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Characterization of the edible bird’s nest the “Caviar of the East”
Abstract
A few species of swiflets (genus Aerodramus) build edible nests that are consumed by humans worldwide, as a delicacy known as the “Caviar of the East” or as a medicinal food. This study reports on the compositional properties of two types of nest, the white nest and the red “blood” nest. The order of composition (from lowest to highest) was found to be identical for both types of nests, i.e., lipid (0.14–1.28%), ash (2.1%), carbohydrate (25.62–27.26%) and protein (62–63%). It was also found that both nests share a common 77 KDa protein that has properties similar to those of the ovotransferrin protein in eggs. This protein may be partially responsible for the severe allergic reactions that sometimes occur among young children who consume edible bird’s nest products. It was found that SDS–PAGE electrophoretic fingerprinting might serve as a useful analytical technique for differentiating between white and red nests and for determining if the more expensive “blood” nest was adulterated with the less expensive white nest. Also evaluated were different analytical methodologies for detecting adulterants. Three of the most common adulterants found in retail bird’s nests are karaya gum, red seaweed, and tremella fungus, and they are routinely incorporated during commercial processing prior to final sale. Using crude protein determination, it was found that these adulterants (which typically accounted for 2–10% of the finished nest), reduce the overall crude protein content of the genuine white bird’s nest by as much as 1.1–6.2%. A modified xanthoproteic nitric acid test for proteins proved to be a rapid, and simple test to detect adulteration in both whole and finely ground nests, and would be suitable in the field where analytical facilities are not readily available.
... The incubation and fledging durations 23±3 days 43±6 days (Medway 1957;Langham 1980;Lim 2002) Swiftlets engage in yearround breeding activities between the months of October and February (Langham 1980) Construction of a single nest by swiftlets typically requires around 30-45 days during the breeding season, but in the nonbreeding season, this process takes approximately 60-80 days (Aowphol et al. 2008) Construction of nests mostly undertaken by male swiftlets throughout a span of around 35 days. both male and female swiftlets engage in the process of nest building (Lim 2002;Marcone 2005) Table 2). The swiftlet reproduction process involves mating, egg production, nest construction using saliva, incubation, hatching, and parental care, including feeding the offspring until they are ready for flight (Nugroho and Budiman 2013) (Fig. 1). ...
... Among the amino acids present in EBN, serine, threonine, aspartic acid, glutamic acid, proline, and valine are the most prevalent (Kathan and Weeks 1969). Additionally, EBN contains essential elements such as calcium (1298 ppm), sodium (650 ppm), magnesium (330 ppm), potassium (110 ppm), phosphorous (40 ppm), zinc, and iron (30 ppm) (Marcone 2005). One of the remarkable components of EBN is sialic acid (N-acetylneuraminic acid), which constitutes a significant proportion of essential sugars in EBN, making up approximately 9% of the total essential sugars. ...
... It consistently shows that protein is the major nutrient in EBN, accounting for around 60-63% of its composition, followed by carbohydrates at approximately 20-28%. The glycoprotein in EBN is the primary component responsible for these high protein and carbohydrate levels, making EBN a unique and valuable dietary resource (Marcone 2005;Babji et al. 2015). Determining the composition of protein, carbohydrate, moisture, fat, and ash in raw EBN is essential for various purposes, including the hydrolysis process for the extraction of its valuable components. ...
Edible bird’s nest (EBN) is a highly valuable food product obtained from swiftlet nests, primarily those of the Aerodramus genus. Due to its purported health benefits and exceptional taste, EBN is often referred to as the “caviar of the East.” This abstract presents a comprehensive review of the current state of EBN research, focusing on its chemical composition, nutritional value, pharmacological effects, and safety considerations. The chemical composition of EBN is intricate and influenced by various factors, including bird species, geographic origin, nest collection time, and processing methods. It is primarily composed of proteins, polysaccharides, minerals, lipids, and a wide range of bioactive compounds such as sialic acid, amino acids, and antioxidants. Additionally, EBN has demonstrated antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-tumor, and anti-aging properties attributed to these bioactive constituents. While EBN is generally considered safe for human consumption, it is essential to address concerns related to potential contaminants like heavy metals, microbial pathogens, and allergens. This review offers a comprehensive overview of previous research conducted on residual impurities that may be present in edible bird’s nests (EBNs). The review encompasses various aspects, including, the regulatory framework and associated concerns regarding EBNs, the levels of nitrite and nitrate detected in EBNs, the presence of bacteria, fungi, and mites in EBNs, the identification of allergenic substances in EBNs, and the presence of heavy metals and excessive mineral content at different stages of EBN processing, including raw uncleaned (RUC) EBNs, raw cleaned (RC) EBNs, and EBNs after undergoing treatment.
Graphical abstract :
... Results showed that only eight journals fulfilled the threshold criteria, with Food Research International (Elsevier) having the highest research outputs, i.e., 11 publications and 349 citations on EBN. The journal also has the most cited literature, possibly due to the broad influence of critical articles that disseminate the significant novel research domains in the food science, technology, engineering, and nutrition of EBN [1,20,28,31]. As observed, more than half of the journals have an impact factor (I.F.) greater than 3 (I.F.2020 > 3) based on the year 2020 data, except for AIP Conference Proceedings. ...
... The tabulated scientific works have revealed their nutritional compositions and pharmacological actions and showed the emerging approaches to tackle fraudulent food activity in EBN [14]. The 1st top-cited article in this ranking, published by Marcone [31] provides essential insights on the main compositions of EBN from high to low, such as protein (~ 63%), carbohydrate (~ 27%), ash (~ 2.1%), and lipid (~ 1.3%). The author also suggested protein is the predominant content in EBN, which enhances the sodium dodecyl-sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) technique. ...
... Following the interest in the chemical and mineral compositions of EBN collected from different locations in Thailand, the country has become one of the largest producers in Southeast Asia. The 9th most cited article by Saengkrajang et al. [40] examined the proximate composition of EBN, a similar topic of interest earlier reported in Marcone [31]. The authors confirm that the predominant composition found in EBN are proteins and carbohydrates. ...
Edible bird’s nest (EBN) is a valuable animal bioproduct produced by Swiftlets in Southeast Asia. Numerous researchers reported that EBN has rich nutritional value and high bioactive potential with numerous therapeutic benefits. For the first time, this paper evaluated the EBN research knowledge to conduct an in-depth statistical analysis and identify research trends, advancements, and hotspots. For this purpose, a combined methodologies based on bibliometric analysis and literature review was adopted. In total, 148 publications related to research EBN from 2002 to 2021 were identified. Three research hotspots were reviewed and discussed: (i) authentication and identification of EBN, (ii) beneficial and therapeutic properties of EBN, and (iii) EBN as active ingredients for functional food development. EBN has excellent potential as a value-ingredient with beneficial properties for commercial applications. Finally, this study provides a comprehensive overview of the EBN research trends and describes some current challenges and trends, which will remain the research focus and potent tool for future food scientists working on EBN functional food development.
Graphical abstract
... Hydrophobic amino acids exert antioxidative effect by interacting with hydrophobic targets to enhance bioavailability of antioxidant properties, while aromatic amino acids stabilize radicals through resonance or delocalization [84]. Table 2 summarizes the composition of EBN obtained from various studies [13,83,[85][86][87][88][89][90][91][92][93][94]. ...
... The systematic review by Ismail et al. [107] concluded that EBN could improve the cognitive functions of experimental animals and the efficacy of the in vitro neuroprotective effects of EBN was dose-dependent, which could be attributed to the ability of EBN to attenuate the neuroinflammation and neurooxidative stress. Table 3 summarizes the neuroprotective compounds discovered from various studies and their functions [24,45,48,74,[87][88][89][90]95,97,102,104,106,[108][109][110]. ...
... Function References Lactoferrin Antioxidative effect [24] Ovotransferrin Antioxidative effect [24,89] Sialic acid Critical function in neuronal outgrowth, synaptic connectivity, and memory formation [45,48,87,88,102,[108][109][110] Protein lin-9 homolog Activate mitosis and cytokine genes for cell proliferation and migratory effects [74] Hyaluronan mediated motility receptor Coordinate cell migration and neurite extension in neurons [74] Neuropilin & tolloid-like 1 Maintain N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor dependent synaptic plasticity required for spatial learning and memory consolidation [74] Protein bassoon Involved in synaptic and glutamate neurotransmission implicated in cognition of Parkinson's disease patients [74] Integrator complex subunit 1 protein Prevent caspase-3 activation and involve in neuronal migration [74] Selenocysteine-specific elongation factor Mediate biosynthesis of glutathione peroxidase [74] RGM domain family member B Neurite extension and axonal growth through bone morphogenetic protein (BPM) signaling [74,106] Heat shock 70 kDa/78 kDa glucose-regulated protein Chaperone role in the degradation of misfolded proteins and regulation of apoptotic activity [74,106] Epidermal growth factor Cell proliferating effect and maturation of human immature dendritic cells [90,104] Pro-Phe-His-Pro-Tyr Pentapeptide Antioxidative effect [95] Leu-Leu-Gly-Asp-Pro Pentapeptide Antioxidative effect [95] Oleic acid Antioxidative effect and protection against lipid peroxidation [97] Linoleic acid Antioxidative effect and protection against lipid peroxidation [97] Galactose A substrate for cerebrosides, gangliosides, and mucoproteins in the brain and nervous system [102,110] Fucose Modulating neuronal communication [102] N-acetylgalactosamine Improvement of synaptic function [102,110] Inter-α-trypsin inhibitor heavy chain H2 precursor Act as carrier of hyaluronan that is widely distributed in neural tissue [106] Co-enzyme Q-binding protein Mitochondrial protein required for co-enzyme Q function as an antioxidant [106] Leucine-rich repeat-containing protein 9 Protein-binding motif associate with neurological and psychiatric disease [106] Bursal epithelium and neuron glycoprotein precursor Supports neurite extension [106] Phospholipase A2-like Secondary effects of preventing apoptosis and increasing cell proliferation [106] ...
Neurodegenerative diseases are often associated with the accumulation of oxidative stress and neuroinflammation. Edible bird’s nest (EBN) is a glycoprotein (sialylated mucin glycopeptides) found to be beneficial against neurodegenerative diseases. Antioxidative, anti-inflammatory, and anti-apoptotic properties of EBN in preserving neuronal cells were widely researched using in vitro and in vivo models. Functional effects of EBN are often linked to its great number of antioxidants and anti-inflammatory glycopeptides. Bioactive compounds in EBN, especially sialic acid, add value to neurotrophic potential of EBN and contribute to neuronal repair and protection. Various studies reporting the neuroprotective effects of EBN, their molecular mechanisms, and neuroactive composition were gathered in this review to provide better insights on the neuroprotective effects of EBN.
... The EBN-producing swiftlet species that are mainly traded worldwide are Aerodramus fuciphafus and Aerodramus maximus. They produce white and black EBN, respectively, and are available in Southeast Asian countries (Lim & Rahman 2005;Marcone 2005). The EBN industry is an example where the locals take advantage of the diverse bird species in Malaysia and subsequently grow into a commercial business (Mansor & Rahman 2013). ...
... In addition, amino acid analyses were also carried out and findings of essential and nonessential amino acids in EBN have been stated (Halimi et al. 2014;Kathan & Weeks 1969;Marcone 2005;Saengkrajang et al. 2013;Wang 1921b). All 18 amino acids were also reported to be present in EBN (Ali et al. 2019) including the 9 essential amino acids required for tissue growth and restoration, namely phenylalanine, valine, threonine, histidine, tryptophan, isolucine, methionine, lysine, and leucine (Daud et al. 2021a). ...
