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Stealing thunder: Analysis of the effects of proactive disclosure of crisis information
Abstract
An organization has several options when releasing information about a crisis. These options include the use of various types of explanations and justifications for the crisis as well as the timing of information release. An experiment investigated a self-disclosure strategy called “stealing thunder.” When an organization steals thunder, it breaks the news about its own crisis before the crisis is discovered by the media or other interested parties. Stealing thunder in a crisis situation, as opposed to allowing the information to be first disclosed by another party, was found to result in higher credibility ratings. A path analysis also linked stealing thunder and previous involvement with the organization and product to perceptions of the crisis as less severe and to higher levels of intent to purchase the product involved in the crisis.
... In crisis communication literature, another best practice is called stealing thunder (Arpan & Ewoldsen, 2005;Arpan & Pompper, 2003). To steal thunder, the wrongdoer breaks the news of one's own crisis before it is discovered by others (Arpan & Ewoldsen, 2005). ...
... In crisis communication literature, another best practice is called stealing thunder (Arpan & Ewoldsen, 2005;Arpan & Pompper, 2003). To steal thunder, the wrongdoer breaks the news of one's own crisis before it is discovered by others (Arpan & Ewoldsen, 2005). As opposed to efforts at hiding a scandal through evasive deflections, or waiting until after the crisis has surfaced to respond with contrition, the crisis communicator preemptively establishes a scandal's context and interpretation (Arpan & Pompper, 2003;Davis, 1999). ...
... In a crisis communication experiment of a fictional company whose toxic chemical spill was killing humans and fish, Arpan and Pompper (2003) found that journalists consider an organization's spokesperson more credible when stealing thunder than when learning of the crisis from a police scanner. In an experiment featuring a real brand in a fictional scenario, Arpan and Ewoldsen (2005) found that if Pepsi selfdiscloses finding a toxic ingredient in their beverage rather than the news being broken by the media, people consider the crisis less severe, perceive the company as more trustworthy, and express more positive behavioral intentions toward the product. ...
Politicians tend to try deflecting scandals. Based on an attribution theory-driven perspective on persuasion, however, politicians should proactively confess. In a preregistered, multiple-message design, we conduct controlled, random assignment experiments. A mediation model is tested. Inspired by crisis communication’s change-of-meaning concept, the first variable appraises the extent to which voters perceive that the messaging indicates the politician is engaging in a cover-up. The second linkage is the politician’s credibility. The outcome variable is voters’ behavioral intentions. In Experiment 1 (N = 905 U.S. voters), stealing thunder and apologizing outperform stonewalling, changing the subject, sequentially apologizing plus deflecting, or silence. Experiment 2 (N = 277) finds that, in a sex scandal, stealing thunder and apologizing continue to perform equally well. Our theoretical contribution resides in enhancing the explanatory power of theories designed to explain image repair, as well as empirically testing the independent and combined role of apology and stealing thunder.
... Similar research streams have also demonstrated that stealing thunder can have advantageous influences on publics' evaluations of the organization and the crisis. Arpan and Roskos-Ewoldsen (2005), for example, revealed that stealing thunder led to greater perceptions of organizational credibility, which led participants to perceive the crisis as less severe, ultimately increasing their product purchase intentions. ...
... Further, a consistent finding in crisis research surrounds the role of perceptions of crisis severity to either directly affect or act as a catalyst for negative crisis outcomes, such as prompting more intense attributions of crisis blame to organizations when perceived severity is high (e.g., Lee and Lee 2021). Of particular relevance to the current work, Arpan and Roskos-Ewoldsen (2005) demonstrated a link between stealing thunder and previous involvement with the organization and its products to perceptions of crisis severity and purchase intentions. Thus, we assert: H3: Perceived crisis severity will mediate the interaction effect of stealing thunder x CSR history on (a) attitudes toward the company, (b) perceived company ethics, and (c) investment intentions. ...
... Findings herein build on the growing theoretical frameworks of SCCT and stealing thunder by offering antecedents, mechanisms, and newly explored outcome variables in crisis communication. As Arpan and Roskos-Ewoldsen (2005) noted, 'while a rapid crisis response seems both ethical and prudent, many factors can make the decision to release information quickly difficult, including fear of legal liability, the need to assess the situation, and the need to develop a unified organizational message' (p. 426). ...
... The crisis communication literature advocates that organizations in crisis adopt the stealing thunder strategy, rapidly disclosing negative information before it is acquired or released by another entity (Arpan & Roskos-Ewoldsen, 2005;Beldad et al., 2018;Claeys, 2017). Prior research on stealing thunder postulates the importance of quick response and self-disclosure. ...
