to improve seeds' bioavailability and overall nutritional value. During germination, the dormant hydrolytic seed's enzymes have been activated and then metabolize the macromolecules. The quality and quantity of bioactive compounds like prebiotics, fiber, phenolic compounds (PC), total free amino acids, and γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) can increase even up to 4-10 folds in some cases. These components stimulate the survival and growth of healthful bacteria like probiotics and boost their activity. This effect depends on several parameters, e.g., germination environmental conditions. This review aims to provide up-to-date and latest research about promoting bioactive components during seed germination and investigating their impacts on gut microbiota to understand the possible direct and indirect effects of seed germination on the microbiome and human health.
... A pH meter (PB-11, Sartorius, Germany) was used to evaluate pH at 25°C while stirring the OM samples. The Kjeldahl method was used for determining the protein content of milled WOG or OM samples (around 1 g or 5 ml, respectively) by using 6.25 as the conversion factor of the nitrogen to protein (Tian et al., 2010). The dry matter (DM), fat, and ash content of samples were determined according to the procedure described in AOAC (2000). ...
... Results showed that the yield of Sp, En, and all two-stage treatments was significantly higher than other treatments (p < .05). It was confirmed that the yield of OM was strongly affected by viscosity decreasing by starch digestion and prevention of its gelatinization during thermal processing and filtration during the treatments such as sprouting and α-amylase digestion (Bekers et al., 2001;Tian et al., 2010). Moreover, the yield of OM could be increased by dietary fiber digestion during sprouting and reduction in water-binding capacity properties (Hübner & Arendt, 2013;Tian et al., 2010). ...
... It was confirmed that the yield of OM was strongly affected by viscosity decreasing by starch digestion and prevention of its gelatinization during thermal processing and filtration during the treatments such as sprouting and α-amylase digestion (Bekers et al., 2001;Tian et al., 2010). Moreover, the yield of OM could be increased by dietary fiber digestion during sprouting and reduction in water-binding capacity properties (Hübner & Arendt, 2013;Tian et al., 2010). (Kehinde et al., 2020;Loponen et al., 2007). ...
In this study, the effects of different treatments of the oat slurry on the nutritional, functional, and sensorial properties of oat milk were evaluated. The sprouting and sprouting–acidic treatments have the highest oat milk yield (91.70%) and protein extraction yield (82.74%), respectively. The protein concentrations of alkali, sprouting–acidic, and α‐amylase–alkali treatments were significantly (p < .05) higher than other treatments. The alkali treatments showed higher fat content (0.66%). In addition, acidic and alkali treatments in single or combined with other treatments showed the highest dry matter and energy value. The carbohydrate content of α‐amylase–alkali treatment (4.35%) was higher than other treatments and also, all acidic treatments showed higher ash content (>1) compared to the other treatments. Furthermore, the sprouting–α‐amylase and acidic–α‐amylase showed the lowest starch (0.28%) and the highest reducing sugar content (3.15%) compared to the other treatments, respectively. Moreover, the α‐amylase–alkali treatment showed the highest total phenolic content and antioxidant activity (342.67 mg GAE/L and 183.08 mg BHT eq/L, respectively). Furthermore, sensory evaluation of most treatments showed acceptable scores (≥7) for consumers, especially in the case of α‐amylase, sprouting, and α‐amylase–sprouting treatments. Results show that the different treatments had different effects on the nutritional, functional, and sensorial properties of oat milk. In conclusion, from the nutritional and functional point of view, the two‐stage treatments were more effective than singular treatments on investigated factors proposing their application in functional plant milk preparation. The effects of phosphoric acid, sodium hydroxide, a‐amylase, and sprouting, and the combination of those treatments in the production of oat milk were studied, and two‐stage treatments showed more effectiveness on evaluated factors.
... According to a study conducted by Dalby & Tsai (1976), it was found that the protein content of oat albumin in dry matter increases as a result of the enhanced degradation of other components during respiration. Following the soaking process, there is a significant increase in the content of free amino acids, reaching almost ten times the amount found in raw oats (Klose et al., 2009;Tian et al., 2010). However, during soaking, particularly in the early stages of germination, the content of free amino acids tends to decrease. ...
... However, during soaking, particularly in the early stages of germination, the content of free amino acids tends to decrease. This is because biological enzymes are being produced at a faster rate to utilize the amino acids, as opposed to breaking down proteins (Tian et al., 2010). ...
The cereal proteins were identified in the 18th century. The protein content in cereals ranges from 7% to 18%. These proteins are classified based on the solubility such as albumins are water-soluble proteins, globulins are soluble in diluted brine solution, prolamins are soluble in water-alcohol mixture and glutelins are soluble in acid/alkali. The effect of different processing methods such as size reduction, heat treatment, extrusion, soaking, fermentation, baking, etc. on the quality of the protein and amino acids was discussed. The digestibility of these proteins was improved during processing methods; however, it was decreased in the storage. Also, the protein availability was increased in processing and decreased during storage. This chapter explores the impact of processing and storage on cereal protein.
... It can significantly increase the content of phenols and γ-aminobutyric acid in whole grains [6], which exhibit many positive effects on the prevention and control of hyperlipidemia, hypertension, obesity, and other chronic metabolic syndromes [7,8]. Some research has mainly studied the nutritional changes during the germination process of oats [9,10], but there have been no studies that have used germinated oats as raw materials to prepare whole oat milk. Therefore, in order to raise the nutritional quality of oat milk, germinated oat was innovatively used to prepare whole oat milk in this study. ...
... Benincasa et al. [8] also found that the protein content of germinated oats was higher than that of raw oats. The increase in protein content during germination may be due to the dry weight loss of oats in the form of carbohydrates through respiration, resulting in changes in nitrogenous substances during germinating [10]. ...
Whole oat milk (WOM) was prepared from germinated oat by an innovatively designed high-energy fluidic microfluidizer (HEFM). The results indicated that germination treatment significantly raised the content of total protein, γ-aminobutyric acid, total phenolics, and reducing sugar, while it decreased the content of total starch and β-glucan. Oat with a germination time of 48 h had the best nutritional quality for producing WOM. The physical stability of the WOM prepared from germinated oat was effectively improved by HEFM treatment. The apparent viscosity increased, the instability index reduced from 0.67 to 0.37, and the precipitate weight ratio decreased from 13.54% to 9.51%. As the pressure of the HEFM increased from 0 to 120 MPa, the particle size decreased from 169.5 to 77.0 µm, which was helpful to improve the physical stability of the WOM. Meanwhile, the color of the WOM became whiter after the HEFM treatment. The content of β-glucan and soluble protein in the WOM significantly increased, which was due to the disruption of cells by the HEFM processing. The optimal HEFM pressure for WOM production is 120 MPa. This study provided a new way to produce whole oat milk with a high nutritional quality and good physical properties.
... Previous reports have shown varied changes in the color attributes of seeds and grains during germination and fermentation processes. For example, Tian et al. [39] reported an increase in redness and yellowness and a reduction in lightness during the germination of oat seeds and attributed these changes to the hydrolysis of protein and starch and the non-enzymatic Millard reaction. Sharma and Sharma [40] reported that germination and fermentation treatments increased the lightness and redness and reduced the yellowness of foxtail millet and ascribed this to the oxidation of pigmented compounds that led to brighter flour, and the passage of pigmented compounds from the seed coat to the endosperm may have led to augmented redness in the flour. ...
... The increase in protein content in the germinated and fermented samh seeds is likely due to the synthesis of enzymes, the degradation of antinutritional factors, the synthesis of new proteins, and the digestion of insoluble storage proteins into simple soluble proteins [41,45]. In accordance with our results, former reports showed that germination and fermentation processes augmented the protein contents of various seeds [35,39,41,45,48]. The reduction in moisture content in the fermented samh seeds is probably due to the increase in total solids, which is linked to an increase in the mass of fermenting microorganisms. ...
This study investigated the effects of fermentation and germination on the physico�chemical, nutritional, functional, and bioactive quality attributes of samh seeds. Regardless of the processing treatment, samh seeds were found to be a rich source of phenolic compounds, namely gallic acid (79.6–96.36 mg/100 g DW), catechol (56.34–77.34 mg/100 g DW), and catechin (49.15–84.93 mg/100 g DW), and they possessed high DPPH antiradical activity (65.27–78.39%). They also contained high protein content (19.29–20.41%), essential amino acids content (39.07–44.16% of total amino acids), and unsaturated fatty acid content (81.95–83.46% of total fatty acids) and a low glycemic index (39.61–41.43). Fermentation and germination increased L*, b*, foaming capacity, oil absorption capacity (OAC), water absorption capacity (WAC), swelling power, microbial counts, antioxidant activity, total flavonoid content (TFC), total phenolic content (TPC), in vitro protein digestibility, protein efficiency ratio, and total essential amino acids and reduced water solubility, emulsion stability, tannin, and phytate contents compared to raw samh seeds (p < 0.05). The highest levels of pH, ash, carbohydrate, fiber, and glycemic index were observed in raw samh seeds, and both germination and fermentation processes reduced these attributes to various degrees (p < 0.05). Germination increased the redness (a*), moisture content, essential and non-essential amino acids, potassium, zinc, phosphorous, stearic acid, and oleic and unsaturated fatty acids and reduced total solids, fat content, iron, zinc, calcium, magnesium, sodium, palmitic acid, and total saturated fatty acids of the samh seeds compared to the raw ones. Fermentation increased the total solid, acidity, fat, protein, calcium, magnesium, sodium, phosphorous, iron, zinc, palmitic acid, and total saturated fatty acids and reduced the a* value, moisture, non-essential amino acids, and total unsaturated fatty acids of the samh seeds compared to the raw ones. In conclusion, samh seeds are a rich source of nutrients that could generally be enhanced by germination and fermentation processes. The reported information facilitates strategies towards the application of these underutilized seeds in foods.
... Previous reports have shown varied changes in the color attributes of seeds and grains during germination and fermentation processes. For example, Tian et al. [39] reported an increase in redness and yellowness and a reduction in lightness during the germination of oat seeds and attributed these changes to the hydrolysis of protein and starch and the non-enzymatic Millard reaction. Sharma and Sharma [40] reported that germination and fermentation treatments increased the lightness and redness and reduced the yellowness of foxtail millet and ascribed this to the oxidation of pigmented compounds that led to brighter flour, and the passage of pigmented compounds from the seed coat to the endosperm may have led to augmented redness in the flour. ...
... The increase in protein content in the germinated and fermented samh seeds is likely due to the synthesis of enzymes, the degradation of antinutritional factors, the synthesis of new proteins, and the digestion of insoluble storage proteins into simple soluble proteins [41,45]. In accordance with our results, former reports showed that germination and fermentation processes augmented the protein contents of various seeds [35,39,41,45,48]. The reduction in moisture content in the fermented samh seeds is probably due to the increase in total solids, which is linked to an increase in the mass of fermenting microorganisms. ...