... HEALTH BENEFITS OF EDIBLE BIRD'S NEST Hobbs (2004) and Marcone (2005) stated that EBN is considered a luxurious and high-value food because of the public's perception of its efficacy and pharmacological characteristics as a food that increases bodily health and functions. Consuming EBN soup is said to be effective in reducing phlegm, relieving sore throats, reducing gastric problems, helping kidney function, increasing libido, beautifying skin, reducing asthma, relieving coughs, curing dry coughs, strengthening the immune system, accelerating recovery from diseases and surgery, and increasing energy, stamina, and strength (Hobbs 2004). ...
Edible bird's nest (EBN) is a salivary secretion of swiftlets which consist of protein and carbohydrate rich glycoproteins. This natural ingredient is very valuable, nutritional and medically valuable. The EBN industry have grown rapidly and benefited the Malaysian economy, hence, it is viewed seriously and it is actively supported by the government. This review discusses the progress and development of EBN industry as well as the R&D activities and endeavours especially that which involves deriving peptides with biological activities from EBN and its by-product sources. Many studies have documented the therapeutic properties of EBN such as antiaging, antiviral, antioxidant, and antihypertensive. Studies have also been conducted to produce glycoprotein hydrolysates from EBN through enzymatic hydrolysis, and findings showed that these bioactive peptides increase solubility as well as antioxidant and antihypertensive activities. Enzymatic hydrolysis breaks long protein chains at specific sites and releases amino acids and small peptides with lower molecular weights. The EBN hydrolysates produced can improve bioactivity and overcome insolubility and low absorption of EBN prepared and consumed through traditional means. Further studies need to be carried out to optimise EBN glycoprotein hydrolysates production as well as maximising their bioavailability and efficacy in the human gastrointestinal system. In addition, EBN by-products produced during EBN cleaning process should be fully utilised to recover the high-value glycoproteins, while reducing pollution and wastage. By enhancing R&D activities of EBN, bioactive glycopeptides produced from EBN may become an important functional food ingredient for various uses and innovative value-added products in the future.
... During the breeding season, the sublingual salivary glands of these swiftlets secrete saliva rapidly. Swiftlets can nest in caves or vertical walls using sticky saliva alone or co-condensing with feathers or grass (Marcone, 2005). A complete EBN can reach 1-2 times the weight of the swiftlet to support female swiftlets and chicks. ...
... Nesting sites are usually chosen on the vertical walls of caves, mines, tunnels, or houses. The nesting time lasts about 35 d (Marcone, 2005). Complete bird's nests are generally 5-10 cm in diameter, 3-8 cm in-depth, and 4-15 g in mas. ...
... The picking process of cave EBN is often arduous and dangerous, which is affected by various factors such as the location of the nest in the cave or cliff and the height of the ground or water. The swiftlet farmers who pick EBN usually use tools such as fishing nets or bamboo-or iron-made temporary scaffolding to pick the EBN (Leh, 2001;Marcone, 2005). This process is not only accompanied by dangers but also the picking cycle is too long. ...
Edible bird's nest is built by swiftlet during breeding using salivary gland secretions, which have rich nutritional value, such as anti-aging, immunomodulatory, and antioxidant activity. As a result, the global demand for edible bird's nests has increased significantly. Swiftlet farmers, consumers, traders, and authorities are increasingly concerned about obtaining safe and high-quality edible bird's nests. On the other hand, subject to the limitations of the number of swiftlet populations and the ecological environment, exploring new food processing technologies to improve the utilization efficiency of edible bird's nest nutrition has also become the research frontier. Therefore, this study introduced the origin and classification of edible bird's nests in detail, presented the current situation of the edible bird's nest industry and the corresponding review measures of various countries, reviewed the efficacies of edible bird's nest, and introduced the new form of edible bird's nest utilization: edible bird's nest hydrolysates and their efficacies.
... There are three main types of swiftlets genera known to produce EBN: Collocalia, Aerodramus, and Hydrochous (36). During the nesting and breeding season, the sublingual gland of swiftlets increases in weight and reaches their maximum secretory activity (37,38). Swiftlets, the insectivorous birds, build its nest with secretions from their specialized salivary glands. ...
... More than 24 different swiftlet species create nests for their young all around the world, but only a handful of them are edible. Both the Aerodramus fuciphagus and Aerodramus maximus lay white and black nests, respectively, and are the most exploited and recognized swiftlet species in Malaysia (38). Red nests or blood nests, also known as Xueyan in Chinese, are occasionally found in the caves and swiftlet houses. ...
... It is believed that red nests are of an excellent quality (40) and believed to have increased health benefits and, therefore, fetch a relatively higher price than white nests in the market (41). However, both the white and red EBNs showed relatively similar amino acid levels, which were 63 and 62%, respectively (38). The reddening of EBN has been reported to be associated with the emission of bird soil in hot and humid environments or a chemical reaction involving sodium nitrite dissolved in 2% hydrochloric acid, but the mechanism is unclear (42). ...
Cognitive enhancement is defined as the augmentation of the mind's core capabilities through the improvement of internal or external information processing systems. Recently, the focus has shifted to the potential therapeutic effects of natural products in improving cognitive function. Edible bird's nest (EBN) is a natural food substance derived from the saliva of swiftlets. Until today, EBN is regarded as a high-priced nutritious food with therapeutic effects. The effectiveness of dietary EBN supplementation to enhance brain development in mammals has been documented. Although the neuroprotection of EBN has been previously reported, however, the impact of EBN on learning and memory control and its potential as a cognitive enhancer drug remains unknown. Thus, this article aims to address the neuroprotective benefits of EBN and its potential effect as a cognitive enhancer. Notably, the current challenges and the future study direction in EBN have been demonstrated.
... Swiftlet is a unique small insectivorous bird using its specialize salivary glands secretion in building its nest. Swiftlet species mainly live in the South East Asia region (Macron 2005;Chua et al. 2016). Its nest; edible bird's nest (EBN) is a valuable precious natural food built from the salivary secretion of glutinous glycoprotein through sublingual glands, mainly by the male swiftlet during their nesting and breeding season. ...
... It takes over 35 days to complete the nest construction. The solidified secretion enables the nest to carry the swiftlets and their eggs remaining attached to the wall during the whole breeding season (Macron 2005;Ma and Liu 2012;Ramji et al. 2013). Studies showed swiftlets are cave dweller animals mainly located at the limestone caves. ...
... According to the harvest location, either cave or house, EBN is available in three different colors; white, orange, and red. The red EBN is the more costly type in the market because traditionally, people believe in its health advantages (Macron 2005). Some scientists suggested that the red color may be due to the blood of swiftlets mixed with their saliva secretion or the food source, which mainly comes from the insect with minerals . ...
t Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is one of the key causes of deaths and
disabilities worldwide. TBI progresses in two phases. The primary phase of injury is the direct result of the physical damage caused by the external force applied to the brain while the secondary injury takes place minutes to days after the primary injury. The secondary phase of TBI is marked by a series of pathological events that start following the initial mechanical impact. The mechanisms underlying TBI pathogenesis in the secondary phase are intricate and include metabolic alterations, excitotoxicity, oxidative stress, and neuroinflammation, among others; all culminating in neuronal cell damage and death. Currently, there is no FDA-licensed drug that
targets TBI. Hence, the search for novel therapeutic agents that can target one or more of the mechanisms underlying the pathology of the secondary phase of TBI is warranted. Such novel therapeutic agents are expected to ameliorate the adverse consequences of TBI
... The ESN also promotes physical and mental strength, and anti-aging to maintain youthfulness. [4,6,7] Today, these beliefs have been proven by science for its role as a nutraceutical food. Scientific evidence supports the claims of ESN in TCM. ...
... The Statistical Analysis System (SAS) version 9.4 was employed as the statistical software for this study. [7,43] The result in Table 1 revealed similar results. Whereby, the major nutrient of ESN is protein at 60.93%, followed by carbohydrate at 20.98%. ...
... These were also reported in previous studies. [7,45,[58][59][60] The raw ESN's protein, carbohydrate, moisture, fat, and ash content were determined as one of the crucial procedures for the hydrolysis process. In which, the hydrolysis of ESN was performed based on the protein content in ESN. ...
The swiftlet’s nest is an edible bird’s nest (EBN) produced from dried gelatinized saliva secreted by swiftlets during the breeding season. It is widely used in industries for its high nutritional values and health benefits. However, the utilization of ESN is restricted due to its physicochemical properties, such as insolubility. The recently invented bioactive ESN hydrolyzate is reported to improve the ESN’s solubility, functional and nutritional properties to broaden its application. This study has produced bioactive ESN hydrolyzates with different hydrolysis periods to investigate the optimum conditions to achieve maximized degree of hydrolysis (DH) and to compare the physicochemical differences. The result revealed that optimum ESN hydrolysis was at 90 minutes, in which the DH and enhanced solubility (three folds) indicated a complete breakdown of glycoprotein into bioactive glycopeptide. This result is in line with the physicochemical analyses result. The hydrolysis has significantly decreased (p ≤ .05) the ESN protein content, while the levels for peptide, glycopeptide, polysaccharides, and sialic acid showed the opposite. Interestingly, the amino acid from raw ESN and hydrolyzates in all incubation periods showed no significant difference (p ≤ .05). This result suggests that the ESN biological properties remained unchanged with alcalase hydrolysis. Therefore, the findings in this study confirm the feasibility of bioactive ESN hydrolyzate as a versatile product suitable for various industries in utilizing ESN in whole instead of as extracts.
... Sarang ini hanya bisa menopang induk dan anaknya. Proses konstruksi sarang dapat memakan waktu sekitar 35 hari (Marcone, 2005). ...
... Pemanenan sarang burung walet terbagi atas panen tetasan, panen rampasan, panen buang telur, dan panen pilihan (Nugroho dan Budiman, 2011). Pemanenan dapat dilakukan dengan menggunakan pisau yang tajam (Jong et al., 2013), menggunakan tangan (Ma dan Liu, 2012), menggunakan tongkat bambu atau besi jika sarang yang dibangun tinggi (Marcone, 2005). Metode panen di Indonesia dapat dilihat pada Gambar 2 dan menghasilkan SBW dalam bentuk kotor seperti pada Gambar 3. ...
... Analisis proksimat dalam SBW sangat bervariasi yang menunjukkan kemungkinan perbedaan komposisi dalam saliva yang dikeluarkan selama periode 35 hari ketika sarang sedang dibangun (Marcone, 2005). Berdasarkan analisis komposisi, glikoprotein SBW yang dimurnikan mengandung sekitar 63% protein, 21% total sakarida dan 14% asam sialat (Marcone, 2005;Saengkrajang et al., 2013;Zhang et al., 2012;Xu et al., 2019). ...