... Prior research on stealing thunder postulates the importance of quick response and self-disclosure. These studies, however, were manipulated mainly by the disclosure type (self-disclosure or media disclosure) and few focused on temporal manipulations (Arpan & Pompper, 2003;Arpan & Roskos-Ewoldsen, 2005;Beldad et al., 2018;Claeys et al., 2016). These studies assume that self-disclosure implies a quick response but do not address the concern that there should be at least two dimensions of a stealing thunder strategy: who discloses and when to disclose. ...
... A self-disclosure strategy is considered stealing thunder when an organization breaks the news about its crisis before the media or other interested parties discover it. Stealing thunder in a crisis, instead of allowing the information to be first disclosed by another party, results in higher credibility (Arpan & Roskos-Ewoldsen, 2005). When organizations face a crisis, they have the opportunity to decide whether to disclose this information. ...
... These stakeholders are the ones who capture information from the environment and form a representation of reality in their minds about crises and their protagonists (Gigliotti, 2020). Organizational standings such as trustworthiness or reputation, which are decisive for cultivating stakeholder engagement, tend to be in the spotlight and are constantly challenged by what offending companies do and when they make declarations (Arpan & Roskos-Ewoldsen, 2005;Claeys, Cauberghe, & Pandelaere, 2016;Huang & Su, 2009;Seeger, 2006;Sellnow & Seeger, 2021;van Zoonen & van der Meer, 2015;Yao, Wei, Zhu, & Bondar, 2019). For instance, some factors such as timeliness and message credibility could project a cushion of benevolence on the stakeholders affected by the corresponding crisis. ...
... In general terms, a crisis response's timing refers to when a crisis's existence is announced (Sellnow & Seeger, 2021). It is commonly associated with the first entity to report the existence of a crisis, which is known as 'stealing the thunder' (Arpan & Roskos-Ewoldsen, 2005;Beldad, van Laar, & Hegner, 2018;Claeys, Cauberghe, & Pandelaere, 2016). However, while the timing of response is always directly related to the timing of the crisis, it does not necessarily take into account the speed with which others respond to the same crisis (Yao et al., 2019). ...
... However, only a few studies have succeeded in establishing similar associations. For instance, Arpan and Roskos-Ewoldsen (2005) demonstrate that the time dimension of crisis response (specifically, 'stealing the thunder') is directly associated with a sense of believability that a company wishes to project in crisis scenarios. In the context of a health crisis, Huang and DiStaso (2020) came to a similar conclusion. ...
... In contrast, the corporate self-disclosure of negative CSR information does not influence decision-makers' stock price estimation and investment decisions, unlike disclosing such information through third-party channels [26]. Therefore, before disclosing negative information through third-party channels, self-disclosure significantly enhances the credibility of information, a phenomenon some scholars have referred to as "grabbing the limelight" [41]. ...
... The consumer sharing of negativity online has both destructive and constructive aims [5]. When a company discloses negative CSR information, consumers may perceive companies as having a responsible attitude and actively solving problems by following their advice, consumers may perceive the company as more trustworthy [41]. Consumers' positive attitude towards a company may lead them to attribute negative corporate social responsibility outcomes to external factors, indicating that consumers believe the cause of negative events in the company is external rather than internal. ...
In the era of digital marketing, where consumers and enterprises frequently interact with each other, consumers hold different attitudes toward the different sources of information, including corporate social responsibility information. Negative corporate social responsibility can have direct impacts on corporate reputation. Choosing appropriate channels to publish the negative social responsibility information of enterprises in order to reduce the impact of these negative social events on corporate reputation is imperative for corporate image management. This research examines the differences in the impact of enterprise-generated content and -co-generated content on consumer attitudes using second-hand data analysis and then investigates how different information sources influence corporate reputation through empirical experiments. The results indicate that co-generated content performs better than other sources of information on corporate reputation, while professional user-generated content has the most negative impact. We further identify the external attribution as a mediation mechanism in the relationship between information sources and corporate reputation. The theoretical contributions and managerial implications of the research findings are discussed.
... Two common crisis timing strategies are widely discussed in the literature: the ex-ante crisis timing strategy, often referred to as "stealing thunder," and the ex-post crisis timing strategy, known as "thunder." Stealing thunder is a proactive approach where an organization discloses information about a crisis before external parties, such as the media or government, can do so (Arpan & Pompper, 2003;Arpan & Roskos-Ewoldsen, 2005). This concept has been tested in various contexts, including self-disclosure during trials, where framing helped minimize organizational responsibility for the crisis (Dolnik et al., 2003;Claeys et al., 2013). ...
... However, the effectiveness of these efforts has been debated, with critics arguing that Boeing's actions were more reactive than proactive. The company's delayed acknowledgment of the MCAS fault and its failure to immediately ground the aircraft after the first crash contradicted the principles of ethical apology and proactive crisis management, such as "stealing thunder" (Arpan & Roskos-Ewoldsen, 2005). ...