This study investigated the effects of fermentation and germination on the physicochemical, nutritional, functional, and bioactive quality attributes of samh seeds. Regardless of the processing treatment, samh seeds were found to be a rich source of phenolic compounds, namely gallic acid (79.6–96.36 mg/100 g DW), catechol (56.34–77.34 mg/100 g DW), and catechin (49.15–84.93 mg/100 g DW), and they possessed high DPPH antiradical activity (65.27–78.39%). They also contained high protein content (19.29–20.41%), essential amino acids content (39.07–44.16% of total amino acids), and unsaturated fatty acid content (81.95–83.46% of total fatty acids) and a low glycemic index (39.61–41.43). Fermentation and germination increased L*, b*, foaming capacity, oil absorption capacity (OAC), water absorption capacity (WAC), swelling power, microbial counts, antioxidant activity, total flavonoid content (TFC), total phenolic content (TPC), in vitro protein digestibility, protein efficiency ratio, and total essential amino acids and reduced water solubility, emulsion stability, tannin, and phytate contents compared to raw samh seeds (p < 0.05). The highest levels of pH, ash, carbohydrate, fiber, and glycemic index were observed in raw samh seeds, and both germination and fermentation processes reduced these attributes to various degrees (p < 0.05). Germination increased the redness (a*), moisture content, essential and non-essential amino acids, potassium, zinc, phosphorous, stearic acid, and oleic and unsaturated fatty acids and reduced total solids, fat content, iron, zinc, calcium, magnesium, sodium, palmitic acid, and total saturated fatty acids of the samh seeds compared to the raw ones. Fermentation increased the total solid, acidity, fat, protein, calcium, magnesium, sodium, phosphorous, iron, zinc, palmitic acid, and total saturated fatty acids and reduced the a* value, moisture, non-essential amino acids, and total unsaturated fatty acids of the samh seeds compared to the raw ones. In conclusion, samh seeds are a rich source of nutrients that could generally be enhanced by germination and fermentation processes. The reported information facilitates strategies towards the application of these underutilized seeds in foods.
... The sprouting produced a significant (p ≤ 0.05) increase in TPs in the free (from 32.10 to 76.62 mg GAE (100 g) −1 ) and bound fractions (from 60.45 to 124.36 mg GAE (100 g) −1 ), as compared to the native non-germinated grain (OG). This increase has been reported in different cereals, including oat grains [78]. The results agreed with the study reported by Oksman-Caldentey et al. [79], who also observed a TP increase in oats during sprouting. ...
... as compared to the native non-germinated grain (OG). This increase has been reported in different cereals, including oat grains [78]. The results agreed with the study reported by Oksman-Caldentey et al. [79], who also observed a TP increase in oats during sprouting. ...
Oat consumption has increased during the last decade because of the health benefits associated with its soluble dietary fiber (β-glucan), functional proteins, lipids, and the presence of specific phytochemicals, such as avenanthramides. Oat is consumed mainly as whole grain, and the hull (seed coat), comprising 25–35% of the entire grain, is removed, generating a large amount of waste/by-product from the milling industry. The objective of this study was to evaluate the use of biotechnological strategies, such as sprouting for oat grain (OG) and hydrolysis for oat hull (OH), to enhance antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties and lower the glycemic index (GI). Sprouting produced significant (p ≤ 0.05) increases in free (32.10 to 76.62 mg GAE (100 g)−1) and bound phenols (60.45 to 124.36 mg GAE (100 g)−1), increasing significantly (p ≤ 0.05) the avenanthramide (2c, 2p and 2f) soluble phenolic alkaloid content and anti-inflammatory properties of OG. On the other hand, the hydrolysis of OH using Viscoferm (EH2-OH) and Ultraflo XL (EH21-OH) increased by 4.5 and 5-fold the release of bound phenols, respectively; meanwhile, the use of Viscoferm increased the 4.55-fold soluble β-glucan content in OH, reaching values close to those of OG (4.04 vs. 4.46 g (100 g)−1). The study shows the potential of both strategies to enhance the nutritional and bioactive properties of OG and OH and describes these processes as feasible for the industry to obtain an ingredient with high antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities. Single or combined biotechnological tools can be used on oat grains and hulls to provide nutraceutical ingredients.
... A pH meter (PB-11, Sartorius, Germany) was used to analyze the pH of the samples at 25°C. The protein concentration of SG and SBB was determined by the Kjeldahl method (nitrogen conversion factor is 6.25) (Tian et al., 2010). The dry matter (DM), fat, and ash content of SG and SBB (around 1 g or 10 mL for SG or SBB samples, respectively) were determined according to the method described by AOAC (2000). ...
Nowadays, the consumption of functional foods, such as plant‐based beverages, is increasing due to their health‐promoting properties. The low extraction yield of nutritional and functional components is considered a major challenge during the production of sorghum‐based beverages (SBB), as well as their sensorial properties. This investigation studied the effects of various treatments (acidic using phosphoric acid, enzymatic using α‐amylase, germination, germination‐acidic, germination‐enzymatic, and acidic‐enzymatic) on the functional, nutritional, and sensorial properties of SBB. The two‐stage acidic‐enzymatic treatment demonstrated the highest extraction yield, dry matter, ash, carbohydrates, and reducing sugar contents, as well as the lowest starch content (p < .05). Furthermore, the highest protein content (0.98%) was achieved by the germination treatments of sorghum grains. While the highest fat content was achieved by the acidic treatment (1.38%), the germination‐acidic treatment exhibited the highest energy value (26.02 kcal/100 mL). Moreover, the total phenolic content of the acidic‐enzymatic treatment (44.56 mg GAE/L) was significantly higher than that of other treatments. However, all treatments demonstrated lower antioxidant properties compared to the control treatment (142.85 mg BHT eq./L). Furthermore, the sensory evaluation of the germination and germination‐enzymatic treatments showed acceptable scores (≥7) for consumers. In conclusion, the results indicated that the two‐stage treatments of sorghum, especially the acidic‐enzymatic treatment, were more effective than single treatments for the extraction of functional and nutritional components during the production of SBB.
... However, while the quarcetin, cinnamic acid and kaempferol contents of soaked barley increased due to biochemical activity, a partial decrease was observed in dried malt due to the deterioration of the structure of these compounds under the influence of heat. It has been reported that a more than 4-fold increase in the phenolic compound content of oats was detected after International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2024 oat seeds were germinated for 120 h (Tian et al., 2010). Barley is a grain rich in different phenolic compounds such as benzoic and cinnamic acid derivatives, quinines, flavonols and amino phenolic compounds which can exist in free, esterified or insoluble bound form among different tissues of the grains (Bonoli et al., 2004;Lu et al., 2007;Iyuke et al., 2008;Dvo r akov a et al., 2008). ...
In this study, the role of germination times and malt production preliminary stages on the bioactive and phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity of barley grains was investigated. Antioxidant activity values of barley, soaked barley and dried barley have been reported between 5.00 mmol/kg (barley) and 6.65 mmol/kg (sokaed barley). The total phenol and flavonoid quantities of the barley, soaked barley and dried barley samples were recorded to be between 58.49 (dried barley) and 69.10 mgGAE/100 g (soaked barley) to 145.22 (dried barley) and 157.75 mgQE/100 g (soaked barley), respectively. The total phenol content of green malt and dried‐roasted malt were recorded to be between 115.85 (3rd day) and 237.80 mgGAE/100 g (7th day) to 111.83 (3rd day) and 346.04 mg GAE/100 g (7th day), respectively. While catechin amounts of barley samples are registrated between 5.83 (dried barley) and 10.29 mg/100 g (soaked barley), catechin amounts of green and dried‐roasted malt samples were identified between 5.20 (malt for 3rd day) and 56.42 mg/100 g (malt for 7th day). In general, an increase in the phenolic components of green and dried‐roasted malt samples was observed with germination.
... On the other hand, the TAA content was at a maximum after 48 h and decreased when germination continued for 60 and 72 h [26]. A similar study on oats reported a decrease in TAAs after 24 h of germination which increased thereafter, while the protein content increased progressively from the start of imbibition [69]. Another study on oats reported a significant increase in protein content, but the TAA content decreased by 15.35% with no significant change in the total essential amino acids and a substantial decrease of 17% for the total non-essential amino acids [64]. ...
Plant-based foods are being increasingly favored to feed the ever-growing population, but these need to exhibit improved nutritional value in terms of protein quality and digestibility to be considered a useful alternative to animal-based foods. Germination is essential for plant growth and represents a viable method through which the protein quality of plants can be further improved. However, it will be a challenge to maintain efficient rates of germination in a changing climate when seeds are sown. In the context of the indoor germination of seeds for food, consumption, or processing purposes, a more efficient and sustainable process is desired. Therefore, novel techniques to facilitate seed germination are required. Pulsed electric fields (PEF) treatment of seeds results in the permeabilization of the cell membrane, allowing water to be taken up more quickly and triggering biochemical changes to the macromolecules in the seed during germination. Therefore, PEF could be a chemical-free approach to induce a stress response in seeds, leading to the production of secondary metabolites known to exert beneficial effects on human health. However, this application of PEF, though promising, requires further research to optimize its impact on the protein and bioactive compounds in germinating seeds.
... It has been observed that the amount of prolamins in triticale, barley, rye, oats, and wheat reduces as germination time increases [64]. However, many authors have found a rise in crude proteins in oats [71], brown rice [72], oats [73], and barley [73]. This occurs because, upon absorbing water, the cereal's proteins and amino acids are hydrolyzed to transportable amides and then transported to the growing portions of the seedlings [74]. ...
... Typically, between 60 and 90% of the polyphenols in cereals are bound [49]. Wheat has been found to have a total polyphenol content that increased by 1.2-3.6 times [51], oats [52], and brown rice [8] when germinated for 4 days at 15-28°C. The sprouting grain's increased AA is crucial to its protection. ...
The aim of this work was to improve the quality parameters, functional properties, and sensory attributes of the fino bread using sprouted whole wheat flour (SWWF) at different levels, i.e., 3, 6, and 9%. Results demonstrated that SWWF has two-fold phenolic compounds and antioxidant ability compared to unsprouted wheat. The SWWF was found to be high in protein, minerals, and fat while low in carbohydrates compared to the control sample. Additionally, the microbial loads of SWWF were within processing-acceptable limits. Dough stability and rheological attributes of wheat with SWWF were evaluated to predict the texture of the final bread. There was a positive correlation between stability time and mixed dough and texture parameters of wheat bread with SWWF. The bread made using SWWF was high in protein content. The panelists accepted the bread up to 9% SWWF addition from a sensory perspective. The findings demonstrated that SWWF might be suggested for utilization as an enhancer, particularly up to 9% addition in the bread-making industry.