Sarang burung walet (SBW) merupakan sarang yang berasal dari saliva beberapa spesies burung walet keluarga Apodidae, terutama spesies Aerodramus fuciphagus dan A. maximus. Indonesia merupakan negara penghasil SBW terbesar dengan menyumbang 85% dari pasar dunia. Sarang burung walet sejak lama telah digunakan dalam pengobatan tradisional Tiongkok. Komponen utama dari SBW adalah glikoprotein, yang diyakini terlibat dalam jalur biologis yang beragam untuk meningkatkan kesehatan. Berbagai metode penelitian telah dilakukan untuk mengkarakterisasi peptida dan glikoprotein SBW sebagai bahan bioaktif makanan fungsional. Ulasan ini bertujuan untuk memberikan informasi mengenai potensi SBW sebagai produk makanan fungsional berdasarkan kandungan bahan bioaktif dan sifat fisikokimia yang dimilikinya. Sarang burung walet digunakan sebagai bahan makanan, baik dengan menyajikan dalam bentuk utama atau menggabungkan dengan bahan lain yang meningkatkan nilai tambah produk pangan seperti minuman siap saji, yoghurt, roti daging, es krim, mie dan cokelat. Potensi komponen bioaktif SBW sebagai pangan fungsional meliputi klaim penurunan risiko penyakit dan klaim fungsi lain. Klaim penurunan risiko penyakit antara lain anti inflamasi, aktifitas antivirus, meningkatkan kesehatan jantung dan pembuluh darah, meningkatkan imunitas, efek neuroprotektif, dan mencegah penyakit diabetes. Klaim fungsi lain meliputi ploriferasi sel, aktifitas epidermal growth factor (EGF) dan anti penuaan, memperbaiki fungsi saluran pencernaan, peningkatan kekuatan tulang, meningkatkan fungsi saluran reproduksi, dan antioksidan.
... Edible bird's nests (EBN), the nests of swiftlet birds made of solidified saliva, have been consumed as a delicacy food in East Asia for centuries [1] . Their "health-promoting effects" supported by traditional Chinese medicine guarantee a USD 6.5 billion market in China alone and a rising international market prices up to USD 6,600 per kilogram [2][3][4][5] . However, the rapidly increasing demand for EBN has triggered serious ecological and social issues. ...
... The receiving layer, representing the TeeBN, contains the essential nutritional factors of natural EBN while avoiding heavy metal and microbial contaminations normally occurring in the latter. cells [2,12] . A possible design is to culture salivary gland cells in one layer-TE-based simulation of the bird's salivary gland and construct another biomaterials layer to collect and stabilize the nutritional components from the first layer. ...
Edible bird's nests (EBN)-the nests of swiftlet birds harvested from the wild- are high-end healthcare food in East Asia, while their excessive harvesting poses increasing ecological, environmental, and food safety concerns. Here, we report for the first time a tissue-engineering (TE) approach for fabricating EBNs substitutes by integrating the technologies of three-dimensional (3D) printing and live cell culture. The engineered products, tissue-engineered edible bird's nests (TeeBN), comprise two layers. The first is a feeding layer that encapsulates epithelial cells in 3D-printed biocompatible gelation scaffolds. These cells secrete bioactive ingredients, e.g., sialic acid and epidermal growth factors (EGF), recapitulating the natural production of these substances by birds. The second is a receiving layer, consisting of foodgrade natural polymers, e.g., polysaccharides, which mimics the building blocks of natural EBNs while biologically stabilizing the factors released from the feeding layer. In vitro characterizations demonstrate that the feeding layer facilitates 3D cell growth and functions, and the receiving layer (as the end product) contains the necessary nutrients expected from natural EBNs-while without harmful substances commonly detected in natural EBNs. Further, in vivo metabolomics studies in mice indicate that TeeBN showed a similar profile of serum metabolites as natural EBN, reflecting comparable nutritional effects. In summary, we innovatively developed a tissue engineering-based substitute for EBNs with comparable metabolic functions and minimized safety risks, opening a new avenue for producing delicacy food from laboratorial cell culture with 3D printing technology.
... Edible bird nests (EBNs) are nests made from the regurgitated saliva of Collocalia (Aerodramus) swiftlets (Marcone, 2005). In the past, raw or unprocessed EBNs were harvested mainly from natural caves. ...
... Characterisation of EBNs revealed 66 and 100 kDa allergens of similar sequence homology with ovoinhibitor (Goh et al., 2000;2001). Marcone (2005) reported another 77 kDa allergen which shares similar sequence homology with the egg's ovotransferrin in unprocessed nests obtained from East Malaysia and Sumatra. EBNs obtained from Sarawak, Thailand and Indonesia showed allergenic heterogeneity (Goh et al., 2001). ...
The global demand for edible bird nests (EBNs) is high, especially from Hong Kong and Peoples Republic of China. Recently, this industry was greatly affected when China banned the import of all the EBNs from Malaysia (except for canned version) due to detection of high levels of nitrites. Several cases of anaphylaxis following ingestion of EBNs were reported. The source(s) of these allergens remain unknown. Mites have been reported to trigger allergic responses. Hence, this study was designed to quantify, isolate and identify the mites that are associated with EBNs. The raw EBNs were purchased from swiftlet farms in five locations in Peninsular Malaysia while the commercial nests were purchased from five different Chinese traditional medicinal shops. The average mite density of all the raw nests was 285 ± 603 mites per gram of EBN while the commercial nests had a much lower mean value of 21 ± 32 mites per gram of EBN (p = 0.082). Among the raw EBNs, the nests from Kajang had the highest average mite density (946 ± 1443 mites/g of EBN) whereas the nests from Kuala Sanglang had the lowest (54 ± 34 mites/g of EBN). Among the commercial EBNs, the nests from Company D had the highest average mite density (76 ± 18 mites/g of EBN) whereas the nests from Company A were free of mites. Overall, the average densities of mites in the raw nests obtained from southern regions of Malaysia (Selangor and Johor) were higher than those nests obtained from the northern regions (Kedah and Kelantan). Thirty types of mites were isolated from both the raw and commercial nests. Among these, some are probably feather mites (Eustathia cultrifer, Pteroherpus garrulacis, Pterodectes amaurochalinus, Laminalloptes sp., Berlesella alata and Neochauliacia sp.), house dust and storage mites (Suidasia sp., Austroglycyphagus sp., and Aleuroglyphus ovatus), mesostigmatid mites (Dermanyssus sp.), prostigmatid mites (Cheyletus sp., tarsonemid and cunaxid mites), astigmatid mites (Collocalidectes sp., Streetacarus sp. and Hemisarcoptes sp.) and oribatid mites. This study provides baseline information on the density and type of mites that are probably associated with EBNs. This study also heightens the importance of mites as a possible source of EBN-associated anaphylaxis.
... Edible bird's nest contains carbohydrates and glycoproteins as the major components, apart from amino acids, fatty acids and some trace elements such as calcium, sodium, magnesium, zinc, manganese and iron (Marcone, 2005). The composition of EBN makes it esteemed as a nutritional food (Marcone, 2005). ...
... Edible bird's nest contains carbohydrates and glycoproteins as the major components, apart from amino acids, fatty acids and some trace elements such as calcium, sodium, magnesium, zinc, manganese and iron (Marcone, 2005). The composition of EBN makes it esteemed as a nutritional food (Marcone, 2005). Chinese cook this nest material in a double boiler with the addition of sugar to produce gastronomic delicacy known as bird's nest soup (Hobbs, 2004). ...
Edible bird’s nest (EBN) derived from saliva of swiftlet is often consumed for its nutritional benefit. In this study, EBN natural soap was studied based on their morphology, antibacterial activity and cytotoxicity. The surface morphology and the presence of heavy metal in the soaps were investigated through scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX). The antibacterial activity of EBN natural soap against Escherichia coli ATCC 25922 was investigated using disc diffusion and bacterial colony count method while the biocompatibility property was determined with human skin fibroblast cells through MTT assay and morphology observation under an inverted microscope. A consistent surface morphology pattern and no heavy metal were recorded on the soaps. The results of antibacterial activity indicated that the EBN natural soap did not have any antibacterial property but able to retain high cell viability percentage of 91.88±3.04% with normal cell morphology. Therefore, the EBN natural soap is biocompatible and appropriate to be incorporated in skin products.
... EBN mainly comprises saliva excretion of several swiftlet species of the Aerodramus genus (formerly Collocallia), such as A. fuciphagus and A. maximus. These swiftlets are found predominantly in Southeast Asia, including Thailand, Vietnam, Indonesia, Malaysia, and the Philippines (Marcone, 2005). EBN was reported rich in protein by the various author that there was about 62% protein in the form of glycoprotein (Marcone, 2005), 61.0 to 66.9% protein of essential amino acid (Saengkrajang et al., 2013), and 67.53% of total amino acids (Quek et al., 2018). ...
... These swiftlets are found predominantly in Southeast Asia, including Thailand, Vietnam, Indonesia, Malaysia, and the Philippines (Marcone, 2005). EBN was reported rich in protein by the various author that there was about 62% protein in the form of glycoprotein (Marcone, 2005), 61.0 to 66.9% protein of essential amino acid (Saengkrajang et al., 2013), and 67.53% of total amino acids (Quek et al., 2018). Due to the high protein content of EBN, it can be used as a good source of bioactive peptides. ...
The present study aimed to perform an in silico evaluation of edible bird’s nest protein as potential precursors of bioactive peptides, as well as to determine whether such peptides can be released by selected proteolytic enzymes. Six edible bird’s nest (EBN) protein sequences from a previous study were chosen as potential precursors to produce bioactive peptides via in silico method using the BIOPEP database. AMCase protein sequences gave the highest number of bioactivities (16 to 18) and nucleobindin-2 protein gave the lowest number of bioactivities (9) among the other protein sequences. It was found that the most potential bioactive peptides from EBN proteins are angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors and dipeptidyl peptidase-IV (DPPIV) inhibitors. Furthermore, in silico proteolysis using six selected enzymes was employed to release both dominant bioactivities in EBN proteins, which were ACE and DPP-IV inhibitors. This study shows that a combination of enzymes, chymotrypsin, and papain, produced the highest number of activities for both ACE and DPP-IV inhibitor peptides with the frequency of occurrence of bioactive peptides of 0.0968 and 0.1104, respectively. The toxic prediction tool, ToxinPred, found that all EBN peptides derived by in silico analysis were non-toxic. The current study proposed that EBN can serve as a potential source of bioactive peptides.
... It should be noted that cave-harvested EBN is priced at a much higher rate (RM16,000/Kg) than the house-farmed EBN (RM6, 000/Kg). Due to the huge difference in price between different types of EBN, many EBN manufacturers have resorted to the unethical practices by selling house-farmed EBN at the price of cave-harvested EBN, adulterating cave-harvested EBN with lower-priced house-farmed EBN or other ingredients such as red seaweed, karaya gum, Tremella fungus, agar, fried pigskin and egg white (Guo et al., 2014;Marcone, 2005;Seow, Ibrahim, Muhammad, Lee, & Cheng, 2016). Chantakun, Kishimura, Kumagai, and Benjakul (2021) reported that protein was the major component found in both types of EBN, whereas the dominant amino acids are aspartic acid/asparagine and serine (the non-essential amino acids), and leucine, threonine and phenylalanine (the essential amino acids). ...
... In this study, the researchers classified the cave-harvested EBN and house-farmed EBN samples based on their mineral contents. The minerals found in EBN are calcium (Ca), sodium (Na), magnesium (Mg), potassium (K), phosphorus (P) and iron (Fe) (Ma & Liu, 2012;Marcone, 2005). Since the cave-harvested EBN are built on the walls of the caves, they tend to contain more foreign minerals and impurities as compared to the house-farmed EBN. ...