Boeing’s leadership faced significant criticism for its mishandling of the two 737 Max plane crashes that occurred within a six-month span. Since then, Boeing has been grappling with ongoing quality control issues with its 737 Max series, including a recent door plug failure on a 737 Max 9 mid-flight, and production flaws in the 787 Dreamliner, such as gaps between fuselage sections.This case study applies image repair theory (IRT) to explore Boeing’s crisis communication strategies in response to the 737 Max plane crashes. This study further investigates the application of the concepts of stealing thunder, framing hypothesis, and ethical apology, and their application in Boeing's crisis management. The findings reveal that Boeing's leadership employed both denial and mortification strategies; however, the timing and execution of these communications were flawed, leading to long-term reputational damage.Boeing’s failure to employ stealing thunder, effective framing, and delivering sincere apologies has hindered its ability to control the crisis narrative. Theoretical implications for IRT are discussed
... Two common crisis timing strategies are widely discussed in the literature: the ex-ante crisis timing strategy, often referred to as "stealing thunder," and the ex-post crisis timing strategy, known as "thunder." Stealing thunder is a proactive approach where an organization discloses information about a crisis before external parties, such as the media or government, can do so (Arpan & Pompper, 2003;Arpan & Roskos-Ewoldsen, 2005). This concept has been tested in various contexts, including self-disclosure during trials, where framing helped minimize organizational responsibility for the crisis (Dolnik et al., 2003;Claeys et al., 2013). ...
... However, the effectiveness of these efforts has been debated, with critics arguing that Boeing's actions were more reactive than proactive. The company's delayed acknowledgment of the MCAS fault and its failure to immediately ground the aircraft after the first crash contradicted the principles of ethical apology and proactive crisis management, such as "stealing thunder" (Arpan & Roskos-Ewoldsen, 2005). ...
Boeing's leadership faced significant criticism for its mishandling of the two 737 Max plane crashes that occurred within a six-month span. Since then, Boeing has been grappling with ongoing quality control issues with its 737 Max series, including a recent door plug failure on a 737 Max 9 mid-flight, and production flaws in the 787 Dreamliner, such as gaps between fuselage sections.This case study applies image repair theory (IRT) to explore Boeing's crisis communication strategies in response to the 737 Max plane crashes. This study further investigates the application of the concepts of stealing thunder, framing hypothesis, and ethical apology, and their application in Boeing's crisis management. The findings reveal that Boeing's leadership employed both denial and mortification strategies; however, the timing and execution of these communications were flawed, leading to long-term reputational damage.Boeing's failure to employ stealing thunder, effective framing, and delivering sincere apologies has hindered its ability to control the crisis narrative. Theoretical implications for IRT are discussed.
... Scholars and practitioners agree that crisis communication should inform stakeholders of the crisis (e.g., Arpan & Roskos-Ewoldsen, 2005;Crisis Communication Think Tank, 2023;Fisher, 2020;Sellnow & Ulmer, 1995), reveal how the organization is thinking about the crisis (e.g., Crisis Communication Think Tank, 2023;Cancel et al., 1997;Fisher, 2020), and assure stakeholders of the organization's future (e.g., Crisis Communication Think Tank, 2023; Benoit, 1997;Fisher, 2020;Ulmer & Sellnow, 2002), but how should statements be developed to effectively satisfy these objectives? Much existing literature and discussion in the crisis communication field provides theoretical models, broader strategic guidance, or offers insights from case analyses (e.g., Amendola, 2019;Cancel et al., 1997;Coombs, 2004Coombs, , 2023Lee et al., 2007;Liu et al., 2011;Paine, 2023;Pinkerton, 2023); however, there is a lack of tangible, message-level guidance to aid practitioners in the development of content (decisions related to subject matter for inclusion, diction, etc.) following the identification of the overarching communication strategy. ...
... In conjunction with these literature-driven insights, we considered example crisis statements to identify what elements were mentioned (e.g., a summary of the crisis itself). Through this dual approach, a set of 'essentials', or fundamental elements that underlie the widespread development of crisis statements are identified and organized by key functions of crisis statements: informing stakeholders of the crisis (e.g., Arpan & Roskos-Ewoldsen, 2005;Crisis Communication Think Tank, 2023;Fisher, 2020;Sellnow & Ulmer, 1995), taking a stance (e.g., Cancel et al., 1997;Crisis CommunicationThink Tank, 2023;Fisher, 2020) and assuring stakeholders (e.g., Benoit, 1997;Crisis Communication Think Tank, 2023;Fisher, 2020;Ulmer & Sellnow, 2002). ...