... Sprouting is an effective method of enhancing the edible value of grains and coarse cereals, and it can improve the culinary characteristics and sensory quality of foods [9]. A series of complex physiological and biochemical reactions occur during seed sprouting, wherein the stored nutrients such as starch and proteins are degraded [10], γ-aminobutyric acid and phenolic compounds are synthesized [11,12], antinutritional factors such as phytic acid are reduced [13], and the nutritional value of the grain and coarse cereal is increased to to constant temperature drying at 40 • C for 4 h, hulled, and crushed through a 40-mesh sieve. The crushed seeds were collected in a sealed bag and stored at −80 • C. ...
This study utilized sprouted buckwheat as the main component and aimed to optimize its combination with other grains to produce reconstituted rice with enhanced taste and a reduced glycemic index (GI). The optimal blend comprised wheat flour, sprouted buckwheat flour, black rice flour, and purple potato flour in a ratio of 34.5:28.8:26.7:10.0. Based on this blend, the reconstituted rice processed through extrusion puffing exhibited a purple-black hue; meanwhile, the instant reconstituted rice, produced through further microwave puffing, displayed a reddish-brown color. both imparted a rich cereal flavor. The starch in both types of rice exhibited a V-shaped structure with lower relative crystallinity. Compared to commercial rice, the reconstituted rice and instant reconstituted rice contained higher levels of flavonoids, polyphenols, and other flavor compounds, along with 1.63-fold and 1.75-fold more proteins, respectively. The GI values of the reconstituted rice and the instant reconstituted rice were 68.86 and 69.47, respectively; thus, they are medium-GI foods that can alleviate the increase in blood glucose levels.
... Enrichment with sprouted grains resulted in an overall increase in the total carotenoids, tocols, conjugated phenolic compounds, and bound phenolic compounds. Tian et al. [123] found that germinating oats produced a fourfold increase in phenolic compounds. Germination causes several changes to the grain structure due to enzyme activity, which could be responsible for the release of bound and conjugated phenolic compounds. ...
Thermal treatment can be applied to cereal grains as a pretreatment or processing step in the form of either hydrothermal or dry thermal treatment. These heat treatments result in the occurrence of nonenzymatic browning reactions by means of the Maillard reaction and caramelisation. Nonenzymatic browning is influenced by the type and concentration of sugars and proteins, and the presence of bran. Aside from increasing nonenzymatic browning, thermal treatment increases the antioxidant capacity of cereals and baked goods through the release of bound phenolics. The degree of nonenzymatic browning and antioxidant content in cereal-based products depend on the thermal treatment intensity. Some studies found a decrease in total phenolic content after thermal treatment, due to loss of thermally labile compounds. High-intensity treatment has been shown to produce 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF), furfural, and potentially carcinogenic acrylamide. Acrylamide formation can be mitigated by altering the ingredient composition and the degree of thermal treatment. This review discusses the chemistry of nonenzymatic browning reactions, factors influencing the degree of these reactions, and mitigation strategies for acrylamide. An overview of the effect of dry thermal treatment on nonenzymatic browning and antioxidants in wheat and wheat-based products as well as other cereals is provided. Before concluding with perspectives, a discussion of the relationship between nonenzymatic browning and antioxidant properties is presented. This review of the published literature was conducted using two electronic databases and varying combinations of search terms related to the scope of the review.
... mg/100 g syringic in raw and germination barley grain. It has been reported that after 120 h of germination, the amounts of phenolic compounds in oats increased more than 4-fold compared to the control (Tian et al., 2010). Also, in another study, it has been observed that there is an increase in the amounts of phenolic compounds due to enzymatic activity during the germination process of International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2024 seeds (Beart et al., 1985). ...
In this study, the effect of germination in changes on total phenol, flavonoid contents, antioxidant capacity, polyphenols and biogenic elements of raw and germinated barley parts (radicle, foliole and germinated grain) was investigated. Total phenolic and flavonoid contents of raw and germinated barley parts were recorded to be between 97.61 (foliole) and 164.44 mgGAE/100 g (radicle) to 38.93 (germinated barley grain) and 371.07 mg/100 g (radicle), respectively. Antioxidant capacity results (DPPH and ABTS assays) were recorded between 3.37 (germinated barley grain) and 4.82 mmol kg⁻¹ (radicle) to 0.79 (germinated barley grain) and 2.28 mmol kg⁻¹ (radicle), respectively. The highest total phenol and flavonoid content as well as antioxidant capacity values were detected in radicle. Catechin and kaempferol values of raw and germinated barley parts (radicle, foliole and germinated barley grain) were recorded between 5.85 (germinated barley grain) and 19.71 mg/100 g (radicle) to 3.91 (germinated barley grain) and 4.62 mg/100 g (foliole), respectively. Gallic acid results of barley samples varied between 0.72 (germinated barley grain) and 10.95 mg/100 g (radicle). The phenolic compounds detected in the highest amounts in raw and germinated barley parts were catechin, kaempferol and gallic acid. P and K results of raw (control) and germinated barley parts were recorded to be between 727.64 (foliole) and 2078.10 mg kg⁻¹ (control) to 955.40 (germinated barley grain) and 3982.63 mg kg⁻¹ (control), respectively. As a micro elements, Fe and Zn results of barley samples were identified between 2.95 (foliole) and 14.30 mg kg⁻¹ (control) to 6.26 (foliole) and 24.84 mg kg⁻¹ (control), respectively. Significant decreases in macro and micro element contents were observed during the germination of barley grain compared to the control.
... The increase in the total phenolic content after germination could be accredited to the enzymatic degradation of the kernel structure. [32] The results of this study are also similar to the change observed for the total phenolic content observed in the germination of moong. [33] Another study reported the highest quantity of phenolic compounds in chickpeas after 4 days of germination. ...
Foods with higher bioactive activities are being sought as a potential tool to prevent lifestyle-related disorders. In this context, germinated foods are preferred over conventional foods as they are rich in health promoting moieties. The current research was planned to assess the germination-induced modifications in physicochemical and bioactive profile of black chickpea (Cicer arietinum). For this purpose, black chickpeas (desi) were soaked for 12 h and germinated. The germinated black chickpeas were recovered after 24, 48, 72, 96, and 120 h of germination, separately, and their physicochemical and antioxidant profiles were studied. The phytochemical profiling of the germinated black chickpea revealed that germination time significantly influenced the chemical composition of black chickpea. It was observed that the phytochemical contents of the germinated chickpeas increased with an increase in germination time. However, the flavonoids such as rutin, luteolin, kaempferol, and quercetin were decreased, but isorhamnetin was increased as the germination time was extended. Moreover, the antioxidant capacity quantified by DPPH and ABTS activity of germinated chickpeas also increased with an increase in germination time. The highest content of DPPH antioxidant activity was observed at the 72 h of germination, while the highest concentration of ABTS was observed at the fourth day of germination. Conclusively, extended germination for 120 h can negatively influence the phytochemical and antioxidant profile of black chickpea, whereas optimum germination for 72 h was found satisfactory.
... The adapted procedure described by Tian et al. 15 was implemented to quantify the amount of FAA in germinated MBs. The mixture was first prepared from 5 g of MBs powder and 50 mL of 10 % acetic acid (v/v), and then incubated at ambient temperature for 1 h, before centrifugation (4,000 g, 10 min). ...
Germination is one of the most important techniques to enhance the nutrients and functionality of legume seeds. This academic work investigated the effects of pre-treatment with acidifying soaking water and germination time on changes in concentrations of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and nitrogenous constituents, and protein-related enzyme activities in mung bean seeds. Higher amounts of crude protein, non-protein nitrogenous, free amino acids, and enzyme activities, but lower protein nitrogenous concentrations were found when soaking in more acidic water and germinating at longer germination time. Steeping water of pH 5.5 and germination duration of 8 h induced mung bean seeds to manifest the highest activities of glutamate decarboxylase (GAD) (60.9 U/g powder, db) and protease (2.81 U/g powder, db), responsible for the highest values of GABA (1.60 g/kg, db), free amino acids (5.92 g/kg, db) and non-protein nitrogen (14.7 g/kg, db), and the lowest amount of protein nitrogen (30.8 g/kg, db). These findings indicate that pre-treatment with acidic soaking water before germinating was more likely to enrich the GABA and amino acid-containing compounds of the mung bean seeds.
... The increase in phenols after steeping and germination is similar to the findings of Lopez-Amoros et al. (2006), who revealed that the nature and amount of phenolic compounds in legumes can be changed by the germination process. Tian et al. (2010) and Gharachorloo et al. (2012) also observed that the total phenols increased after steeping and germinating oat and Lentil and this may lead to an increase in viability of the seeds (Do et al., 2016). ...
In an attempt to maximize the antioxidant potentials of pigeon peas, the effect of steeping and germination times on the antioxidant content and radical scavenging activities of pigeon pea was investigated using response surface methodology. Using the central composite rotatable design (CCRD), pigeon pea seeds were soaked in water (2-28 h) and germinated (9-111 h). Thirteen samples were generated and analyzed for phenols, flavonoids, reducing power, 1, 1, Diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) free radical scavenging activity and ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP). Results revealed that the quadratic effects of both steeping and fermentation times were significant for predicting the phenols, flavonoids, reducing power, and FRAP while only the steeping time had a significant quadratic effect on DPPH. Significant correlation coefficients (r) were found to exist between the antioxidants and most of the antioxidant activities. The optimum steeping and germination times obtained were 15 and 96 hours respectively; predicted values for phenols, flavonoids, reducing power, and FRAP were 50.09 mg/100g, 26.56mg/100 g, 0.75 µg/ml, and 69.30 µmol/g respectively.
... The cereal's proteins and amino acids break down into transportable amides as a result of water absorption, which are then delivered to the developing sections of the seedlings. This is contrary to the findings of many authors, who have noted a rise in crude proteins in barley, Brown rice (Moongngarm & Saetung, 2010), waxy wheat (Hung et al., 2012), and oats (Tian et al., 2010;Singkhornart & Ryu, 2011). During germination, however, the balance of protein synthesis to protein breakdown controls the protein content (Megat Rusydi et al., 2011). ...