Cave-harvested edible bird nest (EBN) is a high-priced commodity, that often being counterfeited with lower-priced house-farmed EBN. In this study, cave-harvested EBN and house-farmed EBN were classified based on to the concentration of calcium (Ca), sodium (Na), magnesium (Mg) and potassium (K) present. To solve the convergence failure problem caused by the complete separation of the EBN data, a logistic regression model analysis on 48 EBN samples harvested from Malaysia and Indonesia through a mineral ratio approach was adopted.
Out of the 3 logistic regression models developed, the model consisting of Ca/Na ratio and Mg/K ratio gave the best performance showing no convergence failure of Maximum Likelihood Estimation (MLE) and both the explanatory variables were highly significant. The result indicated that both Ca/Na ratio and Mg/K ratio, affecting the probability of EBN type to be cave-harvested EBN in a positive manner. The logistic regression model developed with the Ca/Na ratio and Mg/K ratio gave a 100% specificity and 91.67% sensitivity in classifying the EBN type. The results of the analysis were verified using the Receiver Operating Characteristics curves. The validation result indicated that the model has a very good overall diagnostic accuracy in classifying the EBN type based on the mineral ratio.
... Swiftlet nest has been used for a long time. From the beginning of the Tang dynasty, swiftlet nest has been an important item in Chinese cuisine and pharmacy (Marcone, 2005). In the present study, we evaluated the effect of hydrolyzed swiftlet nest extracts on skin whitening and moisturizing were measured. ...
... Using rat models, Yida et al. (2015) reported that the swiftlet nest attenuates high fat diet-induced oxidative stress. Guo et al. (2016) showed that NANA administration decreased Sialic acid is a main active compound found in swiftlet nest and NANA is a major sialic acid structure detected in swiftlet nest that can be obtained from the hydrolysis of swiftlet nest (Chan et al., 2013;Marcone, 2005;Pozsgay et al., 1987;Van der Ham et al., 2007). In swiftlet nest, there are two forms of NANA: loosely attached on the surface of swiftlet nest (free NANA) and/or covalently bound to glycan molecules and linked to protein mass (conjugated NANA). ...
Purpose: This research verified the skin whitening and moisturizing effects of hydrolyzed swiftlet nest extracts (HSNE) in vitro using human keratinocytes and melanoma.Methods: To confirm the antioxidant effect of HSNE, DPPH radical-scavenging activity was measured. To find out the whitening effect of HSNE, the genes related to melanogenesis, mRNA expression of tyrosinase (TYR), tyrosinase related protein (TRP) 1, 2 and microphthalmia associated transcription factor (MITF) were measured. We also measured the melanin contents after treatment of HSNE to confirm the anti-melanogenesis effect. Using reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), the genes related to moisturizing such as aquaporin (AQP) 3, hyaluronan synthase (HAS) 1, 2, and 3 were determined. The results of the tests were analyzed with student’s t-test and expressed as mean±standard deviation.Results: DPPH radical scavenging effects of HSNE increased in a concentration dependent manner. The expression of melanogenesis-related genes were inhibited by the treatment of HSNE in a concentration-dependent manner (MITF, TYR, TRP1, and 2). Melanin contents also decreased with the treatment of HSNE. The expression of moisturizing-related genes (HAS1, 2, 3, and AQP3) increased in a concentration-dependent manner.Conclusion: It is confirmed that the hydrolyzed swiftlet nest extracts have skin whitening and moisturizing effects and can be used as a functional cosmetic raw material.
... Khanh Hoa Sanest Soft Drink Joint Stock Company belongs to the Khanh Hoa Salanganes Nest Company. It makes soft drinks from edible nests produced by salangane birds, insectivorous swiftlets of the family Apodidae that inhabit limestone caves in many parts of Southeast Asia [17][18][19]. A precious natural product served at the banquets of feudal dynasties, these EBNs are highly sought after due to their purported nutritional, aphrodisiac, and health benefits [19][20][21], which include toning the organs of the body, relieving gastric problems, and aiding kidney function [17]. ...
As Khanh Hoa Sanest Soft Drink Joint Stock Company attempts to satisfy consumer requirements and maintain market share in the salangane nest industry, it is important to monitor the efficiency of its supply chain (SC). This paper identified metrics to evaluate the firm’s SC performance, using secondary data from firm records, primary data from a survey of 200 sales agents, and the Supply Chain Operations Reference (SCOR) model. Production records revealed a manufacturing lead time of 11 days and a production time of 24 h plus 7 days for refrigeration and observation. Order fulfillment delivery times ranged from 13 to 16 days. About 86.0 percent of customers rated the product as good or very good, and 60.5 percent claimed benefits from consuming the product. SC management costs of goods sold were 75.27% of total costs, while production cost was 41.99% of total costs. Total assets increased 16.6% from 2019 to 2021, but profits declined by 32.9% for the same period, while return on assets fell 42.4%. To maintain a competitive advantage, the company should apply information technology to improve SC performance. The results showed that the SCOR model is appropriate for evaluating the performance of this firm and similar business enterprises.
... The highest biological composition that can be found in EBN is approximately 50% of protein, followed by carbohydrates (25.62-27.76%), lipids (0.14-1.28%), and minerals [4,5]. Glycoproteins in EBN content are the major protein that plays an important role as bioactive compounds [5,6]. ...
The glutinous nest that builds by the saliva secretion of swiftlet is recognizable as an edible bird's nest (EBN). It enriched a medicinal value and was regarded as supplementary food that exerts various beneficial health effects, especially immune boosters. This study's objective was to determine the impact of EBN on the expression of MHC-II and costimulatory molecules (CD86 and CD80) related to the initiation of T-cell activation. Both rEBN and pEBN samples were prepared with simulated gastrointestinal digestion for enhancing the bioaccessibility of bioactive compounds. Our result showed that digested EBN samples slightly influence the upregulation of MHC-II, CD86, and CD80 in gene expression of LPS-stimulated Raw 264.7 cells. The concern of endotoxin contamination in EBN samples, which may cause a false-positive result, was measured by quantitative PCR. We found that the inflammatory genes (IL-1β and TNF-α) were not induced by EBN treatments. Moreover, cell surface protein expression in splenocytes treated with EBN was assessed using flow cytometric analysis. Digested EBN samples demonstrated their capacity to promote the elevation of MHC-II, CD86, and CD80 cell surface protein expression. Finally, the digested-EBN-treated splenocytes only exhibited a specific response in the T-cells population. Thus, EBN is a source of the bioactive compound that has been proposed to exert a role in the stimulation of both MHC-II and costimulatory molecules for TCR/pMHC-II interaction leading to T-cell activation.
... Silk is even secondarily co-opted by other animals, including by humans. A bird's nest may be constructed from exogenous materials (e.g., plants, spider webs), lined with feathers (endogenous), or comprise salivary secretions (endogenous) as in nests of swifts (Aves: Apodidae) which humans eat as the birds' nest soup delicacy (Hobbs 2004;Marcone 2005). Constructions may be fashioned by an individual or a community to serve diverse purposes-nurseries and homes, traps, pantry, defences, dispersal devices, to mark territory, to aid communication (e.g., sexual and courtship displays), as physical and chemical barriers to deter predation and parasitism, or as camouflage to sneak up on prey (Hansell 2005). ...
Animal constructions are the outcomes of complex evolutionary, behavioural, and ecological forces. A brief review of diverse animal builders, the materials used, and the functions they provide their builders is provided to develop approaches to studying faecal-based constructions and faecal-carrying in leaf beetles (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae). Field studies, rearing, dissections, photography, and films document shields constructed by larvae in two species in two tribes of the subfamily Cassidinae, Calyptocephala attenuata (Spaeth, 1919) (Spilophorini), and Cassida sphaerula Boheman, 1853 (Cassidini). Natural history notes on an undetermined Cassidini species and Stolas cucullata (Boheman, 1862) (Tribe Mesomphaliini) outline the life cycle of tortoise beetles and explain terms. Commonly, the cassidine shield comprises exuviae onto which faeces are daubed, producing a pyramidal-shaped shield that can cover most of the body (up to the pronotum). In Cal. attenuata the larval shield comprises only exuviae, while in Cass. sphaerula , instar 1 initiates the shield by extending its telescopic anus to apply its own faeces onto its paired caudal processes; at each moult the exuvia is pushed to the caudal process base but remains attached, then more faeces are applied over it. The larva’s telescopic anus is the only tool used to build and repair the shield, not mouthparts or legs, and it also applies chemicals to the shield. Pupae in Cal. attenuata retain part of the exuviae-only shield of instar VI, while pupae in Cass. sphaerula retain either the entire 5 th instar larval shield (faeces + all exuviae) or only the 5 th larval exuvia. The caudal processes are crucial to shield construction, shield retention on the body, and as materials of the central scaffold of the structure. They also move the shield, though the muscular mechanism is not known. Altogether the faecal + exuviae shields may represent a unique morpho-behavioural synapomorphy for the crown-clade Cassidinae (10 tribes, ~ 2669 species) and may have been a key innovation in subsequent radiation. Defensive shields and domiciles may help explain the uneven radiation of chrysomelid subfamilial and tribal clades.
... EBN, an Asian health food, is rich in nutritional components [8,24] like high protein, carbohydrates, and sialic acid and is known as "Caviar of the East" [25]. In this study, the whitening activity of EBN digestion products was investigated by murine melanocytes cell model, tyrosinase inhibitory activity, melanin production, and the expression levels of melanin-related genes were analyzed. ...
Edible bird’s nest (EBN) has been proven to exhibit whitening activity. In spite of this, the relationship between the digestive products of EBN and the whitening activity is still unclear. Hence, the B16-F10 cell model was used in this study to study the whitening activity of simulated EBN digestion products in vitro. The simulated digestive juices showed significant inhibition of tyrosinase (TYR) ( P < 0.05), and the release rate of free sialic acid was 21.87% in EBN digestive juices. After simulated gastrointestinal digestion, the relative contents of <1 kDa components, 1–3 kDa components, and >3 kDa components were 42.63%, 15.05%, and 42.32%, respectively. EBN digestive products were further fractionated, and the fraction of <1 kDa (EPP-1) exhibited the highest tyrosinase inhibitory activity with 83.12% and its peptides content was 92.44%. The EPP-1 significantly inhibited tyrosinase activity and decreased melanin content ( P > 0.05) by regulating the cAMP/MITF/TRP-1/TRP-2 tyrosinase signaling pathways in the B16-F10 cell experiment. Based on these findings, our data suggest that the digestive products of EBN may potentially be fit for developing a new generation of natural whitening health products.
... Edible bird nest comes from the salivary secretions of swiftlets which contain mucins such as glycoproteins (Marcone, 2005). The saliva hardens, forming a half bowl that sticks to the wall (Utomo et al., 2015). ...
... Beginning with Tang dynasty (618-907 AD), the edible bird's nest has become an important item in Chinese cuisine and pharmacy, consumed as a delicious tonic food known as "bird's nest soup", which is regarded as a luxury food item (Hobbs, 2004;Marcone, 2005) .It's one of the most expensive animal products of saliva secretion produce from male swiftlet's two sublingual salivary glands (Saengkrajang, 2013;Ma & Liu, 2012). It is consumed for a number of reasons and its aphrodisiac property (reflection of reproductive role) is one of the traditionally believed benefits unexplored scientifically. ...
... When the baby swiftlets fly away as an adult, the nest will be abandoned, then it will be manually collected and processed into EBN. In China, EBN has always been regarded as premium food and invigorant, and it was known as the ''Caviar of the East" (Marcone, 2005;Jian et al., 2016a). In the past, EBN has always been the favorite food of the royal family and nobles. ...