At the onset of a crisis, an initial organizational statement sets the tone for subsequent discussion. While existing literature provides strategic guidance, it offers limited insight into the message‐level execution of such statements. This study synthesizes insights from literature and trade publications to complement strategic literature by proposing a practical set of ‘crisis essentials’ which practitioners can leverage in composing an initial crisis statement. Upon identification of these elements from scholarly and industry literature, two online surveys presenting a hypothetical crisis scenario are released to Gen Z stakeholders and crisis communication practitioners in the United States; respondents rate the relative importance of each element. Gen Z was selected as the stakeholder population of interest due to their high activity on social media, their role as the talent which will be entering the workforce and eventually leadership roles, and the more limited existing analysis of this segment. Comparative analysis is conducted, based on two online surveys among adult individuals from these two populations, to evaluate whether gaps exist in stakeholder expectations and practitioner approaches. Findings reveal: the proposed elements (e.g., statement of the crisis, attribution, expert quote; 11 in total) were of nonzero importance to both Gen Z stakeholder respondents and crisis communication practitioner respondents, essentials related to the assuring stakeholders (e.g., action steps) were rated more highly than informational essentials (e.g., timeline), and importance ratings across survey samples were generally consistent. Practitioners should consider each of these proposed essentials when developing communication materials, and that while stakeholders expect sufficient information to understand a crisis event, they ultimately care about what the crisis means for the future of the organization. This study, grounded in crisis communication theory, provides a relevant, practical contribution to the implementation of effective strategic crisis communication in situations concerning Gen Z stakeholders.
... It is the responsibility of marketing to build sustainable brand equity and a positive reputation (Yoo et al., 2000). In case of below-average performance, the CMO may prefer a proactive communication strategy and explain potential performance issues rather than waiting until they are exposed by third parties to maintain credibility, which is of superior importance for marketing (Arpan and Roskos-Ewoldsen, 2005). However, using traditional marketing communication instruments for carbon communication might entail greenwashing allegations and hence be riskier for the firm and the marketing department, especially if the firm is underperforming (Parguel et al., 2011). ...
... Given their experience, these directors will be more likely to have witnessed cases of greenwashing and obfuscation of poor performance from other firms. Hence, they will have formed a clearer picture of the risks associated with greenwashing allegations and public criticism due to intransparent communication, and will be more likely to push for a proactive communication approach even in the case of poor performance (Arpan and Roskos-Ewoldsen, 2005). On the other hand, managers are more dependent on experienced directors due to their deep industry insights and networks and, therefore, have a stronger incentive to maintain a positive working relationship. ...
... Ex-postcrisis timing strategy involves organizations waiting to respond to inquiries from the media or other third parties (Claeys and Cauberghe, 2012). Researchers found that ex-antecrisis timing strategy (compared to ex-postcrisis) led to more positive evaluations of organizations in crisis and a less negative postcrisis reputation, caused stakeholders to consider the crisis as less severe, and minimized further crisis damage (Arpan and Roskos-Ewoldsen, 2005;Claeys et al., 2013). Stealing thunder has recently been used in organizational psychology in the context of selection interviews. ...
... The existing literature on impression management has presented the application of denial (Von Hippel et al., 2005), deception (Weiss and Feldman, 2006), and ingratiation (Allen and Caillouet, 1994) as specific strategies to ameliorate the self-image. Distinctive from the approaches that apply impression management via concealment of vulnerability, stealing thunder is marked by openness, honesty, and confession (Arpan and Roskos-Ewoldsen, 2005). Researchers have identified stealing thunder as a novel service recovery strategy to improve customer loyalty , a tactic to reduce the negative impact on an evaluative audience in a courtroom (Dolnik et al., 2003), and a crisis communication strategy to promote communication flow between organizations and journalists (Arpan and Pompper, 2003). ...
Stealing thunder is a self-disclosure strategy in which people reveal negative information about themselves before another person does so to reduce its negative impact on an audience. The present study examines stealing thunder as a trust tactic that employees might find useful for overcoming prior workplace mistakes during performance evaluation processes. Using hospitality managers in a between-subjects experimental design, Study 1 examined the impact of stealing thunder on manager evaluations of employees’ performance. The findings indicated that employees’ use of stealing thunder led to significantly better performance evaluations than when they did not apply the strategy. Study 2 confirmed the findings of Study 1 after controlling for mistake severity. Study 3 data examined the impact of accepting responsibility on performance evaluations. The results indicated that when employees adopted the stealing thunder strategy, their acceptance of responsibility resulted in significantly better performance evaluations than blaming others for the mistakes.
... For example, when product labels are traceable (meaning they include information to track the product through the supply chain offering full visibility to the origin of production), trust improves, even when the label discloses negative information about the production process (Wan, Aggarwal, & Zhao, 2018). Further, firms facing the potential backlash of an organizational crisis may engage in a strategy known as stealing thunder, in which the firm chooses to self-disclose negative information relating to firm misconduct to preempt disclosure by another source, usually the media (Arpan & Pompper, 2003;Arpan & Roskos-Ewoldsen, 2005;Williams, Bourgeois, & Croyle, 1993). Corporate communication research indicates that "stealing thunder" lessens some of the damaging effects of the negative information, and that self-disclosure is less damaging than third party disclosure. ...