The majority of the world’s population gets its carbohydrates from cereals and pseudo-cereals. Human food accounts for almost half of the annual production of cereal. In the past 10 years, there is now more research on the nutritional benefits and phytochemical content of grains that have been sprouted and more people are incorporating them into their diets. The main cereals are triticale, wheat, rice, corn, sorghum, millets, and oats. Nearly half of the food energy consumed worldwide comes from wheat and rice. Cereals are grass (Gramineae) family members that are cultivated for their starchy, edible seeds. Although grown for the aforesaid purpose, pseudo-cereals are not the representatives of grass family. This chapter covers a broad scrutiny of the composition, use in human nutrition, sprouting process, composition change during sprouting, parameters affecting nutritional quality during sprouting, benefits of sprouts, nutritional value, and food safety concerns of cereal/pseudo cereal sprouts.
... Aside from cooking, several methods, such as germination, have been emphasized to make BR taste better and make its nutrients more bioavailable. Germination changes the texture and makes it easier for the nutrients and phytochemicals to be used by the body (Tian et al., 2010;Patil & Khan, 2011). Also, these phenolic compounds play a big part in preventing some long-term illnesses, like sugar related disorders, heart diseases etc. (Hudson et al., 2000;Jung et al., 2007). ...
More than half of the people in the world eat rice every day. Germinated brown rice (GBR) is a whole food because only the hull, which is the outer covering of the grain, is removed. This is the best way to keep as much of the rice’s nutritional value as possible. BR can be sprouted by soaking it in warm water (35–40 °C) for 10 h, draining it, and keeping it moist for 20–24 h. Sprouting can cause bioactive chemicals to build up in GBR seeds and sprouts. These compounds include γ-oryzanols, a lipophilic fraction, and the main substances in BR. Vitamin E, phenolics, and phytosterols are some of the other phyto-compounds in BR. During sprouting, only water and oxygen are taken in by the grain. Since no outside nourishment is provided, most of the good nutritional changes come from breaking down complex compounds into simpler ones and turning them into essential parts, as well as breaking down parts that are bad for the seed’s health. After the germination treatment, the proportion of total polyphenols, GABA, and total flavonoids in the BR went up significantly. Elicitation with CaCl2 of GBR changed the amount of GABA, total polyphenols, and total flavonoids in a big way. GBR has been found to have many healing properties, such as reducing blood pressure and cholesterol, and also decrease the likelihood of diabetes, coronary heart disease (CVD), cancer, and Vascular dementia. It is therefore considered a functional food.
... During normal oat seed germination, the starch content decreases significantly from 60% to 20% with increasing total amylase activity, while the sugar content and the protein content increase to a lesser extent, with the smaller molecule amino acids increasing more (Tian et al., 2010). However, oats are rich in fat, of which unsaturated fatty acids account for 80% of the lipids, making the seeds more susceptible to lipid peroxidation. ...
Germination of aged seeds may be associated with specific metabolic changes. The objective of this study was to examine physiological and metabolic alterations before and after germination of control and aged oat ( Avena sativa ) seeds. The activity of antioxidant enzymes and the level of storage compounds were measured in the embryo and endosperm at 0, 4, 16, and 32 h of imbibition for control seeds and 0, 4, 16, 32, and 60 h of imbibition for medium vigor seeds after artificially accelerated aging; metabolomic changes were determined in embryos at 16 and 32 h of seed imbibition. In aged oat seeds, superoxide dismutase activity and catalase activity increased in the late imbibition stage. The content of soluble sugars decreased significantly in the later stages of imbibition, while the content of proteins increased in 32 h of seed imbibition eventually producing mannitol and proline. The mobilization of fat in deteriorated seeds was mainly through the sphingolipid metabolic pathway generated by cell growth‐promoting dihydrosphingosine‐1‐phosphate. Ascorbic acid, avenanthramide and proline levels increased significantly at 60 h of imbibition, playing an important role in the germination of aged oat seeds.
... Possible Methods of Enhancing the Quality of Tuwo Germinated grains offer beneficial nutrients to humans, and the germination process also reduces anti-nutritional factors (Tian et al., 2010;Hemalatha et al., 2007;Dicko et al., 2005;Noda et al., 2004). Sprouting provides a rich ...
In West Africa, specifically in Nigeria, cereals such as corn and sorghum flour are widely consumed. These grains are transformed into a stiff dough called "tuwo" in the local language, Hausa. Tuwo is a semi-solid dough made by cooking cereals flour in a slurry form. To shape and solidify the dough, it is moulded and wrapped in polythene materials or food-grade plastic containers. Tuwo is traditionally enjoyed with various soups, garden egg, and locus beans. Cereals have relatively low protein content but high caloric value. Therefore, it is important to supplement the production and consumption of tuwo with additional nutrients to create a well-balanced meal. To improve the quality of tuwo, it is possible to enhance the chemical properties of the grains by utilizing selected pre-treatment methods. These methods, including blanching, soaking, and malting, can improve the nutritional and functional quality of the cereals while reducing anti-nutritional components. By implementing pre-treatment techniques on cereal grains, the resultant stiff dough, tuwo, can be enhanced to provide a balanced meal, improve overall acceptability, and optimize production.
... which is an effective, inexpensive and traditional strategy of emerging interest for improving the nutritional, nutraceutical, functional and sensory profile of grains in a natural way (Singh and Sharma, 2015). During germination, endogenous enzymes of grains were activated, some major substances such as complex carbohydrates, proteins, lipids etc. undergo degradation enhancing availability of amino acids, mono, di and oligosaccharides (Tian et al., 2010), fatty acids, soluble dietary fiber (Koehler et al., 2007) and bio-accessible minerals (Platel et al., 2010). Furthermore, antioxidant activity and some bioactive compounds will be enriched (Hung et al., 2011;Martinez et al., 2019). ...
The Germinated Brown Rice (GBR) market is expected to benefit from changing customer tastes and the growing number of GBR product variants. One of the main supply-side drivers supporting business growth is meeting the increasing demand for health foods. Natural ingredients in GBR, along with lower commodity penetration in developed economies, are creating prospects for large- and small-scale producers all over the world. In India GBR market is still in nascent stage and needs research on suitability of GBR processing with Indian rice varieties. There is no documented work till date on development of GBR using the PJTS Agricultural university released rice varieties. If the process to develop GBR is optimized, the rice varieties can be used in designing value added products with improved nutrient and functional properties.
... Üstün and Çelik (2011) reported that maximum phytase activity was obtained after 5-days of germination, and addition of 3% the malted flour to the bread dough significantly affected the bread hardness and the color. Tian et al. (2010) stated that a rapid increase in total amylase activity was observed after 24 h in the germination process of oat grains and the absolute activity of beta amylase was always higher than alpha amylase. ...
... In the work of (Chinma et al., 2021), increasing germination period up to 72 h on an underutilized legume plant (Fig. 2.12) increased the physicochemical, functional, thermal, and overall nutritional qualities of the beans while reducing its antinutritional compounds. After 6 days of germination, starch content of oats dropped by 40% (Tian et al., 2010). During germination (0-5 days) of three brown rice varieties, starch, amylose, and amylopectin levels all declined significantly (Wu et al., 2013). ...
Starch is one of the most abundant naturally occurring macromolecules and has received enormous research attention owing to its wide availability, low cost, biodegradability, biocompatibility, renewability, and excellent film-forming ability. It possesses some unique physical and chemical properties; however, due to strong hydrophilicity and other limitations, its industrial application is restricted in its native form. To cope with these challenges, there is a need to modify the starch. In this chapter, recent advances in physical modification such as heat moisture, high pressure, deep freezing and thawing, radiation, and ultrasonic treatment; chemical modification such as ozonation, succinylation, cross-linking, cationization, esterification, and etherification, among others as well as enzymatic modification. The physical, chemical, and structural changes enacted by both the physical and chemical, as well as enzymatic modification, were as well discussed. The modification of starch using chemicals resulted in low glycemic features, which in turn help in the overall glycemic load of foods.KeywordsStarch modificationPhysical modificationChemical modificationEnzymatic modificationRadiation treatment
... This rise in protein content in germinated barley grains could be due to the loss in dry weight during the respiration of the germination process. Consequently, the germinated grains on a unit weight basis would have more grain mass, and therefore, the germinated barely grains had more nitrogen content than the raw material (Tian et al., 2010). In contrast, a decrease in fat occurs since fat and fatty acids are continuously oxidized to carbon dioxide and water, leading to generating energy for grain germination (Hahm et al., 2008). ...
... Malting significantly increased the protein content of PMF compared to BPMF and RPMF. This phenomenon maybe the result of protein biosynthesis during malting (Tian et al., 2010). Reduction in ash content in case of BPMF and MPMF may be attributed to losses due to leaching of soluble inorganic salts (Akinola et al., 2017). ...
Background: Pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum) is one of the major food crops in most of the arid and semi-arid cropping regions of India being the fourth most important cereal crop. Though rich in nutrients, presence of anti-nutrients reduces nutrient bioavailability in grains. The present study focuses on the impact of different processing methods on functional and nutritional profile of pearl millet flour (PMF). Methods: In present investigation, pearl millet grains were subjected to different processing treatments viz. roasting, blanching and malting and the post treatment effect on functional and nutritional profile of PMFs was studied. The influence of processing on functional properties, proximate, mineral and anti-nutrient composition of PMFs was studied. Result: Results revealed that processing treatments significantly affected the functional and nutritional profile of PMFs with reference to untreated PMF. Functional property assessment of PMFs depicted that, roasting enhanced the water holding capacity (371.24%) and swelling power (6.10%) of PMF while reduced the other functional properties. Blanching negatively impacted foaming capacity (3.52%) and stability (2.46%). Malting enhanced oil holding capacity (150.95%), emulsion capacity (38.51%) and stability (32.93%). Results for post treatment effects on nutritional profile of PMFs remarked malting as best in terms of nutritional enhancement with anti-nutrient reduction than roasting and blanching.
... Krapf et al. germinated oats for three days and observed that the reduction in the sugar content increased the α-amylase activity, and this is closely related to the germination degree [28]. Tian et al. reported that the vitamin and total polyphenol contents of oats increased significantly after three days of germination [29]. Xu soaked and germinated oats, observing that their phenolic acid content increased significantly [30]. ...