Edible bird's nest (EBN) is a kind of natural invigorant with a long history of consumption in Asia, especially in China. EBN is formed by mixing the saliva of swiftlets (Aerodramus) with feathers and other components during the breeding season. Proteins are the most important nutrient in EBN. By studying proteins in EBN, we can not only elucidate their components at the molecular level, but also study their bioactivities. Therefore, it is of great significance to study the proteins in EBN. Previous research on the proteins in EBN was preliminary and cursory, and no one has summarized and analyzed the proteins in EBN and correlated the bioactivities of these proteins with the biological functions of EBN. This article focused on the proteins in EBN, listed the proteins identified in different proteomic studies, and introduced the sources, structures and bioactivities of the most frequently identified proteins, including acidic mammalian chitinase, lysyl oxidase homolog 3, mucin-5AC, ovoinhibitor, nucleobindin-2, calcium-binding protein (MW: 4.5 × 104) and glucose-regulated protein (MW: 7.8 × 104). The properties of these proteins are closely related to the bioactivities of EBN. Therefore, this article can provide inspiration for further research on the efficacy of EBN.
... Black-nest swiftlets owe their name to the nests they construct, which are comprised of a mix of saliva and their own black body feathers, giving the nests a black or gray appearance. The nests of edible-nest swiftlets are constructed entirely of saliva (therefore appearing white) and are regarded as a culinary delicacy in eastern Asia (Marcone, 2005). Both swiftlets have a largely overlapping range across Sundaland, and are often observed nesting together in caves (Eaton et al., 2021;Rheindt et al., 2014). ...
Resource partitioning may facilitate the coexistence of sympatric species with similar ecological requirements. Here, we study a colony of unusual echolocating birds called swiftlets, which nest underground on an island off the coast of Singapore. The colony comprises two congeneric swiftlet species, black‐nest swiftlets (Aerodramus maximus) and edible‐nest swiftlets (A. fuciphagus), nesting at high densities and in close proximity. Bioacoustic recordings and monitoring of nesting biology at the site across multiple seasons revealed significant differences in echolocation calls as well as survival rates between the species, with the larger black‐nest swiftlet nesting at locations with the highest fledging rates. We also observe an additional off‐season breeding peak by the smaller species, the edible‐nest swiftlet. Unexpectedly, off‐season egg‐hatching rates were significantly higher compared with the rates during the shared breeding season (mean difference = 14%). Our study on the breeding biology of these echolocating cave‐dwelling birds provides an example of spatial and temporal strategies that animals employ to partition resources within a confined habitat. Swiftlets are unusual birds that nest in dark caves and can navigate using echolocation. We study an underground colony of 2 congeneric swiftlets and find differences in their life history strategies, echolocation calls, and offspring survival rates. We document interspecific spatial segregation of nests as well as staggered breeding seasonality between both species.
... Paprika adulteration can be performed in various forms and may occur at each stage of production in different ways: addition of foreign matter, addition of inferior products or cheaper materials, and adulteration by masking poor quality with colorants [9]. Adulterants are usually incorporated at low levels and are difficult to detect by a simple sensory evaluation due to their similar color, appearance, and texture to the real paprika samples [10,11]. Therefore, accurate and reliable analytical strategies to detect and prevent paprika frauds are demanded. ...
Paprika is a widely consumed spice in the world and its authentication has gained interest considering the increase in adulteration cases in recent years. In this study, second-order fingerprints acquired by liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection (HPLC-FLD) were first used to detect and quantify adulteration levels of Chinese paprika samples. Six different adulteration cases, involving paprika production region, cultivar, or both, were investigated by pairs. Two strategies were employed to reduce the data matrices: (1) chromatographic fingerprints collected at specific wavelengths and (2) fusion of the mean data profiles in both spectral and time dimensions. Afterward, the fingerprint data with different data orders were analyzed using partial least squares (PLS) and n-way partial least squares (N-PLS) regression models, respectively. For most adulteration cases, N-PLS based on second-order fingerprints provided the overall best quantitation results with cross-validation and prediction errors lower than 2.27% and 20.28%, respectively, for external validation sets with 15–85% adulteration levels. To conclude, second-order HPLC-FLD fingerprints coupled with chemometrics can be a promising screening technique to assess paprika quality and authenticity in the control and prevention of food frauds.
... Edible birds' nest (EBN) is a delicacy made from swiftlets' saliva, in which the saliva was used to build the swiftlet's nest during the mating season [1], with glycoprotein (20-140.8 kDa) as the main component [2][3][4]. EBN is a valuable commodity in Malaysia, priced at USD 1 000-10 000/kg, depending on the EBN quality [5]. The high commercial value of EBN is due to the high market demand, popular for its nutritional and therapeutic properties. ...
This study was conducted to recover edible bird’s nest (EBN) hydrolysates from different grades of EBN, including the industrial by-products, using enzymatic treatment. The nutrient, physicochemical properties and antioxidant activities of the recovered hydrolysates at different hydrolysis times were evaluated. Results showed that the recovery yield of enzymatic hydrolysis was above 89 % for all grades of EBN and the degree of hydrolysis increased over time. Nitrite content (0.321–0.433 mg/L) was below the permissible tolerance level for all samples. Interestingly, the antioxidant activities (DPPH and ABTS scavenging activities and ferric reducing antioxidant powder (FRAP) activity) were significantly higher (P ≤ 0.05) in hydrolysates recovered from EBN by-products (EBNhC and EBNhD) as compared to the high grade EBN hydrolysates (EBNhA and EBNhB). The in-vitro probiotic activity of EBN and its hydrolysates were examined using the probiotic bacterium Lactobacillus plantarum. Evidently, EBN by-products hydrolysate (EBNhD) recorded the highest number of L. plantarum (1.1 × 10¹¹ CFU/mL), indicating that low grade EBN has the potential as prebiotic material that promotes probiotic activity. This study demonstrated the concept of using EBN by-products hydrolysates for various applications, such as functional ingredients with enhanced bioactivities, to improve its economic value.
... EBN has a fairly high protein content (62-63%), carbohydrates (25.62-27.26%), fat (0.14-1.28%), and ash (2.1%) [3]. ...
Abstract. Edible Bird Nest Fragments (EBNF) have high levels of bioactive compounds as antioxidants. In the form of hydrolyzate nanocapsules, it will be able to increase the antioxidant activity of protecting the active compounds in the capsulesanfd more stable. The purpose of this study was to determine the antioxidant activity of nanocapsules with the material in powder compared to protein hydrolyzate and to determine the best encapsulant composition. This study used two factors, including the material type and ratio coating material. The material were Edible Bird Nest protein hydrolyzate and Edible Bird Nest powder. The ratio of the coating materials were modified corn starch and maltodextrin (25%:75%, 50%:50%, 75%:25%). Several parameters were observed including yield, encapsulation efficiency, antioxidant activity, size and distribution of nanocapsules, and morphology of nanocapsules. The best formulation was obtained from the core material of swallow's nest protein hydrolyzate with 75% modified corn starch encapsulation and 25% maltodextrin. The best formulation has nano encapsulated characteristics with a yield of 14.07%, encapsulation efficiency of 78.17%, the antioxidant activity of 54.66%, the lowest polydispersity index value (0.69), and spherical morphology, smooth surface with slight depressions (near perfect). Further, these characteristics represent that nanocapsule EBNF hydrolysate is a promising food additive.
... Edible bird's nest (EBN) was produced from the saliva of swiftlets, which has many health benefits such as inhibiting virus and inflammation, promoting cell proliferation and reducing activity of tumor cells (Linh, Le Son, & Ai, 2021). In 2019, the EBN market size was about 30 billion yuan, and annual growth rate exceeded 30% (Marcone, 2005). The origins of EBN were mainly in Southeast Asia, of which Indonesia accounted for 85%-90% of the global EBN production, Malaysia and Thailand accounted for 5%-10% and 3% respectively (Chen, Wong, Lim, & Mak, 2015;Quek, Chin, Tan, Yusof, & Law, 2018). ...
Focusing on the high dispersion of stable isotope ratios (δ¹³C, δ¹⁵N, δ¹⁸O, δ²H) in edible bird's nest (EBN), a robust method was developed to simultaneously discriminate and quantify three types of substances (sialic acid, egg white and food gums) added separately into EBN. Results showed that by establishing a data processing formula to improve cohesion of the samples' isotope ratios, a discriminant formula was achieved with an accuracy ranging from 88% to 99%. With the three adulterated references, discriminant was set up by the calculated Euclidean distance with prediction accuracy ranged from 95.80% to 99.97%. Additionally, three equations were building-up to quantity the content of those adulterated substances of EBN, with satisfactory relative standard deviations and within the range from 1.34% to 6.31% (n = 6). By applying the developed methods, two out of the twelve samples were found to adulterate 3.9% sialic acid and 2.9% egg white respectively.
... Wawancara yang dilakukan adalah wawancara terstuktur, yaitu dilakukan dengan pedoman wawancara untuk mendapakan data informasi secara lengkap dan akurat sesuai tujuan penelitian. (25,26), lemak (0,14-1,28%) dan abu (2,1%) (Marcone, 2005). (Ayuti, et.al., 2016). ...
Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui karakteristik dan produksi sarang walet sarang putih (Collocalia fuciphaga) dari hasil budidaya di Desa Binanga Karaeng, Kecamatan Lembang, Kabupaten Pinrang. Jenis data yang dikumpulkan yaitu data primer dan data sekunder. Data primer dikumpulkan melalui teknik oberservasi, wawancara, survey, dan dokumentasi. Data sekundar diperoleh dari literature, buku , dan laporan penelitian. Penelitian ini dilakukan selama satu musim produksi pada dua unit penangkaran/budidaya walet dengan umur penangkaran 3 tahun. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa karakteristik dan produksi sarang pada kedua penangkar berbeda. Pada penangkar pertama diperoleh bentuk sarang walet pada umumnya seperti mangkok dibelah dua, ukuran panjang 7 – 9.5 cm, lebar 2.8 – 3.8 cm, tinggi 1.2 – 2.1 cm dan berat 5 – 10 gram,warna putih, bening, kristal dan kondisi utuh, tidak retak, dan tidak cacat sehingga termasuk kualitas 1, produksi sarang 0,46-0,62 kg dengan frekuensi panen 3-4 kali per tahun,. Penangkar kedua diperoleh bentuk sarang walet 62,5% seperti mangkok dibelah dua dan 37,5% berbentuk menyudut (segitiga), ukuran panjang sarang bentuk mangkok dibelah dua 6 – 9 cm, lebar 2.9 – 4.0 cm, tinggi 1.4 – 3,0 cm dan berat 5 – 11 gram, warna putih, bening, kristal dan putih kekuningan, kondisi utuh, tidak retak, dan tidak cacat, sehingga termasuk Kualitas 1-2, produksi sarang 0,55-0,77 kg dengan frekuensi panen 4-5 kali per tahun
... The intention was to extract as many amino acids constitute as possible, to obtain the most comprehensive information for EBN sample assessment. It was reported by Marcone (2005) that only 15 amino acids were found in EBN via HCl hydrolysis where the HCl destroyed the tryptophan, cysteine and methionine, resulting only 15 types of amino acids being identified by HPLC. In order to identify the 3 remaining amino acid (i.e. ...