... Corporate communication research indicates that "stealing thunder" lessens some of the damaging effects of the negative information, and that self-disclosure is less damaging than third party disclosure. When firms steal thunder, they proactively mitigate the harm that a third party disclosure might engender and thereby protect the reputation of the organization (Arpan & Roskos-Ewoldsen, 2005;Claeys et al., 2016;Fennis & Stroebe, 2014). ...
A number of well-known brands are not only loved by many consumers, but also hated by a sizeable portion of the population and are thus termed polarizing brands. Because digital media offers consumers nearly unlimited opportunities to voice their hate, managers can no longer ignore vocal haters. However, the current marketing literature offers few strategies for addressing the challenge of brand hate. This paper introduces the concept of hate-acknowledging advertising (HAA), an ad technique in which polarizing brands openly admit that some segment of the population hates them. Over the course of three studies, the data indicates that, compared with supportive advertising, HAA results in higher perceptions of ad credibility and ultimately higher levels of brand trust. Moreover, the improvements in ad credibility and brand trust drive increased consumer intentions to engage in positive word of mouth on behalf of the polarizing brand.
... Research on corporate response timing has produced mixed findings. Whereas some studies indicate that immediate responses enhance credibility (e.g., Arpan and Roskos-Ewoldsen 2005), others suggest that early responses can lead to negative consumer reactions due to lack of response completeness (Yao et al. 2019). In the context of this research, which involves complicated geopolitical matters, an early response with a full suspension may lead to significant financial losses and signal to consumers a strong commitment to moral principles. ...
Today, firms face mounting challenges due to increasing international conflicts, wars, and economic sanctions. Our research, based on nine studies employing both experimental methods and secondary data, examines how firms’ response strategies in sanctioned countries affect consumer reactions (attitude toward the company and word of mouth). Drawing on signaling theory and the literature on economic sanctions, this research reveals that consumers respond more favorably to firms that adopt a full-suspension strategy as opposed to a scale-back strategy, which in turn elicits more positive reactions than a continuation strategy. Our findings also show that the perceived morality of the firm mediates this effect. Furthermore, the effect can be generalized from the Russo-Ukrainian War to other causes of economic sanctions, such as human rights issues and terrorism. Given the logic of perceived morality, factors such as response time (early vs. late), corporate donation (yes vs. no), product type (essential vs. nonessential), and announcement source (CEO vs. company) serve as boundary conditions for the effect. Overall, our research not only makes substantial contributions to the literature on economic sanctions, crisis management, and signaling theory, but also provides clear guidance for global firms on employing appropriate response strategies during economic sanctions.
... Moreover, regardless of monitoring media closely and crafting crisis messages in response to media portrayals, there are several practical challenges professionals should be aware of, such as crisis response timing and fragmented media portrayals from various outlets. When it comes to response timing, public relations professionals should consider whether they should respond promptly, which presents a greater organizational credibility than a slow response (Arpan and Roskos-Ewoldsen, 2005) or increase communication frequency to keep publics informed because people tend to allocate more cognitive attention to the most recent information (Xu, 2013;Westerman et al., 2013). As for fragmented media portrayals from various outlets, professionals should be cautious of the features of distinct media outlets as medium is the message (McLuhan, 2017), and if the media portrayals generate any polarization as homogenous media users can always find specific media outlet to share their thoughts. ...
Purpose
This study examines the interplay between media-induced emotional crisis framing (anger vs sadness) and message sidedness of crisis response on publics’ attribution of crisis responsibility as well as subsequent company evaluation and supportive behavioral intention.
Design/methodology/approach
A 2 (emotion: anger vs sadness) x 2 (crisis response: one-sided vs two-sided) online experiment was conducted among 161 participants in the USA.
Findings
Results showed that anger-inducing media framing of the crisis elicited higher levels of crisis responsibility attribution and more negative company evaluation, compared with sadness-inducing media framing. One-sided message response was more effective than two-sided message response in lowering attribution of crisis responsibility when sadness was induced, but no difference was found under the anger-induced condition. Attribution of crisis responsibility fully mediated the effects of emotional crisis framing on company evaluation and supportive behavioral intention toward the company.
Originality/value
This study is among the first to examine the interaction effect between emotional media framing and response message sidedness in an ambiguous crisis. Drawing on the interdisciplinary theoretical frameworks, this study integrates the situational crisis communication theory, appraisal-tendency framework and message sidedness in persuasion literature. As such, it contributes to theoretical development in crisis communication and offers communication managers guidance on how to effectively address emotionally framed crises.