In this study, a method, based on an ultraperformance liquid chromatography coupled with high-field quadrupole orbitrap high-resolution mass spectrometry (UHPLC-QE-HF-HRMS) platform, was established for the trace determination of three major avenanthramides (AVNs). The MS conditions for determining the AVNs were optimized, and the cracking methods of avenanthramides were analyzed. The linear range of the results and the correlation coefficient were 1–2000 μg/L and >0.996, respectively. Further, the established method was employed for the determination of the AVN contents of oats at different germination times, and the results indicated that the AVN contents of Zaohua and Bayou oats increased 19.26 and 6.09 times, respectively, after germination. The total AVN content of both oat varieties reached a maximum on the fifth day of germination (153.51 ± 4.08 and 126.30 ± 3.33 μg/g for the Zaohua and Bayou oats, respectively). Furthermore, this study investigated the antiallergic and antioxidant activities of the germinated oats via hyaluronidase inhibition and 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH)-scavenging assays. The antiallergic and DPPH-scavenging abilities of the ungerminated forms of both oat varieties were weaker. However, on the fifth day of germination, the inhibition rate of anthranilamide hyaluronidase reached 72.7% and 67.3% for the Zaohua and Bayou oat varieties, respectively. The antiallergic abilities of the oats increased significantly on the fifth day of germination in terms of their antiallergic capacities and DPPH clearance (82.67% and 77.64% for the Zaohua and Bayou oats, respectively), and the two indicators exhibited similar trends. These findings demonstrated that AVNs exhibit good antisensitivity and antioxidation properties, and the antisensitivity effect correlated positively with the AVN content.
... Protein content improved with germination Youssef et al. (2013); Hung et al. (2012); Moongngarm and Saetung (2010); Tian et al. (2010); Hiran et al. (2016) Wheat Significant increase in antioxidant activity, solubility, water absorption capacity and oil absorption capacity Karwasra et al. (2018) Foxtail and kodo millet ...
Cereals grains are the primary source of energy and nutrition for the major population. Various strategies are used in the food industry to enhance the nutritional and functionality aspects of cereals such as germination, fermentation, biotechnological and thermal techniques. The process of germination of cereals is relatively inexpensive, easy, and biologically safe. Germination improves the nutritional quality of cereals, as well as reduces anti-nutrition components. Fermentation is accomplished through the action of microorganisms or enzymes that causes desirable modifications in flavor and texture. The extrusion process involves mixing, mechanical shearing, heating, and pressurization, which improves the sensory and functional properties of food. Other processes such as milling, toasting, and cooking are also used to improve the functionality of cereal grains. Ultrasound can be used to physically modify food components to give them a new structure and function. Sonication treatment may be utilized for the fortification process of cereals. Pulsed Electric Fields is used to improve the functional properties of cereals. Biotechnology is most important tools which are used to improve essential component of food. Processing improves the shelf life, sensory and nutritional characteristics of cereals.KeywordsCerealProcessingNutritional compositionFunctional properties
... The reduction in TS and DS contents of pigeon pea during germination could be due to the increased activity of amylases during germination, which probably resulted in the breakdown of starch into oligo-and monosaccharides (Sattar et al., 2017). Starch in the raw pigeon pea flour were also converted to low molecular weight saccharides to meet energy requirements during pigeon pea germination (Tian et al., 2010). This observation aligns with the findings of reduced starch content after germination of some legumes (Xu et al., 2019). ...
There is an increase in the use of adoptable bioprocessing methods for the development of high-quality pulse ingredients. This study investigated the nutritional composition, physicochemical, bioactivity, in vitro digestibility, functional, pasting, thermal and colour characteristics of germinated (24–72 h) pigeon pea. Germination increased (p ≤ 0.05) protein, dietary fiber, calcium, iron, zinc, vitamins B, vitamin C (1.25–8.46 mg/100 g), resistant starch, protein digestibility (72.30–82.66 g/100 g), total phenolic content, antioxidant activities and most amino acids. Phytic acid, tannin and trypsin inhibitor activity decreased significantly during germination. Germination also increased water absorption capacity, protein solubility, foaming capacity, emulsion stability and activity of the flours while bulk density decreased. Functional, pasting, thermal and color, properties of pigeon pea was modified following germination. This study demonstrated that short-term germination is a natural means for the development of functional pigeon pea flour to promote its application in the food industry.
Relevance. At the same time, a prerequisite for a successful product on the market is its high organoleptic properties at a fairly low-price policy. As one of such approaches can be proposed the use of non-traditional plant raw ingredients (whole-milled flour from sprouted grain, β-glucan, pectin, etc.), which will allow to form high-quality food products of functional orientation.
Methods. The objects of the study were defined as model mixtures of wheat flour baking flour of the highest grade and non-traditional raw materials, as well as samples of bakery products (sliced loaf) obtained according to the traditional (control) and experimental formulation. The rheological characteristics of the dough were determined by alveograph and farinograph. The quality of the finished bakery products was assessed on a 40-point scale, as well as the control of the specific volume and humidity of the products.
Results. The studies showed that the introduction of β-glucan has a minimal effect on the elasticity of the dough, there is a decrease in the values of the quality index of farinograph on average by 17 - 22%. The dough elasticity decreases with the introduction of pectin more than 2 times, the values of quality indicator of farinograph increase, and the best result is characterized by the introduction of pectin in the amount of 2%, the maximum dough stability to kneading and minimum values of dough liquefaction degree are observed. Control and experimental samples of bakery products had high enough total values of organoleptic evaluation. The specific volume of experimental products increased by an average of 12% when beta-glucan was added in an amount of 0.1%, and by 8% when pectin was added in an amount of 4% relative to control samples. The obtained results confirmed the possibility and expediency of using non-traditional raw materials in the formulation of bakery products.
Plant-based proteins are being rapidly explored in the food industry to produce healthy and nutritious foods. Herein, the effects of soy protein isolate (SPI) ratio to oat germ powder (OGP) (0:0, 3.7: 6.3, 5:5, 0:10, 10:0, and 6.3:3.7%) were studied on the physicochemical, colour, rheological, microbial, antioxidant, and sensory properties of wheyless cheese. The results showed that by increasing SPI and OGP levels, ash, white index value, elastic modulus, and complex viscosity decreased, while pH, fat in dry matter, Chroma, and total colour (ΔE) increased. Also, syneresis was only observed in the control sample and was not observed in other samples. Control sample together with sample containing 10% of OGP showed the highest microbial count (i.e., mesophilic bacteria and yeasts-moulds), while samples containing 10% of SPI showed the lowest microbial count. Furthermore, the growth of both coliform and psychrophilic bacteria in all samples was negligible. Based on the results of sensory evaluation, with increasing SPI and OGP, the sensory evaluation score of samples decreased but they were within the acceptable range. According to the results obtained in this study, the combinations of 5% SPI and 5% OGP or 3.7% SPI and 6.3% OGP are recommended to be used in wheyless cheese production.
Background and Objectives
Breeding of intermediate wheatgrass ( Thinopyrum intermedium , IWG) culminated in the release of a commercial cultivar (MN‐Clearwater) with attractive environmental and nutritional benefits. Determining the impacts of ambient storage and common postharvest processing on the stability of IWG flour is essential to promote it as a food ingredient. Accordingly, MN‐Clearwater and two other potential cultivars, selected for their unique chemical composition, were subjected to extrusion and germination followed by 8 months of storage. Antioxidants, lipase and lipoxygenase activity, free fatty acid (FFA), peroxide value (PV), and volatile odor compounds (VOC) were analyzed at different timepoints.
Findings
While germination caused a significant increase in lipase activity (~threefold in MN‐Clearwater), extrusion resulted in complete lipase degradation. Additionally, lipase activity was more consequential to hydrolytic rancidity than fat content. Regardless, results indicated that the endogenously abundant antioxidants can combat rancidity facilitated by enzymes and autoxidation as evidenced by significant losses in carotenoids between 3 and 6 months of storage (with 70%–80% reduction after 6 months of storage), when steep increases in FFA (up to 40% oleic acid/100 g fat), PV (two‐fourfolds increase after 6 months of storage), and VOC (hexanal and 2‐pentyl‐furan) occurred.
Significance and Novelty
The findings of this work serve as an impetus for IWG breeding advancements since enzymes and antioxidants can be traits that breeders may consider when selecting cultivar candidates. Results can be also utilized to understand the impact of postharvest processing of the grain on the storage stability of its flour.
Escalating public health concerns necessitate innovative approaches to food sources. Microgreens, nutrient-rich seedlings of vegetables and herbs, have gained recognition as functional foods. This review explores the evolution of microgreens, cultivation methods, biochemical changes during germination, nutritional content, health benefits, and commercial significance. Comprehensive studies have demonstrated that microgreens have an elevated level of various nutrients. Further, in vitro and in vivo research validated their antioxidant, anticancer, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, anti-obesity, and antidiabetic properties. Microgreens, termed “desert food,” show promise for sustainable food production in climate-vulnerable regions. This paper synthesizes recent research on microgreens, addressing challenges and gaps in understanding their nutritional content and health benefits. It contributes valuable insights for future research, fostering sustainable agriculture and enhancing understanding of microgreens in human health and nutrition.
Nutritional value and health benefits of sprouts is gaining multidisciplinary attention due to the positive relationship between sprouts consumption and human health. Legume sprouts have been reported in various mainstream scientific journals as green functional foods with bioactive benefits such as anticancer, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, anti-cardiovascular and many others. Elucidation of factors that influence biochemical changes during sprouting is pivotal for optimization of sprout quality and nutritional value. Thus, this chapter discussed biochemical changes along legume sprouting, as well as changes in its primary and secondary metabolites in relation to human health benefits. Key factors associated with efficient legume sprouting such asgenetic make-up and sproutingconditions i.e., moisture, temperature, light/darkness, humidity and oxygenare discussed in detail to help guide household and commercial production. Also, food safety concerns linked with sprouts was discussed and emerging techniques for sprout microbial control and safety were evaluated.
In recent era, utilization of sprouted grains in human diets have increased in tremendous manner. Oat is a type of cereal grain from poaceae grass family and formally known as Avena sativa. Sprouted grains can be easier to digest and contain less starch than ordinary grains. The sprouted oat showed increased protease and amylase and decreased lipase activities, which are potential characteristics to enhance its nutritional, sensory, and health-promoting aspects. Since kamut is a kind of wheat, it contains gluten. In kamut, the sprouting process increases the bioavailability of vital vitamins, minerals, and nutrients. Additionally, it eliminates bitterness and concentrates flavor, resulting in a grain that is sweeter, easier to digest, and more flavorful. This chapter gives insights about composition of oat and kamut sprout, sprouting process, use in human nutrition, parameters affecting nutritional quality, food safety issues of oat and kamut sprouts etc.
Relevance . The development of technologies of cereal crops germination and obtaining of raw ingredients with increased antioxidant properties, containing in their composition biologically active substances of natural origin, will allow to form a modern domestic market of useful food products to maintain the health of the country in the long term. One such approach could be controlled germination of grain crops by ultrasonic treatment during the soaking stage. This technology will maximise the yield of finished products per unit of processed raw material, process low-quality raw materials and create products with increased nutritional value.