Edible Bird’s Nest (EBN) is mainly used as a functional food where its quality is affected by many factors including geographical region. This study aims to differentiate the EBN from West Malaysia (WM) and East Malaysia (EM) based on amino acid profiles by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) combined with multivariate approach. A total of 33 authentic EBN samples were collected from WM (n = 23) and EM (n = 10) for classification. The data obtained was used to identify the reliable potential markers between WM and EM via serial multivariate analysis including hierarchical clustering analysis (HCA), principal component analysis (PCA) and orthogonal partial least-squares discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA). EBN samples from WM and EM were clearly distinguished by the developed OPLS-DA model with high prediction ability (Q²) of 62.7 %. The model’s robustness was validated and blind test samples were 100 % properly allocated to their respective groups. Glycine, cysteine, tryptophan and aspartic acid were proposed as potential markers to classify the EBN from WM and EM. Overall, the predictive model shows high accuracy for EBN classification.
... EBN consists of carbohydrates (9% sialic acid, 7.2% galactosamine, 5.3% glucosamine, 16.9% galactose, and 0.7% fucose), and glycoproteins (Kathan & Weeks 1969). EBN also contains essential trace elements such as calcium, sodium, magnesium, zinc, manganese, and iron (Marcone 2005) and amino acids such as glutamic acid (9.61%), aspartic acid (6.34%), lysine (5.44%) and leucine (5.30%) (Halimi et al. 2014). Like many medicinal plants (Hambali et al. 2021;Hamid et al. 2020;Kamil et al. 2020Kamil et al. , 2018Lina et al. 2018;Prom-in et al. 2020), the EBN of A. fuciphagus has been believed to have health benefits (Chua et al. 2021), forming the basis of a multi-billion-dollar industry worldwide. ...
Consumption of edible bird's nest (EBN) has been a common practice for the health benefits it is believed to provide. Hence, this study aimed to investigate the effects of both traditional edible bird's nest (TEBN) and convenient edible bird’s nest (CEBN) on the spatial learning of male Sprague Dawley rats in a radial arm maze (RAM). A total of 24 male rats (270-300 g) were allocated into three groups based on diet given namely pellet only (control group), pellet mixed with TEBN (300 mg/kg) and pellet mixed with CEBN (300 mg/kg). The rats were fed with the aforementioned diet throughout the study for 42 days and exposed to RAM for spatial learning assessments which consisted of shaping (3 days), acquisition (8 days) and retention (1 day) trials. In the acquisition trials, CEBN reduced working memory error (WME) on day 5 compared to control, and day 6 compared to the TEBN group. TEBN markedly reduced reference memory error (RME) on day 1 and 8, time spent (day 3) and percentage of correct choices made (day 3) during the acquisition trials compared to CEBN. TEBN and CEBN significantly reduced WME, however, only CEBN increased RME during the retention trial. CEBN significantly affected the total entries produced in the RAM which indicated the non-specific effects of CEBN on the locomotion of the rats. Our findings suggested that TEBN may work better than CEBN in improving spatial learning considering the fact that CEBN markedly reduced the locomotion of the rats during the retention trial.
... The global EBN production is mainly concentrated in Southeast Asia, such as Indonesia, Thailand, Malaysia, with Indonesia's EBN accounting for more than 80% of the world's EBN production [2]. Two species of swiftlets (Aerodramus fuciphagus and Aerodramus maximus) build edible bird's nests that are consumed by humans worldwide, as a delicacy known as the "Caviar of the East" [3]. The EBN was proven scientifically to possess high medicinal benefits in antioxidants [4], immune regulation, antihypertensive, anti-inflammatory, antiaging, and other biological activities [5,6]. ...
Edible bird’s nest (EBN) is an unusual mucin glycoprotein. In China, it is popular among consumers due to its skin whitening activity. However, the relationship between protein, sialic acid, and the whitening activity of EBN after digestion is still unclear. In the present work, the whitening activity (antioxidant activity and tyrosinase inhibitory activity) of digested EBN were studied by HepG2 and B16 cell models. The dissolution rate of protein and sialic acid was 49.59% and 46.45% after the simulated digestion, respectively. The contents of free sialic acid and glycan sialic acid in EBN digesta were 17.82% and 12.24%, respectively. HepG2 cell experiment showed that the digested EBN had significant antioxidant activity, with EC50 of 1.84 mg/mL, and had a protective effect on H2O2-induced oxidative damage cells. The results of H2O2-induced oxidative damage showed that the cell survival rate increased from 40% to 57.37% when the concentration of digested EBN was 1 mg/mL. The results of the B16 cell experiment showed that the digested EBN had a significant inhibitory effect on tyrosinase activity, and the EC50 value of tyrosinase activity was 7.22 mg/mL. Cell experiments showed that free sialic acid had stronger antioxidant activity and tyrosinase inhibitory activity than glycan sialic acid. The contribution rate analysis showed that protein component was the main antioxidant component in digestive products, and the contribution rate was 85.87%; free sialic acid was the main component that inhibited tyrosinase activity, accounting for 63.43%. The products of the complete digestion of EBN are suitable for the development of a new generation of whitening health products.
... Breeding pairs build U-shaped cup nests from the salivary laminae they secrete and thread using their beaks (Babji et al., 2015;Dacuan, n.d.). These nests are translucent white or yellowish, depending on the breeding pair, the age of the nest, and its exposure to sunlight or breeze (Caabay and Cadigal, 2014;Marcone, 2005). Breeding pairs remain faithful to their nesting sites, leaving worn marks on the walls (Caabay and Cadigal, 2014). ...
The intensifying extraction, privatization, and conservation of maritime spaces are transforming seascapes globally. Amidst rapid coastal change and the ambiguous reconfiguration of oceans as frontiers are coastal dwellers who occupy the shadows of these seascapes. In contrast to the capture of high-profile marine species, the harvest of the edible nests of balinsasayaw (swiftlet, Aerodramus fuciphagus) remains largely concealed at the interstitial spaces between land, coast, and sea. In the Philippines, harvesters known as busyador negotiate social relations, political networks, and karst systems to extract these lucrative nests. Despite the nest industry growing in value in Southeast Asia, we show how the busyador struggle in precarious social relations and spaces peripheral to coastal governance in northern Palawan Island. Building on the concept of ‘seascape assemblages’, we emphasize the importance of the less visible human-nonhuman relations that shape the nest harvest and trade. We trace the marginal social histories of the balinsasayaw by highlighting the precarious nature of the harvest, revealing how the busyador are subject to unfair working conditions, dispossession, and violence. We argue that as state actors and local elites reconfigure oceans as frontiers for development and conservation, struggles over labour and tenure rights, livelihood opportunities, and justice at sea are disregarded.
... Edible bird's nest (EBN) -a product of the salivary secretions of swiftlet species is recognized for its medicinal and nutritional benefits and demonstrated as a potential antioxidant (Ghassem et al. 2017;Marcone 2005). Several authors have reported that EBN possesses anti-aging, anti-cancer, antioxidative, and anti-inflammatory properties (Hamzah et al. 2013;Hou et al. 2015;Yida et al. 2015). ...
Diluents and various biological products have been used in different animal species, with promising outcomes in post-thaw sperm quality. Nevertheless, only a few reports are available for the semen of Arabian horses. Edible bird’s nest (EBN) – a product of the salivary secretions of swiftlet species is widely known to have both antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. Presently, there is no data available on the role of EBN supplemented in different extenders and its effect on semen quality in stallion semen. Two in vitro experiments were conducted to examine the effects of edible bird’s nest (EBN) on the quality of chilled and post-thawed cryopreserved Arabian stallion spermatozoa. In experiment one, 10 ejaculates were collected, divided into two equal parts, diluted using EquiPlus® and INRA 96® and supplemented with 0 % (control), 0.12 %, 0.24 % EBN concentrations. The semen samples were stored at 5 ℃ and observed at 0, 24, and 48 h. Sperm kinetics variables (% total motility [TM] and progressive motility [PM], curvilinear velocity; VCL, straightness; VSL, average path velocity; VAP) were analyzed using computerized assisted sperm analysis. For chilled semen, there was no significant difference in any of the sperm quality parameters between control (0 %), 0.12 %, and 0.24 % EBN supplementation either in INRA96® or EquiPlus®. In experiment two, nine ejaculates were diluted and cryopreserved using EquiPlus Freeze® and INRA Freeze® containing 0 %, 2.4 %, and 4.8 % EBN, and evaluated after thawing. Sperm kinetics, DNA integrity and antioxidant capacity - Biological Anti-oxidant Potential (BAP) and Reactive Oxygen Metabolites (d-ROMs) test were evaluated. In chilled semen, there was no significant difference in any of the sperm quality parameters between control (0 %), 0.12 %, and 0.24 % EBN supplementation either in INRA96® or EquiPlus®. For frozen semen supplemented with 2.4 % and 4.8 % EBN had higher sperm motility parameters compared to control in INRA Freeze® and EquiPlus Freeze®, but the values were not statistically significant (P > 0.05). Also, EBN supplementation had no significant effects on the DNA integrity, biological antioxidant potential, and reactive oxygen metabolites. EBN supplementation had no significant effects on sperm quality and antioxidant status in chilled and frozen Arabian Stallion semen. Future studies might consider different methods of EBN preparation and concentrations to elucidate the potential biological impact of EBN in Arabian stallion semen
In this chapter it is explained that despite the large number of publications available on traditional foods, it is impossible to come up with one single definition that covers the entirety of the variety and origins of the traditional foods. Examples have been used to demonstrate that foods with long traditions need not be popular, restricted to one region, linked with one tribe, community or ethnic group, but can differ from what is usually referred to as traditional foods. Factors that determine and help to preserve the acceptance of traditional foods have been categorized as: general availability of a food item, its role in connection with religious and other beliefs, special days, commemorative family events, health and environmental issues, the duration a food has been in use and its general sensory appeal. That traditions can wane and even die out while habits and preferences change and new foods appear is elucidated. Although processed, preserved and packaged foods are often nutritionally inferior to traditional foods, not all traditional foods are healthy. A balanced and informed approach is required in discussions related to environmental issues of food production, food quality and food availability.
Edible bird’s nest (EBN) mainly made of saliva that secreted by a variety of swiftlets is a kind of precious traditional Chinese medicine. EBNs from different biological and geographical origins exhibit varieties in morphology, material composition, nutritive value and commercial value. Here, we collected four different EBN samples from Huaiji, China (Grass EBN), Nha Trang, Vietnam (Imperial EBN) and East Kalimantan, Indonesia (White EBN and Feather EBN) respectively, and applied label-free quantitative MS-based proteomics technique to identify its protein composition. First, phylogenetic analysis was performed based on cytb gene to identify its biological origin. Second, a total of 37 proteins of EBNs were identified, among which there were six common proteins that detected in all samples and exhibited relatively higher content. Gene ontology analysis revealed the possible function of EBN proteins, and principal component analysis and hierarchical clustering analysis based on 37 proteins were performed to compare the difference of various EBNs. In summary, our study deciphered the common and characteristic protein components of EBNs of different origins and described their possible functions by GO enrichment analysis, which helps to establish an objective and reliable quality evaluation system.