... Product recalls are one of the most frequent adverse events faced by companies or brands in the market, and they have happened in various industries, such as food, toys, automobiles, and pharmaceuticals (Borah & Tellis, 2016). A communication strategy called "stealing thunder" proposes to proactively release crisis information when a company encounters a crisis (Arpan & Roskos-Ewoldsen, 2005;Lee, 2016). Although proactive product recalls reflect a company's responsibility to consumers, they still damage its reputation, trustworthiness, and brand equity to a certain extent (Rhee & Haunschild, 2006). ...
... One-tailed values are reported for directional predictions. 4 We focus on the disconfirmation of expectations theory because studies have found consistent support for this explanation (Arpan & Pompper, 2003;Arpan & Roskos-Ewoldsen, 2005;Fennis & Stroebe, 2014;Williams et al., 1993). ...
... Kauffman (2001) argues that NASA's timely, honest, and open communication regarding the Apollo 13 crisis with the public and stakeholders, bolstered its image and attracted public and congress support for further manned space explorations. Coombs (2007aCoombs ( , 2007b attribution theory and Situational Crisis Communication Theory (SCCT) suggest embracing the field's evolution and the influx of empirical methods in the context of crisis communication (Arpan and Roskos-Ewoldsen, 2005). More emphasis is given to prescriptive, rather than descriptive methods of investigation and analysis. ...
This paper presents a comprehensive analysis of crisis communication research from 1968 to 2022, utilizing bibliometric methods to illuminate its trajectories, thematic shifts, and future possibilities. Additionally, it presents foundational themes such as crisis communication and social media, health communication, crisis and leadership, and reputation and advertising. This analysis offers not only historical insights but also serves as a roadmap for future research endeavors. Furthermore, this study critically evaluates over five decades of scholarship by unveiling the intellectual, social, and conceptual contours of the field while highlighting thematic evolutions. Employing diverse bibliometric indices, this research quantifies authors’ and nations’ productivity and impact. Through co-word analysis, four thematic clusters emerge, capturing the dynamic nature of crisis communication research. However, the study also reveals limited collaboration among authors, primarily localized, indicating room for enhanced cross-border cooperation and exploration of emerging themes. The study’s social network analysis sheds light on key actors and entities within the crisis communication realm, underscoring opportunities to fortify global networks for a robust crisis communication spectrum. Beyond academic curiosity, these insights hold practical implications for policymakers, scholars, and practitioners, offering a blueprint to enhance crisis communication’s effectiveness. This study’s findings can be considered as a reference point for future studies in crisis communication.
... It defines proactive exposure as an organization disclosing a crisis event before the media and other subjects. Using proactive strategy guaranteed the organization to explain the objective information about the specific event simply and naturally [35]. Alternatively, passive strategy means that the crisis event is first disclosed by the media or other subjects. ...
Product-harm crises have detrimental effects on firm’s sales, reputation, and financial value, requiring crisis managers to promptly adopt appropriate response strategies to mitigate these impacts. Situational Crisis Communication Theory (SCCT) guides managers to align responsibility attribution with response strategies. Using Chinese listed firms’ product-harm crises sample from 2015 to 2021, this study analyzes the stock market’s reaction to different response strategies. The event study method reveals that a passive strategy is more effective during the disclosure stage, and accept+no recall and deny+recall are conforming strategies during the initial response stage. Additionally, firms with a crisis history should assume greater responsibility when developing response strategies for product-harm crises, as crisis history amplifies negative effects. The results provide recommendations to help managers formulate appropriate strategies.
... Callison, 2001Callison, , 2004. Two behavioral intention metrics have particular diagnostic utility in the crisis communication literature: customer intent to patronize an organization (Arpan and Roskos-Ewoldsen, 2005;Claeys and Coombs, 2020) and word-of-mouth communication (Coombs and Holladay, 2007). The "bottom line" of corporations is threatened by a downturn in business. ...
Purpose
When an audience mentally counterargues a spokesperson, the message is backfiring. In such cases, audience members are practically persuading themselves to take the opposite position advocated by the spokesperson. Yet spokespeople who are professional persuaders serving corporations often seem to instill counterargument. This paper examines the role of counterargument as the conduit through which a spokesperson's different message types affect a company during a crisis. The authors explore the paradox of spokespeople's (in)effectiveness by testing divides in research drawn from normative crisis communication theory, narrative persuasion theory and the theory of reporting bias.
Design/methodology/approach
Two controlled, randomized experiments are reported. Participants (total N = 828) watch video clips of media interviews of a company spokesperson fielding questions about a scandal.
Findings
In the first study, non-narrative information most effectively bolsters purchase intentions and reduces negative word-of-mouth. The effect is mediated by decreased counterargument. The second study replicates the results concerning on-topic narratives compared with spinning, while on-topic narratives and non-narratives perform equally well.