Methods . The objects of the study were three samples of grain crops: wheat, barley, oats. At the initial stage, incoming quality control of raw materials and their disinfection by physical method of exposure were carried out. For experimental samples of cereal crops at the stage of soaking the impact of ultrasound (22 ± 1.25 kHz) 245 W/l for 5 min, then the grain was soaked for 8 hours (wheat grain) and 12 hours (barley and oats grain), the process of germination was carried out until reaching the sprout size 1.5–2 mm in more than 90% of grains. All operations with control samples were performed in the same sequence, excluding the process of ultrasound exposure. The total content of flavonoids and polyphenolic compounds was determined in all tested samples using spectrophotometric method, total antioxidant activity using DPPH-method, and γ-aminobutyric acid content using automated liquid chromatography system.
Results . The studies showed that all germinated samples of cereal crops are characterized by sufficiently high values of flavonoid and polyphenolic compounds. At the same time, the samples obtained by ultrasound exposure showed an increase in the content of flavonoids by an average of 7.3–8.9 times, polyphenols by 2–5.6 times. In the process of intensified controlled germination, the total antioxidant activity increased by 31.6–40.0%, relative to the control samples of grain crops. The increase in GABA content in samples after ultrasound exposure averaged 360–490%. The results confirmed the possibility and feasibility of using the proposed technology of controlled germination in obtaining raw ingredients from germinated cereal crops. The study was carried out with the financial support of the Russian Science Foundation Grant 23-26-00290.
Phytohormones, Indole acetic acid, Salicylic acid and Gibberellic acid, either alone or in combination was applied on wheat sprouts to improve its nutritional status. The experiment included estimation of total phenolic, flavonoids, peroxidase activity and phenylalanine ammonium lyase activity. Antioxidant activity was determined by DPPH and FRAP assay. The results showed an increase in phenolic compounds, enzyme activity and antioxidant activity after treatment with the phytohormones. Phytohormone combinations were found to be more effective as compared to pure treatments. UHPLC-ESI-MS analysis was used to identify compounds in the control and treated samples. Phenolic acids, polyphenols, simple sugars, amino acids, dipeptides, lipids and fatty acids were detected. A multifold increase in the levels of phenolic compounds was observed in the phytohormone treated wheat sprouts.
Whole-grain food ingredients enable the most balanced food products to be obtained, thus forming an important part of a healthy and sustainable diet. Wheat and barley grains are a traditional source of food ingredients for breads, breakfasts, drinks, and snacks in Russia. Such foods are suitable for all ages with many health benefits. However, the modern metropolitan citizen consumes large quantities of refined cereal products, thus impoverishing their diet. An alternative in dietary fortification could be sprouted and fermented food ingredients with an increased nutritional value. The present work was carried out to study the effect of a combination of germination with ultrasound treatment and fermentation with a complex starter of cereal crops on antioxidant activity and γ-aminobutyric acid content of food ingredients with the possibility of using them in the matrix of food products. In order to obtain germinated food ingredients, we used crops with the highest yield in the Ural region (Russia): two samples of soft spring wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and a sample of spring barley grain (Hordeum vulgare L.). Obtaining food ingredients was divided into successive stages: ultrasonic treatment (22 ± 1.25 kHz) was performed by means of changing power and length of time (245 W/L, intensity for 5 min); germination and fermentation used complex starter “Vivo Probio”. The proposed technology of germination with haunting fermentation of cereal crops resulted in food ingredients with a more uniform distribution of granulometric composition, a low proportion of fine particles (4.62–104.60 µm) (p < 0.05) and large particles (418.60–592.00 µm) (p < 0.05). The particle size range (31.11–248.90 μm) (p < 0.05) was predominant. The germination and fermentation process resulted in 26 to 57% (p < 0.05) lower phytic acid content, 35 to 68% (p < 0.05) higher flavonoid content, 31 to 51% (p < 0.05) higher total antioxidant activity, 42.4 to 93.9% (p < 0.05) higher assimilability, and 3.1 to 4.7 times (p < 0.05) higher γ-aminobutyric acid content, which will allow production of food products with pronounced preventive action. The data was analyzed via one-way ANOVA analysis of variance using the free web-based software. The combination of the germination process with ultrasound treatment and subsequent fermentation with a complex starter can be used to support the development of healthful food products with increased GABA and antioxidant activity.
Bu çalışmada, çimlendirilmiş çavdar (Secale cereale) ve kavuzsuz yulaf (Avena sativa) tanelerinin bisküvi üretiminde kullanımı araştırılmıştır. Bu amaçla, 3 gün süre ile çimlendirme prosesi uygulanan çavdar ve yulaf taneleri %10 nem içeriğine kadar kurutulup ve ardından öğütülerek un haline getirilmiş, bu unlarda bisküvi formülasyonuna farklı oranlarda (%0, 10, 20 ve 30) buğday unu ikamesi olarak kullanılmıştır. Örneklerin; fiziksel (renk, kalınlık, çap, yayılma oranı, sertlik), kimyasal (kül, nem, ham yağ, ham protein, toplam fenolik madde ve fitik asit) ve duyusal özellikleri incelenmiştir. Çimlendirilmiş çavdar ve yulaf unu ikamesi ile bisküvilerin renk özelliklerinde a* ve b* değerleri artış gösterirken, L* değeri azalmıştır. Çimlendirilmiş çavdar ve yulaf unu ikamesi örneklerin sertliğini, çapını ve yayılma oranını artırıcı, kalınlığını ise azaltıcı bir etki göstermiştir. İkame oranındaki artışla beraber; kül, nem, ham yağ, ham protein, enerji ve fitik asit içeriklerinde de bir artış meydana geldiği tespit edilmiştir. İkame oranı %0'dan %30'a yükseldiğinde, örneklerin toplam fenolik madde içerikleri de 568.00 mgGAE kg-1'dan 656.25 mgGAE kg-1'a yükselmiştir. Duyusal analizde en yüksek beğeniyi %10 ve 20 oranlarında çimlendirilmiş çavdar unu ikamesine sahip örnekler almıştır. Bu araştırmanın sonuçlarına göre, çimlendirilmiş kavuzsuz yulaf ve çavdardan elde edilen unların bisküvi üretiminde kullanımı, besinsel özelliklerin iyileştirilmesi bakımından önerilebilir.
Oat (Avena sativa) is well-known for its nutritional value and health-promoting properties. There are only a few oat-based value-added products on the market in Ethiopia, and this study attempted to develop a new product that is both nutritionally enhanced and sensory acceptable, therefore, the objective of this study was to optimize the nutritional and sensory properties of a beverage made from oat, lupine (Lupinus albus), stinging nettle (Urtica simensis), and premix. D-optimal mixture experimental design was used to generate 11 runs applying the following constraints: 60–70% toasted oat, 10–25% roasted and soaked de-bittered white lupine, 5–15% boiled stinging nettle leaves, and 10% premix (flour of toasted black cardamom (2.8%), malted wheat (2.8%), pumpkin (2.6%), spiced chili peppers (1.1%), and table salt (0.7%). Statistical model evaluation and optimization were carried out using Minitab 19 software. The nutritional composition of the product was assessed, and results show that increasing the proportion of oat flour in the blend resulted in a significant (p < 0.05) increase in fat, carbohydrate, gross energy, and mineral contents (Fe, Zn). An increase in lupine flour increased crude protein, crude fiber, gross energy, phytate, tannin, oxalate, and antinutrient to mineral molar ratios. In contrast increased in stinging nettle leaf powder increased the ash and beta-carotene contents. Sensory of 11 composite sample beverages and control (90% oat plus 10% premix) were also carried out by 50 untrained panelists. Consequently, eight responses were optimized: protein, fat, Fe, Zn, beta-carotene, taste, appearance, and overall acceptability. The optimal blending ratio obtained was 70% oats, 11.3% lupine, 8.7% stinging nettle flour, and 10.0% premix. The study's findings suggested that the optimal combination of these traditionally processed ingredients in a beverage can be considered a valuable food with the potential to improve diet quality.
The effect of convective hot air and vacuum drying alone and combined with germination on alfalfa seeds’ proximate composition, techno-functional, thermal and structural properties was investigated. Corresponding properties of treated alfalfa samples were compared with those of commercially available alfalfa sprouts. Both drying and combined germination and drying treatments resulted in increased carbohydrates (41.99-48.82%), TDF (10.51-12.51%) and Mg contents (789.49-2119.24 mg/kg), while the reduction in ash, lipid and Fe content compared to raw alfalfa seeds was observed. Alfalfa seeds subjected to combined germination and drying treatment exhibited higher water and oil binding capacities, as well as emulsions with smaller volume mean droplet diameters compared to the raw and dried samples. Conducted treatments resulted in greater thermal stability of globulins and a slight decrease in crystallinity index, although alfalfa seeds’ structure did not change significantly according to FTIR analysis. Differences in applied drying techniques on alfalfa seeds’ properties were not observed.
Plant-based milks or non-dairy milks are gaining much importance as a functional and specialty beverage for all over the world. Cereals are the preferred ingredients for non-diary milks. They can overcome some of the disadvantages associated with dairy drinks like lactose intolerance, allergy, calorie concern and hypercholesterolemia. In addition, there has been a growing preference to vegan diets as well. Cereals are economical substitutes, where cow’s milk is expensive or insufficient. A major challenge faced by cereal grain-based milks in general is that they are not as nutritionally balanced as bovine and face technological challenges related to processing and preservation. Nevertheless, the functionally active components they contain and the health benefits they confer make them an attractive option. Whole grain is becoming one of the favored choices as a probiotic delivery vehicle in beverages. This is mainly because they offer consumers both probiotics and whole grain benefits e.g. non-digestible carbohydrates, soluble fiber, phytochemicals, and other bioactive components. This chapter deals with the processes and products of cereal grain-based milks as well as their health benefits.KeywordsMilk alternativePlant-based milkRice milkOat milkCorn milk
Ever since the beginnings of agriculture, cereals have provided unlimited health benefits to mankind as a staple food in our diet. Cereals are rich in complex carbohydrates that provide us ample energy, and help to prevent many diseases like constipation, colon disorders, and high blood sugar levels. They enrich our overall health with abundant proteins, fats, lipids, minerals, vitamins, and enzymes. In every part of the world cereals are consumed for breakfast, lunch or dinner. Cereal Grains: Composition, Nutritional Attributes, and Potential Applications provides an overview of cereals including their properties, chemical composition, applications, postharvest losses, storage, and quality.
Various well-versed researchers across the globe share their knowledge and experience covering cover cereal’s role in food security, allergens in grains, phytochemical profile, industrial applications, health benefits, global standard of cereals, and recent advances in cereal processing.
Key Features:
Contains comprehensive information on general composition & properties of cereals.
Discusses the recent advances in cereal technology
Provides brief knowledge on bioactive characterization of cereal grains
Contain brief information on future aspect of grain quality and allergens in cereal grains
This handbook is a valuable resource for students, researchers, and industrial practitioners who wish to enhance their knowledge and insights on cereal science. Researchers, scientists and other members working in various cereal processing industries and other horticultural departments will also find the comprehensive information relevant to their work.