We conducted a comprehensive review of literature and online records to determine the extent of reptile predation on swiftlets (genus Aerodramus), especially on commercially farmed species. Reptiles appear to be a large component of reported swiftlet predators, including six species of lizards and 16 species of snakes representing eight families and 17 genera. Predation events have been reported from India, Peninsular Malaysia, Borneo, Indonesia, and Australia. The presence of reptile predators may negatively impact production at swiftlet farms and lead to human-wildlife conflicts. Additional research is needed to find mitigation measures so that industry stakeholders can coexist with reptiles. Further studies will likely identify additional species of reptile predators of swiftlets.
Fungal enzymes are vital for various biotechnological processes and their impact is going to be felt much more in coming years. Fungal enzymes such as proteases, amylases, lipases, pectinases and tannases are used in meat, sugar and other food industries. Fungal keratinases are the proteases, which hydrolyse hard-to-degrade keratin, with a lot of potentials whose demand is gradually increasing due to their broad specificity towards variety of insoluble keratin substrates. Biotechnological methods employing microbial keratinases play a key role in processing keratin waste. Amongst microbial diversiform, fungal sources have become more perpetual choice for keratinase production, due to their low cost, easy recovery and high enzyme activity. These are inducible enzymes, which are produced extracellularly or intracellularly primarily from dermatophytic and broad saprotrophic non-specialized ascomycetous fungi in the presence of keratinous substrates. Fungal keratinases are a great resource pool for industrial sector and sustainable environmental management, and a source of value-added products. These enzymes can cause solubilization of keratinous waste through proteolysis and sulfitolysis as well as fascinate researchers for applications in skin/hide dehairing, textile processing, detergent formulation, pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries and bioactive peptide production. Microbial degradation of keratinous waste is preferred over chemical methods since it is more specific, saves energy and produces value-added hydrolysate that can find application in food, feed and agriculture. Fungal keratinases can easily penetrate into keratinous substrate due to filamentous growth of the producer that produces high enzyme titres. This chapter focuses on the potential applications of fungal keratinases in different industries. The biotechnological conversion of keratinous waste into soluble products and subsequent application in food, feed and agroindustry would be discussed.KeywordsKeratinous wasteManagementBioremediationKeratinolytic fungiNutritional enhancement
Sialyllactose is an acidic oligosaccharide that has an immune-protective effect against pathogens and contributes to developing the immune system and intestinal microbes. In this study, a method for the determination of 3′-sialyllactose by high-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry was established. The sample was treated with 0.1% formic acid methanol solution, and the gradient elution was performed with 0.05% formic acid water and 0.1% formic acid acetonitrile. The hydrophilic liquid chromatographic column was used for separation. The results showed that the linearity was good in the concentration range of 1~160 μg/L. The limit of detection (LOD) and the limit of quantification (LOQ) of the method were 0.3 μg/kg and 1.0 μg/kg, the recovery range was 91.6%~98.4%, and the relative standard deviation (RSD) was 1.5%~2.2%. This method is fast and sensitive. In addition, the 3′-sialyllactose content in edible bird’s nest products produced by different processes was studied. It was found that within the tested range, 3′-sialyllactose in edible bird’s nest products increased with the intensity of stewing and increased with the addition of sugar. In short, the results provided a new method for detecting the nutritional value of edible bird’s nests, as well as a new direction for improving the nutritional value of edible bird’s nest products.
A major challenge in biodiversity management is overharvesting by unsustainable harvesters. If a scenario could be created where sustainable harvesters benefit more than the unsustainable ones, even in the short term, the issue of overharvesting would be solved. Swiftlets in Sarawak, Malaysia, present a special case where sustainable harvesters are believed to be more beneficial than unsustainable harvesters. Edible nests built by adult swiftlets are used as ingredients for a Chinese traditional luxurious soup. It is known that swiftlets, which live in caves and build nests on cave ceilings, flee from the cave ceilings when unsustainable harvesters take the nests, never to return to the same place. This ecological feature appears to work as the swiftlet’s indirect punishment against unsustainable harvesters. This study constructs a stage-structured population model and examines the effect of property rights and the indirect punishment by swiftlets on the population dynamics of the bird, and on the economic return of harvesters. Our findings are as follows: the indirect punishment by swiftlets provides sustainable harvesters a higher short-term return than unsustainable harvesters under the property rights system, as long as swiftlets return to their original cave after fleeing from the unsustainable harvesters. This study suggests that ecological exploration and the discovery of ecological features are essential for designing sustainable rules and regulations.
Edible bird’s nests (EBNs) are vulnerable to adulteration due to their huge demand for traditional medicine and high market price. Presently, there are pressing needs to explore field-deployable rapid screening techniques to detect adulteration of EBNs. The objective of this study is to explore the feasibility of using a handheld near-infrared (VIS/SW-NIR) spectroscopic device for the determination of EBN authenticity against the benchmark performance of a benchtop mid-infrared (MIR) spectrometer. Forty-nine authentic EBNs from the different states in Malaysia and 13 different adulterants (five types) were obtained and used to simulate the adulteration of EBNs at 1, 5 and 10% adulteration by mass (a total of 15 adulterated samples). The VIS/SW-NIR and MIR spectra collated were subsequently processed, modelled and classified using multi-class discriminant analysis. The VIS/SW-NIR results showed 100% correct classification for the collagen and nutrient agar classes in authenticity classification, while for the other classes, the lowest correct classification rate was 96.3%. For MIR analysis, only the karaya gum class had 100% correct classification whilst for the other four classes, the lowest rate of correct classification was at 94.4%. In conclusion, the combination of spectroscopic analysis with chemometrics can be a powerful screening tool to detect EBN adulteration.
Edible bird’s nest (EBN) hydrolysates have been proven to exhibit enhanced bioactivities. However, being a macromolecule, fractions with different molecular weights would have different properties and bioactivities. Hence, this research was aimed to determine the chemical properties and antioxidant activities of freeze-dried (EBNFD) and spray-dried EBN (EBNSD) hydrolysates fractionated using gel permeation chromatography (GPC). Overall, two well-separated fractions were identified (EBNfFD1, EBNfFD2, EBNfSD1 and EBNfSD2). EBNFD demonstrated significantly higher (P ≤ 0.05) peptide (3.6%), total carbohydrate (27.7%) and sialic acid (18.2%) contents than that of EBNSD. Similar trend was observed in low molecular weight fractionates (EBNfFD2 and EBNfSD2). Meanwhile, the first fractionates (EBNfFD1 and EBNfSD1) exhibited significantly higher (P ≤ 0.05) hydroxyl radical (•OH) scavenging activity. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy demonstrated that all EBN fractionates have similar spectrum, except in the region of N—H (amide II) and C—H alkyl group. In conclusion, EBN fractionates with different molecular weights showed different chemical properties and antioxidant activities.
Edible bird’s nests (Bnest) collected from house and cave of eight provinces in the southern part of Thailand were characterised. Bnest from different locations had differences in Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectra and energy‐ dispersive X‐ray (EDX) spectroscopy patterns but there was no distinctive difference in protein patterns. Crystallinity values of cave‐Bnest from Phatthalung province (PL‐C) and house‐Bnest from Songkhla province (SK‐H) (38.79% and 35.52%, respectively) were higher than those of other samples. PL‐C and SK‐H samples had different thermal behaviours, as determined by the thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). Both samples were used for the production of Bnest beverage using the retort process (121 °C for 11 min). Colour, soluble solid content, drained weight, and sterility were determined in both beverages. Average L*‐value and soluble solid content of SK‐H were higher than those of PL‐C (P < 0.05). Higher a* and b*‐values and drained weight were found in the latter. However, aerobic/anaerobic mesophiles and thermophiles were not detected in both samples. The beverage containing PL‐C generally showed higher acceptability for all attributes, especially appearance, texture, and overall likeness (P < 0.05), than that with SK‐H. Therefore, the habitat, where bird’s nest was collected, had a marked influence on the characteristics of both dried nest and resulting sterilised bird’s nest beverages. House‐Bnest and cave‐Bnest collected from different locations in southern part of Thailand had different characteristics and qualities. The sterilized beverage containing the selected cave bird’s nest showed higher quality and acceptability than that with the selected house bird’s nest.
This study aimed to investigate the immunomodulatory effect of edible bird’s nest (EBN) in vitro and in vivo studies. EBN-treated peripheral blood mononuclear cells showed that EBN specifically enhanced the expansion of CD3⁺ T-cells. The restoration of lymphocyte subpopulations under the influence of immunosuppressive drug has been successfully recovered in CD3⁺ T-cells, not CD45RA⁺ B-cells and CD335⁺ NK-cells. In addition, oral administration of EBNs in Sprague-Dawley rats revealed their potential to increase the number of peripheral blood T-cells. Our study also demonstrated that EBN treatments affected the numbers of the Peyer’s patches, spleen weight and length, and cellularity of the periarteriolar lymphoid sheath. Interestingly, we observed that elevation of serum interleukin-2 (IL-2) had been correlated with the proliferation of T-cells in the animal model. Therefore, these results are essential for developing therapeutic strategies in improving immunity, particularly T-cell homeostasis, under immunosuppressive therapy.
In-situ tracking structural changes of protein residues was developed by two-dimensional correlation surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (2DC-SERS). The change order of SERS fingerprints during artificial nitrification of edible bird's nest (EBN) was interpreted as the structural changes of amino acid residues. It inherently realizes reliable recognition of natural EBN and artificially dyed fakes. Both this direct structural tracking of protein residues and the indirect azo dye testing of nitrites/nitrosamines could be used as indicators for discriminating different EBN before and after the artificial dyeing. Limit of detection (LOD) for nitrite and NDMA is about 40.6 ppb and 88.1 ppb, respectively. A conceptual logical circuit of the OR gate was constructed by considering the protein structural indicator (INPUT1) and the nitrite indicator (INPUT2) as two independent inputs for automatic recognition of different EBN samples. A data-driven analog soft independent modeling (DD-SIMCA) model could quickly distinguish normal EBN from A-EBN with 98% specificity.
Edible bird’s nest (E-BN) or “Caviar of the East” is a premium and expensive cuisine well-known for the Chinese. It is saliva secreted from two specific swiftlets (Aerodramus maximus and Aerodramus fuciphagus). Two types of E-BN, namely house nests, and cave nests, are abundant in the South-East Asia region. The constituents, especially nitrate and nitrite, can be varied, depending on habitat, or feed available, etc. Protein (e.g., glycoprotein) is the major component of E-BN, followed by carbohydrates. Sialic acid is another essential constituent related to health promotion. E-BN is commonly utilized for the manufacturing of beverages or instant soup. E-BN in other forms such as capsules can serve as a supplement in the future due to its health promoting impact. In addition, the selected technology for quality improvement of E-BN especially from broken nests or flakes or other co-products is still required, while maintaining the eating quality to meet consumer’s demand. Thus, E-BN can be fully exploited and is still considered a valuable bird’s product with health benefits.
A marked decline in some swiftlet populations has been attributed to the harvesting of their nests which are prized in Chinese cuisine and traditional medicines. Documentation is provided on the history and volume of the trade.
A simple procedure suitable for rapid transmethylation of triacylglycerols, other neutral lipids (including cholesteryl esters), and glycerophospholipids is described. Lipids in diethyl ether solution (50 volumes), in the presence of methyl acetate (1 vol), are reacted with 1 M sodium methoxide in methanol (1 vol) at room temperature. Essentially complete transmethylation can occur within a few minutes with no hydrolysis. Glassware and reagent requirements are minimal and samples are ready for gas-liquid chromatography analysis with very little work-up.