Originality/value
This study addresses conflicts between two distinct traditions of theory as well as between normative crisis communication and its frequent practice. Reducing counterargument matters in the context of non-narrative persuasion, and non-narratives can perform at least as well as narratives in crisis communication.
... Namun pihak Duke University's terlambat dalam memberikan respons terhadap kasus yang terjadi. Kondisi ini juga menguatkan penelitian sebelumnya yang mengungkapkan bahwa memberikan informasi krisis secepat mungkin dianggap lebih positif dan mengurangi kerusakan reputasi (Arpan & Roskos-Ewoldsen, 2005). ...
... Crisis information disclosed via different media channels (for example, corporate websites, newspapers, and social media) can have different impacts on communication strategies [54,55]. Some studies have investigated the impact of the proactive disclosure of risk information by enterprises, suggesting that enterprises should release crisis-related information before a crisis is reported by the media [56,57]. This proactive disclosure is a key factor in assessing the credibility and popularity of organizations [58]. ...
As tourism risk communication has transitioned from an emerging theme to a growing field of research, it is essential to review existing studies to identify developments in it. Nevertheless, there is a lack of extensive research employing both bibliometric and meta-analysis of tourism risk communication, specifically on communicating risk to tourists. To fill this gap, first, we applied bibliometric analysis techniques to identify emerging research clusters by collecting 236 articles from 1985.1.1 to 2023.6.1. Second, to implement the meta-analysis, we selected the empirical results from the collected articles. Then, five studies were used as a series of different structures required for implementing meta-analysis. Through our research, the main results show that (1) emerging research clusters mainly focus on: (i) “risk communication”, “crisis communication”, and “tourism crisis”, (ii) “risk perception”, (iii) “health service”, “health education”, “health behavior”, “environmental health”, and “public health”. (2) Papers aiming at data analysis or modeling are of great value to advance research in the field of tourism risk communication. (3) Tourism risk communication assessments reported by different public agencies are sensitive to factors such as gender, nationality, the experiences of tourists, local tourism boards, local governments, organizational resource allocation, and report evaluation. Based on this, we contribute to knowledge on tourism risk management by discussing the challenges of the present studies and, more significantly, by identifying seven antecedents and future research directions of risk communication strategy. Finally, this paper draws implications for theory development, acknowledges the limitations of this research, and indicates further research directions.
... It is beneficial for a brand to disclose information about a transgression. Waiting for the press to reveal it will strengthen the harmful effects of the fault (Arpan and Roskos-Ewoldsen 2005;Poppo and Schepker 2010). If the brand informs stakeholders before the media, it minimizes the reputational damage (Fennis and Stroebe 2014). ...
Brand transgressions might put at risk some of companies’ most important achievements: a high awareness brand and loyal customers’ trust. High awareness brands may suffer from the effects of a functional transgression on customers’ trust and perception regarding an organization’s capacity to keep its promises, as well as the relationship developed with loyal customers. A common outcome of a product functional transgression is government intervention asking for a product recall. The voluntary recall is an alternative to handle brand transgressions, but less common than mandatory product recalls. This paper adds to the literature by theoretically discussing and empirically analyzing how the relationship status of a first-time or loyal customer with a high awareness brand affects consumers’ trust after a functional transgression. Additionally, it examines the moderation effect of response to a functional transgression on the relation between trust’s components—competence, integrity, and benevolence. Through an experimental study 2 (company’s response: passive strategy; voluntary product recall) × 2 (relationship: loyal; first-time) × between-subjects design, the findings indicate that after a high awareness brand transgression, loyal consumers perceive greater competence, integrity, and benevolence in the brand than first-time consumers. When a transgression is followed by a passive strategy in which the transgressor company is aware of a malfunction and decides not to take any action to remediate the situation, loyal consumers have higher integrity and benevolence-based trust perception than first-time consumers. As voluntary recall takes place, loyal and first-time consumers’ perceptions of integrity and benevolence increase, and first-time consumers reach the same levels as loyal consumers, which suggests voluntary product recall is an effective trust recovery strategy for a high awareness brand.
... It is widely recommended for an organization facing a crisis to respond promptly so as to avoid growing negative perceptions and adverse consequences of not being part of crisis communication (Coombs, 2014;Dilenschneider & Hyde, 1985;Huang & DiStaso, 2020). Scholars have proposed a timing strategy of stealing thunder, which refers to proactively disclosing negative information concerning organizations before it is acquired or released by third parties, such as the news media (Arpan & Roskos-Ewoldsen, 2005). By being proactive, an organization is more likely to shape how a crisis is interpreted and, potentially, how crisis responsibility is attributed, thus buffering the negative outcomes from the crisis (Y. ...