Fermentation is the process by which organic substrates undergo chemical changes through enzymatic activity. In food production, fermentation mainly causes beneficial changes in the final product. Germination is a process in plant seeds that begins with the absorption of water by the embryo and then various changes occur due to enzymatic activity in the seed. During these two processes, many complex food compounds such as large carbohydrates and proteins are broken down into compounds with a simpler structure and are easy to digest and absorb. During the fermentation and germination processes, a number of substances are also produced, including essential amino acids, vitamins, and minerals, along with functional compounds, including organic acids that are beneficial to the body. This chapter of the book deals with the different dimensions of the role of fermentation and germination processes in the production of bioactive substances in different types of food and how these two processes cause fundamental changes in the structure of macronutrients such as carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, and finally result in the production of micronutrients and beneficial compounds. Fermented and germinated foods, particularly when produced under controlled situations, can be considered in the functional food class and contain health-promoting micronutrients.KeywordsFermentationGerminationFood bioactivesMicronutrientsFunctional foodHealth-promoting
To test the feasibility of dry milling oats (Avena sativa L.) to concentrate antioxidant activity and phenolic antioxidants, groats were pearled for 5 to 180 s. These treatments removed <1 to 15% of the weight. The material obtained from short pearling times was mostly bran. Longer pearling times increased the amount of starchy endosperm in the pearlings. Antioxidant activity of 80% ethanol extracts, measured by β-carotene bleaching and by reduction of the free radical, 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl, was highest in the short-pearling-time fractions and decreased as more endosperm tissue was included. Likewise, there was a decreasing concentration of total phenolics, determined colorimetrically, and of several simple phenolic acids, determined by high performance liquid chromatography, as more material was pearled from the groats. In contrast, concentrations of avenanthramides were not correlated with pearling time, indicating that they were more uniformly distributed in the groats.
Cereal Chem. 72(6):533-538 Malting properties were investigated for 16 sorghums using a germi- diastatic power (SDU) was positively correlated to cx-amylase activity in nator method and for six sorghums using a jar method. Density of cultivars with SDU values >30. P-Amylase activity was low, ranging caryopses decreased for all sorghums after malting. Dry matter losses from 11 to 41 U/g. The jar malting method yielded malts with lower dry ranged from 8 to 19%. a-Amylase activity determined by colorimetric matter losses and low levels of a-amylase and P-amylase activity, except assay ranged from 25 to 183 U/g, with two cultivars having activity for one cultivar. To obtain the highest levels of enzyme activity with the levels similar to that of a commercial barley malt. Reduction in pasting lowest dry matter losses, malting conditions need to be controlled and viscosity was significantly correlated with a-amylase activity. Sorghum optimized. Malts are cereals that have been steeped, germinated, and kilned under controlled conditions. Barley is traditionally the cereal chosen for malting. However, barley cultivation in tropical areas has not been successful. Thus, the production of beer (opaque and lager) and malted foods requires the importation of barley malt from temperate regions or the utilization of tropical cereals for germination and malting. Malting properties of tropi- cal cereals have been investigated (Novellie 1962, Skinner 1976, Taylor and Boyd 1986, Aisien 1988, Aniche and Palmer 1990, Illori et al 1991, Dufour and Melotte 1992). Sorghum has been malted for centuries and is used for the production of baby food and traditional alcoholic and nonalcoholic beverages. Both ac- and P-amylases are needed to hydrolyze starch and produce fer- mentable sugars in these processes. However, improvements and standardization of malting procedures and of malt evaluation techniques need to be made. Sorghum is commercially processed by pneumatic and floor malting methods in southern Africa. Malting conditions (moisture, temperature, time) are better controlled during pneumatic malting; the malt obtained is more uniform and better quality than that obtained from floor malting. The objectives of this study were: 1) to determine malting properties of diverse sorghum cultivars; 2) to compare enzymatic and viscometric methods of malt evaluation; and 3) to compare two laboratory malting procedures.
Cereal Chem. 78(6):715-720 Germination can be used to improve the texture and flavor of cereals. However, germination generally causes breakdown of β-glucans, which is undesirable with respect to the functional properties of β-glucan. Our aim was to assess possibilities of germinating oat without substantial loss of high molecular weight β-glucan. Two cultivars, hulled Veli and hull-less (naked) Lisbeth were germinated at 5, 15, and 25°C and dried by lyophilization or oven drying. Elevated germination temperatures led to an increase in Fusarium, aerobic heterotrophic bacteria, Pseudomonas spp., lactic acid bacteria, enterobacteria, and aerobic spore-forming bacteria. Therefore, the germination temperature should be kept low to avoid ex-cessive growth of microbes. Of the samples germinated at 15°C, only one contained low amounts of the Fusarium toxin deoxynivalenol (52 µg/kg). Germination led to the breakdown of β-glucans, but the decrease in the molecular weight of β-glucan was initially very slow. A short germination schedule (72 hr, 15°C) terminated with oven drying was developed to produce germinated oat with retained β-glucan content. Compared with the native oat, 55–60% of the β-glucan could be retained.
The biochemical and physiological reactions of germination have long been utilised to produce barley malt for brewing and other purposes. Also some oat malt has been produced as raw-material of ale and stout production. The main goals of malting have been the degradation of grain storage components to soften the kernel structure, synthesis of amylolytic enzymes and production of nutrients for brewing yeast. Also flavour and colour attributes have been important. During the recent years interest has arisen also in the secondary metabolites produced during germination, which can have valuable health promoting properties and act as bioactive or functional compounds in foods. By using a tailored germination/malting process a desired combination of valuable properties may be obtained in germinating grains or seeds. All this requires knowledge and know-how of the germination process and the biochemistry behind it. This paper reviews the scientific knowledge about germination/malting of oat with special emphasis on changes in grain characteristics.
A method using methanolic sulphuric acid as transmethylating reagent was developed for determining the fatty acid composition of lipids of oats. The method was optimised for reaction conditions and applied to the determination of the fatty acid composition of lipids of a number of varieties of Australian oats grown in several locations. Thirteen fatty acids were detected with oleic, linoleic and palmitic acids comprising more than 95% of the total fatty acids. Total lipid content of the oats was positively related to the proportion of stearic (r=0·32) and oleic (r=0·81) acids and negatively correlated with the proportion of palmitic (r=−0·64), linoleic (r=−0·39) and linolenic (r=−0·65) acids. Significant positive correlations were found between total lipid content and absolute content of the major fatty acids (r=0·67∼0·98), except for linolenic acid (r=0·12). Environment had significant effects on fatty acid composition, but variety was the controlling factor. The broad sense heritability estimated from individual plot ranged from 69 to 73% and that from the average of three replications and eight locations ranged from 94 to 98% for the major fatty acids. It is possible to improve fatty acid composition of oats by breeding procedures.
During the germination of Cicer arietinum L. the amounts of ethanol, lactate and malate reached their highest values at 24 hr, the concentration of ethanol being about 4 times that of lactate and twice that of malate. The activities of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase and malic enzyme seem to be correlated with the ability of cotyledons to fix CO2 from NaH14CO3 into malate and with the further decrease in this metabolise from 36 hr onwards.
Germination and subsequent drying of oat produced significantly different sensory profiles depending on processing parameters such as drying speed and temperature profile. The most salient sensory attributes for processed oat were roasted odor and flavor, sweet taste, intense odor, intense aftertaste, and hard, crisp, brittle texture (P < 0.05). High temperatures (>85°C) were necessary to produce these sensory attributes, and quick drying after germination resulted in higher levels of intensity of favorable sensory attributes. The total amount of volatile compounds was higher in native (ungerminated) oat than in processed oat. During germination, and particularly during the drying treatment, the profile of volatile compounds changed. The most abundant volatile compounds responsible for odor were dimethyl sulfide, hexanal, pentanal, and isobutanal. The relative amount of dimethyl sulfide increased as a function of temperature in drying, whereas hexanal, pentanal, and isobutanal disappeared during heating, as did several other small ketones, alcohols, and esters. The germinated oat dried at high temperatures (65-93°C and 65-85°C) was perceived as being roasted, sweet, and nutty. Sensory and instrumental profile analyses of selected volatile compounds using partial least squares (PLS) regression techniques showed that these sensory attributes were clearly related to dimethyl sulfides and isobutanol. A moist and earthy odor was related to cymene, limonene, and isobutanal. Phenolic compounds significantly influenced oat flavor, whereas lipids had a negligible effect.
The losses sustained in malting Kaffircorn are much higher than those in barley malting, and are greatly increased at high moisture levels. A true increase in amylase activity results from increasing the moisture content during malting; the rise in diastatic power in the later stages of malting is not therefore due to high malting losses.
Oat protein isolates were deamidated by mild acid hydrolysis. Amino acid analysis and gel filtraiton chromatography showed no significant cleavage of peptide linkages although the aggregated and oligomeric oat proteins were extensively dissociated. Deamidation led to marked improvement in solubility, emulsifying properties and water and fat binding capacities. The pH for heat-induced gelation was lowered by deamidation, and a firm, elastic gel was produced by mixing egg white with deamidated oat isolates.
The tissues of the Victoria plum tree (Prunus domestica var. Victoria) were analysed for total phenols, leuco-anthocyanins and flavanols at intervals during the growing season. At all times, the methanol extracts from the smaller leaves contained smaller amounts of phenolic constituents although the changes paralleled those in the larger leaves. The proportions of leuco-anthocyanins and flavanols to total phenols were less in the smaller leaves. The amounts of the three phenolic constituents increased rapidly until the leaves reached maximum size and then decreased. Leaves taken from the shady side of the tree contained less phenolic constituents and a lower proportion of leuco-anthocyanins. The analysis of shaded leaves suggested that the synthesis and metabolism of leuco-anthocyanins were influenced by light. Leaves from unhealthy trees contained smaller amounts of phenolic constituents and the leuco-anthocyanins were a much smaller fraction. The amount of the phenols in a plum fruit increased with its growth and the Zeuco-anthocyanins in the skin decreased when it reddened. The phenolic constituents in the woody tissues showed a much smaller variation than the leaves, and the outer bark, phloem and cambium contained more of them than the outer and inner sapwoods and the heartwood.
To reduce phytate in oat products and thereby increase mineral bioavailability, optimal conditions for phytate degradation in oats were investigated. The effects of malting and incubation on phytate reduction in oats were determined and compared with phytate degradation in wheat, rye and barley. Studies of incubation temperatures showed an optimum for phytate reduction in oats between 37–40°C which differed from that in wheat (55°C). Malting of oats for 5 days at 11°C and subsequent incubation for 17 hr at 37–40°C reduced phytate by 98%. Addition of malted rye also reduced the phytate content of oats to low levels.