Ovotransferrin antimicrobial peptide (OTAP-92) is a cationic fragment of hen ovotransferrin (OTf). OTAP-92 consists of 92 amino acid residues located within the 109-200 sequence of the N-lobe of OTf. This study was aimed to delineate the antimicrobial mechanism of OTAP-92 and to identify its interaction with bacterial membranes. OTAP-92 caused permeation of Escherichia coli outer membrane (OM) to 1-N-phenylnaphthylamine fluorescent probe in a dose-dependent manner. These results suggested that OTAP-92 crossed the bacterial OM by a self-promoted uptake. Cytoplasmic membrane of E. coli was found to be the target for OTAP-92 bactericidal activity, as assayed by the unmasking of cytoplasmic beta-galactosidase due to membrane permeabilization in a kinetic manner. Pretreatment of bacteria with uncoupler, carbonyl cyanide m-chlorophenylhydrazone, markedly enhanced permeation of cytoplasmic membrane, suggesting that the membrane permeation due to OTAP-92 is independent of the transmembrane potential. In an E. coli phospholipid liposome model, it was demonstrated that OTAP-92 has the ability to dissipate the transmembrane electrochemical potential. Intrinsic fluorescence spectra of the two tryptophan residues in OTAP-92, using liposomal membrane, have identified the lipid-binding region as a helix-sheet motif, and suggested an adjacent Ca(2+)-sensitive site within OTAP-92. These data indicated that OTAP-92 possesses a unique structural motif similar to the insect defensins. Further, this cationic antimicrobial peptide is capable of killing Gram-negative bacteria by crossing the OM by a self-promoted uptake and cause damage to the biological function of cytoplasmic membrane.
The purpose of this study was to report on the age, sex, breed, and mineral composition of 16 647 canine bladder uroliths submitted to the Canadian Veterinary Urolith Centre between February 1998 and April 2003. Each urolith submission was accompanied by a questionnaire. Of the submissions, approximately 43.8% were struvite and 41.5% oxalate. Struvite uroliths were most common in female dogs. Mixed breed dogs predominated, followed by the shih tzu, bichon frise, miniature schnauzer, Lhasa apso, and Yorkshire terrier. Oxalate uroliths were most common in males and in the miniature schnauzer, bichon frise, Lhasa apso, shih tzu, and Yorkshire terrier. Urate uroliths were most common in male Dalmations. Other urolith types, including cystine, xanthine, silica, and calcium phosphate, were less commonly reported. A review of risk factors for the various uroliths is presented, along with some recommendations for treatment and prevention.
The purpose of this study was to report on the age, sex, breed, and mineral composition of 16 647 canine bladder uroliths submitted to the Canadian Veterinary Urolith Centre between February 1998 and April 2003. Each urolith submission was accompanied by a questionnaire. Of the submissions, approximately 43.8% were struvite and 41.5% oxalate. Struvite uroliths were most common in female dogs. Mixed breed dogs predominated, followed by the shih tzu, bichon frise, miniature schnauzer, Lhasa apso, and Yorkshire terrier. Oxalate uroliths were most common in males and in the miniature schnauzer, bichon frise, Lhasa apso, shih tzu, and Yorkshire terrier. Urate uroliths were most common in male Dalmations. Other urolith types, including cystine, xanthine, silica, and calcium phosphate, were less commonly reported. A review of risk factors for the various uroliths is presented, along with some recommendations for treatment and prevention.
This research paper reports on the findings of the first scientific investigation into the various physicochemical properties of the palm civet (Kopi Luwak coffee bean) from Indonesia and their comparison to the first African civet coffee beans collected in Ethiopia in eastern Africa. Examination of the palm civet (Kopi Luwak) and African civet coffee beans indicate that major physical differences exist between them especially with regards to their overall color. All civet coffee beans appear to possess a higher level of red color hue and being overall darker in color than their control counterparts. Scanning electron microscopy revealed that all civet coffee beans possessed surface micro-pitting (as viewed at 10,000× magnification) caused by the action of gastric juices and digestive enzymes during digestion. Large deformation mechanical rheology testing revealed that civet coffee beans were in fact harder and more brittle in nature than their control counterparts indicating that gestive juices were entering into the beans and modifying the micro-structural properties of these beans. SDS–PAGE also supported this observation by revealing that proteolytic enzymes were penetrating into all the civet beans and causing substantial breakdown of storage proteins. Differences were noted in the types of subunits which were most susceptible to proteolysis between civet types and therefore lead to differences in maillard browning products and therefore flavor and aroma profiles. This was confirmed by electronic nose analysis which revealed differences between the palm civet coffee (Kopi Luwak) and African civet coffee aroma profiles. Analytical techniques for the authentification of palm civet (Kopi Luwak) and African civet coffee are also explored. It would appear that SDS–PAGE may serve as the most reasonable and reliable test to help confirm the authenticity of civet coffee. Electronic nose data was able to distinguish both civet coffees from their control counterparts and further indicated that processing through the civets gastro-intestinal track substantially modified these coffees.
A potent inhibitor of myxovirus hemagglutination has been derived by aqueous extraction from the nest-cementing substance (salivary secretions) of the Oriental swiftlet (genus Collocalia). The active material contains about 50% carbohydrate, is susceptible to the neuraminidase of influenza virus of all strains thus far tested, and lacks detectable blood group antigens.Observations on the relation between viral hemagglutinin, neuraminidase activity, and the conversion of myxoviruses to “indicators” are presented and discussed. Evidence is presented to indicate that the enzymic and hemagglutinative properties of myxovirus may be separate and dissociable functions.
Simple sugars, oligosaccharides, polysaccharides, and their derivatives, including the methyl ethers with free or potentially free reducing groups, give an orange-yellow color when treated with phenol and concentrated sulfuric acid. The reaction is sensitive and the color is stable. By use of this phenol-sulfuric acid reaction, a method has been developed to determine submicro amounts of sugars and related substances. In conjunction with paper partition chromatography the method is useful for the determination of the composition of polysaccharides and their methyl derivatives.
1. An epidermal growth factor (EGF)-like activity was detected and partially purified from swiftlet's nest extract. 2. The partially purified EGF-like activity was able to (a) generate competitive binding curves parallel to the standard curves in radioreceptor assay and (b) stimulate thymidine incorporation in quiescent culture of 3T3 fibroblasts and the latter activity can be suppressed by mouse EGF antibody. 3. Partial characterization of the EGF-like activity in terms of pI, molecular weight and its behavior on gel filtration column suggest that it bears similar physical properties to the EGFs isolated from the mouse and the shrew.
The edible bird's nest extract from Collocalia spp. was found to contain a glycoprotein which could potentiate mitogenic response of human peripheral blood monocytes to stimulation with Concanavalin A or Phytohemagglutinin A. The potentiating effect of the extract was most marked at suboptimal mitogenic concentrations of these lectins, decreasing the 50% optimal concentration of Con A and PHA by 6- and 2.5- folds respectively. The potentiating effect was exerted early during the first 10 hours following stimulation with Con A. This potentiation activity was not dialysable, but it was stable to limited digestion with trypsin, alkaline pH and extraction with ether.
Peptide sequences obtained from hen ovotransferrin are compared with the complete amino acid sequence of the protein deduced from a cDNA sequence (Jeltsch and Chambon, preceding paper). Of the 705 positions of the whole protein 605 can be matched by the peptide sequences. Some possible discrepancies between the two methods are pointed out. The two halves of the chain show marked similarities in their sequences with 37% identical residues. The positions of the 15 disulphide bridges are shown; there are 6 homologous bridges in each half of the molecule and 3 extra bridges which occur only in the C-terminal half. The terminal residues of the half-molecule fragments obtained by limited proteolysis are identified. The two domains are joined by a 9-residue connecting peptide. Sequence variability has been found at 9 positions. The sequence of hen ovotransferrin is compared with the partial available for human transferrin. From this some tentative conclusions about the identities of the metal-binding residues and about the evolution of transferrin are reached.
The IUPAC Commission on Oils, Fats and Derivatives undertook development of a method and collaborative study for the determination of triglycerides in vegetable oils by liquid chromatography. Three collaborative studies were conducted from 1985 to 1987. Refinements were made in the method after the first collaborative study, and the second and third collaborative studies demonstrated that the method produces acceptable results. Materials studied were soybean oil, almond oil, sunflower oil, olive oil, rapeseed oil, and blends of palm and sunflower oils, and almond and sunflower oils. Six test samples were analyzed by 18 laboratories from 11 countries in the second study; 4 test samples were analyzed by 16 laboratories from 12 countries in the third study. The method for determination of triglycerides (by partition numbers) in vegetable oils by liquid chromatography was adopted first action by AOAC INTERNATIONAL as an IUPAC-AOCS-AOAC method.
The Chinese delicacy "bird's nest" is the most common cause of food-induced anaphylaxis requiring hospitalization among Chinese children in Singapore. This investigation has established an immunoglobulin E-mediated cause and has characterized the major putative allergens.
We have previously described anaphylaxis induced by edible bird's nest (BN) and demonstrated that this condition is IgE mediated.
This study aimed at describing the immunochemical properties of the BN allergens. Comparative studies between 3 commercially available sources (according to the country of origin) of BN were also made.
Crude extracts of commercially available processed BN from Sarawak (Malaysia), Thailand, and Indonesia and fresh unprocessed BN from the caves of Sarawak were obtained by means of aqueous extraction. Specific IgE toward these sources were determined by using fluorescence allergosorbent tests (FASTs). Cross-reactivity studies between the 3 sources of commercially available processed BN were carried out by means of FAST inhibition. Immunochemical characterization by means of IgE immunoblot, periodate treatment, and heat stability studies were carried out on fresh unprocessed BN from Sarawak.
Serum from allergic patients showed differences in IgE binding to the 3 sources of commercially available BN, with the highest levels of specific IgE recorded with the Sarawak source (P <.0001). Of these, only the Sarawak and Thailand sources showed considerable cross-reactivity. Further work on the unprocessed fresh Sarawak source identified a putative 66-kd major allergen containing several isoforms. Periodate treatment resulted in loss of IgE binding. Despite a progressive decline in the molecular weights of allergens on SDS-PAGE with increasing periods of boiling, IgE binding, as assessed by means of FAST, was not affected. N-terminal sequence of the major putative allergen (66 kd) showed homology to a domain of an ovoinhibitor precursor in chicken (SWISS-PROT accession No. P10184).
We have described the immunochemical properties of BN allergens. Edible BN from different sources are allergenically dissimilar. The putative major allergen is a 66-kd protein.
THE sialidase of influenza virus has been investigated quantitatively using the method recently described by Warren1 for determining free sialic acid in the presence of the compound bound to muco-protein substrates. For this work, the substrate used was a mucoid derived from the nest-cementing substance of the swiftlet (Collocalia sp.). The crude material, available as Chinese `edible birds' nest', was extracted with water at 60-65° to yield a product which contained 10 per cent acid-hydrolysable sialic acid and which in high titre inhibited the agglutination of chicken erythrocytes by `indicator' virus. Active virus was sedimented from freshly gathered chorioallantoic fluid by centrifugation at 35,000g for 90 min. The virus pellet was re-suspended in water to a volume 1/50-1/100 that of the original fluid, effecting thereby a corresponding increment in hæmagglutinin titre as well as separation of virus from interfering chromogens present in chorioallantoic fluid.
Evidence that epidermal growth factor is present in SwiXet's (Collocalia) nest
- Y C Kong
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