Germinated wheat and barley increased significantly (P < 0.05) in % Relative Nutritive Value (RNV); the increase in % RNV was highly significant (P < 0.01) for germinated rice. The increase in available lysine was highly significant (P < 0.01) in germinated wheat, barley, oats and rice. Natural lactic acid fermentation increased the % RNV significantly (P < 0.05) for wheat, barley and rice and significantly (P < 0.01) for millet and maize. The available lysine content increased significantly (P < 0.05) in fermented oats, rice, millet, and maize but the available lysine increase was highly (P < 0.01) significant in fermented wheat. Both germination and fermentation had equivalent effects as procedures to improve the protein quality of cereals.
Methods for the quantitative analysis of anthocyanins, leuco-anthocyanins, flavanols and total phenols in plant tissue extracts are critically examined and suitable modifications of existing methods are described.
Proteins extracted from defatted oats were chemically modified by acylation (succinylation and acetylation), potassium linoleate
treatment or partial hydrolysis with trypsin. Total essential amino acid content was slightly lowered by acetylation, but
unaffected by succinylation. Gel filtration chromatography showed some dissociation of oat polypeptides by succinylation,
while trypsin hydrolysis caused considerable breakdown of the protein. Solubility and emulsifying properties were significantly
improved by all the modifications. Fat binding capacity was improved by acylation and linoleate treatment, while water hydration
capacity and foaming properties were improved by trypsin and linoleate modifications. The gelling property was improved by
acylation. When meat protein was substituted with oat protein in model wieners, there was a decrease in cook yield, cohesiveness
and firmness. However, when compared to the unmodified oat protein, succinylation led to an improvement in performance in
an emulsified meat system.
The conditions and acid strength of the phenol/sulfuric acid assay were investigated to improve agreement between absorbances
obtained from different sugars. It was found that by increasing acid strength and by cooling the tubes in water after a short
reaction time, the values obtained for several sugars, including fructose and xylose, agreed, on an equimolar value, with
that for glucose.
Oat bran protein concentrate (OBPC) was prepared from oat bran, and hydrolyzed using trypsin. Protein hydrolysates of three different degrees of hydrolysis (4.1%, 6.4% and 8.3% respectively) were obtained. SDS-PAGE analysis demonstrated that oat globulin was the major protein component in OBPC. After trypsin treatment, acidic polypeptides were partly degraded into large peptides (Mr = 29,000–33,000) and small peptides (Mr < 20,000); however, basic polypeptides were almost intact. The functional properties of the resulting products were compared with those of control OBPC. Marked changes in the protein functionality were caused by proteolysis. The solubility, water-holding capacity, emulsifying activity and foaming ability of the hydrolysates gradually increased with the increase in DH. However, the oil-holding capacity, emulsifying stability and foaming stability of the hydrolysates reduced to a certain extent.
Oats contain a range of functional ingredients; these are concentrated to a greater or lesser extent in different parts of the kernel. Dry milling of oats using roller milling offers the opportunity to produce, at a lower processing cost, fractions enriched in antioxidant activity. Oats were roller milled and the stocks separated by size using sieving; the fractions were analysed for compositional differences. A clear difference was seen between the larger particles, which were richer in bran and its associated components, and the smaller, starch-rich particles, with a natural cut-off point occurring at 420 μm. This established the feasibility of using dry milling and sieving oats to yield enriched fractions. Oats (cv. Gerald) from a variety of sources were dehulled then milled once and fractionated to yield a bran-rich fraction (>420 μm) and a starch-rich fraction (<420 μm). Polar lipid extracts were derived from these fractions and their antioxidant activity measured by chemiluminescence (CL). Bran-rich fractions had significantly higher antioxidant activity than the corresponding starch-rich fraction and appeared to have a more potent population of phenolic antioxidant compounds.
Flour extracts from three winter wheat varieties (‘Trego’, ‘Akron’ and ‘Platte’) grown at five testing locations were evaluated for their free radical scavenging abilities against the stable 2,2-diphenyl-1-picryhydrazyl radical (DPPH) and 2,2′-azino-di[3-ethylbenzthiazoline sulfonate] radical cation (ABTS+), and for Fe2+ chelating capacities and total phenolic contents. All flour samples showed significant DPPH scavenging activities and chelating capacities, and contained significant levels of phenolic compounds, but no flour contained detectable amount of ABTS+ scavengers. Both variety and growing location may have significant influence on the DPPH radical scavenging and chelating properties, as well as the phenolic contents of the flour samples. Pearson Correlation tests did not detect any significant correlation between a single antioxidant property of each wheat variety and a selected environmental factor, including total solar radiation, daily average solar radiation, or the hours exceeding 32 °C. The results from this study indicate the potential to produce a wheat flour rich in natural antioxidant for improving human nutrition by optimizing the growing conditions of a selected variety.
An investigation into factors influencing beta-amylase activity in sorghum malt confirmed that ungerminated sorghum grain exhibited essentially no beta-amylase activity. Malted sorghum had beta-amylase activity less than 25% of the level in barley malt. Neither reducing agents nor papa in affected beta-amylase activity in sorghum, indicating that the enzyme is not in a bound form, unlike in barley. Isoelectric focusing indicated that sorghum beta-amylase comprises just one major and one minor isozyme of pI approximately 4.4-4.5, unlike the many isozymes all of higher pI in barley. However, like barley, sorghum beta-amylase was more temperature-labile than its alpha-amylase. Beta-amylase activity in sorghum malt was increased by germination time, high germination moisture and over the germination temperature range investigated (24-32-degrees-C), 24-degrees-C gave the highest activity. The beta-amylase activity of sorghum malts was significantly correlated with malt diastatic power, despite the fact that alpha-amylase and not beta-amylase is the predominant diastatic enzyme in sorghum malt.
This research project examined how to treat raw oat material for oat-based food products in order to sustain or increase the levels of phenolic compounds. The focus was mainly on the avenanthramides, which are potentially health beneficial bioactive components found exclusively in oats. A proposed enzymatic decrease in avenanthramide levels when non heat-treated milled oats are steeped in water was investigated. The decrease was strongly suggested to be caused by a polyphenol oxidase. Although the avenanthramides are only found in oats, the polyphenol oxidase enzyme that acted on avenanthramides was also found to be present in wheat, barley and rye. The effects of a highly controlled steeping and germination process on levels of phenolic compounds and related enzyme activities in oats were studied. The process resulted in increased levels of avenanthramides and some unknown compounds to various extents depending on cultivar. This increase was suggested to be partly due to enzymatically catalysed de novo biosynthesis. Whether germination was the reason behind elevated levels of avenanthramides in one harvest year compared with another, in the same oat genotypes, were investigated. The differences in avenanthramide levels between the two years could not be explained by preharvest sprouting of the oat grains in the field. The content and location of tricin was studied in various oat samples. Tricin was found to be localised to oat hulls and was detected and quantified in a minority of all oat samples analysed.
The overall conclusion was that germination of oats can be a good method to sustain or increase avenanthramides and other potentially health beneficial phenolic compounds. It is important to inactivate the polyphenol oxidase present in oats and other cereal grain ingredients included in oat-based food products, since it may otherwise decrease the levels of avenanthramides in these products. Oat hulls may be a good source of tricin if high-tricin cultivars are chosen.
The storage globulin of oat seeds was separated into its acidic (α) and basic (β) polypeptides by ion-exchange chromatography in 6 m urea and further characterized by several electrophoretic techniques. Molecular weights of the α and β polypeptides were 32,500–37,500 and 22,000–24,000, respectively. The unreduced protein existed as disulfide-linked αβ species of molecular weight 53,000–58,000. Isoelectric points were approximately 5.9–7.2 (α) and 8.7–9.2 (β). Two-dimensional electrophoresis showed considerable heterogeneity within both groups of polypeptides. More complete amino acid analyses of the globulin and its polypeptides are presented along with a proposed structure of the native protein based on previous and present data. Similarities were noted between the oat globulin and the legumin (11 S) class of storage proteins in certain legumes.
Avenanthramides are phenolic antioxidants, which are present in oats. Avenanthramides A, B, and C are the major constituents of the total soluble antioxidant phenolic compounds in oats. We tested the potential antiatherogenic activity of partially purified avenanthramides from oats by examining their effects on adhesion of monocytes to human aortic endothelial cell (HAEC) monolayers, expression of adhesion molecules, and production of proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines by HAEC. The oat avenanthramides mixture was prepared and partially purified by column chromatography. This avenanthramide-enriched mixture (AEM) had no toxicity to HAEC as tested up to 40 ng/ml. The pre-incubation of HAEC with 4, 20, and 40ng/ml AEM for 24h significantly decreased adhesion of U937 monocytic cells to interleukin (IL)-1beta-stimulated HAEC in a concentration-dependent manner. Pre-incubation of HAEC with AEM at 20 and 40 microg/ml, but not at 4 microg/ml, for 24h significantly suppressed IL-1beta-stimulated expressions of intracellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1), vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1), and E-selectin and the secretion of proinflammatory cytokines IL-6, chemokines IL-8 and monocyte chemoattractant protein (MCP)-1. These data provide evidence for the potential anti-inflammatory and antiatherogenic effects of antioxidant avenanthramides present in oats.
Rice color changes from white to amber during parboiling (soaking and steaming). Color parameters indicated that, during soaking, yellow bran pigments leached out in the water. The levels of the Maillard precursors (i.e., reducing sugars (RS) and free alpha-amino nitrogen (FAN)) depended on soaking temperature and time: leaching of RS was compensated by enzymic formation for long soaking times (>60 min), while proteolytic activity was too low to compensate for FAN leaching. Rice soaking under nitrogen, oxygen, or ambient conditions and determination of polyphenol oxidase activity allowed us to conclude that the effect of enzymic color changes on the soaked rice color was rather small. Color measurements of brown and milled mildly, intermediately, and severely parboiled rice samples showed that both brown and milled rice samples were darker and more red and yellow after parboiling and that the effect depended on the severity of parboiling conditions. Furthermore, steaming affected the rice color more and in a way opposite to that observed in soaking. The changes in RS and the loss of FAN during parboiling suggested that Maillard type reactions occur during brown rice steaming. Analyses of furosine levels confirmed Maillard browning of outer bran layers and endosperm during steaming. The level of this Maillard indicator increased with the severity of parboiling conditions in both brown and milled parboiled rice. Measurements of the levels of bran pigments indicated that bran pigments diffuse into the endosperm during parboiling and contribute to the parboiled rice color.
Improved method of determining total content of free amino acid in plant sample
- Wenping Wang
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