Crisis communication research typically focuses on how a single organization strategically responds to crises based on its own set of situational factors. However, it is common for multiple competing organizations to be involved in responding to the same crisis. By analyzing two industry crisis cases in China, this study provides insights into what we termed competitive crisis communication, which involves not only crisis response timing and strategies but also competition and comparisons among the different organizations involved in the same crisis. The analysis of organizational statements on social media reveals the extent of differences in crisis response strategies adopted by competing organizations. Findings from an analysis of online media coverage and public posts on social media further suggest that stakeholders’ comparisons of different organizations’ crisis responses can influence stakeholders’ emotions and reputational perceptions of the organizations. Finally, the competitive advantages for an organization to respond as the first mover or late mover in industry crisis communication are discussed.
... Therefore, the concept of protective efficacy is highly useful to extend EPPM to the caregiver context during a public health crisis . In a similar vein, self-efficacy levels during crisis need to be carefully considered as individual knowledge levels and preparedness for crisis vary depending on crisis experience (Arpan & Roskos-Ewoldsen, 2005). For that reason, prior research developed and measured the term "crisis self-efficacy" (i.e., one's perceived ability to perform risk-reducing behaviors during a threat to protect oneself [Park & Avery, 2019]) when measuring self-efficacy levels in a public health crisis such as COVID-19 (e.g., Baguri et al., 2022;. ...
Given the updated, ongoing recommendations for the COVID vaccine series and booster for children ages 6 months and older yet vaccine coverage remaining at less than 50% among children, it is critical for public health communicators to understand sources of vaccine hesitance among parents. A national survey of parents identifies the mediating effects of vaccine anxiety, safety, and fear on the relationships between COVID-19 threat and efficacy with behavioral intentions to vaccinate. Anxiety mediated the relationships between both threat and efficacy with parents’ behavioral intentions to vaccinate their children. Vaccine anxiety, safety, and fear mediated parents’ decisions to vaccinate themselves. Theoretical and applied implications are reviewed.
... This is known as the stealing thunder strategy (or a self-disclosure, or an ex-ante crisis timing strategy) (Arpan & Pompper, 2003;Claeys & Cauberghe, 2012). However, an organization can wait to disclose crisis information until other organizations request the information, meaning the thunder strategy (or an ex-post crisis timing strategy) (Arpan & Roskos-Ewoldsen, 2005;Claeys et al., 2013). ...
This study aimed to explore misinformation correction strategies for effective internal crisis communication. Using an experimental study (N = 1196) with full‐time employees in the United States, this study found that a corrective strategy using more elaborated facts was effective in protecting internal reputation and that timely, proactive communication to debunk crisis misinformation was a significant factor influencing employees' cognitive reactance (counterarguing) and behavioural outcomes. This research can help crisis communicators better understand how to prevent negative outcomes that undermine the effectiveness of evidence‐based communication efforts. Specifically, the findings suggest the use of more proactive internal crisis communication to correct misinformation and to prevent damage caused by employees' misconceptions and related communication behaviours. Furthermore, the study theoretically extends the literature on debunking crisis‐misinformation by elucidating the cognitive and behavioural processes of crisis misinformation in internal crisis communication.
... W innych badaniach T. Coombs (1998) zidentyfi kował dwa czynniki zwiększające odpowiedzialność fi rmy: historię kryzysu i -podobnie jak autorzy wcześniej wspomnianego badania -dotkliwość szkód. Pojęcie dotkliwości kryzysu pojawia się w szeregu publikacji z zakresu komunikacji i zarządzania kryzysowego (Arpan & Pompper, 2003;Arpan & Roskos-Ewoldsen, 2005;Claeys, Cauberghe, & Vyncke, 2010;Hong & Len-Riós, 2015;Isaacson, 2012;Laufer, Gillespie, McBride, & Gonzalez, 2005;Lee, 2004;Vassilikopoulou, Siomkos, Chatzipanagiotou, & Pantouvakis, 2009). ...
Cel: w artykule przedstawiono najważniejsze wnioski z badań przeprowadzonych pod kierownictwem jednego z autorów publikacji. Metodologia: artykuł oparty został na wynikach szeregu badań ilościowych przeprowadzonych przez autorów publikacji. Wyniki i wnioski: publikacja zawiera prezentację nowej definicji kryzysu wizerunkowego, opierającej się na danych empirycznych. Dokonano opisu czynników determinujących bezpieczeństwo wizerunkowe organizacji, takich jak przygotowanie, wsparcie eksperckie, świadomość istnienia zagrożeń czy działania analityczne. Ten ostatni aspekt ujęto w schemat pokazujący elementy mające wpływ na to, w jaki sposób organizacja zostanie przygotowana na kryzys. W dalszej części artykułu zaprezentowany został cykl decyzji analitycznych warunkujących bezpieczeństwo wizerunkowe organizacji oraz model skuteczności reakcji w organizacji czułej na zdarzenia kryzysowe.
... In his research, Coombs (1998) identifi ed two factors that increase a company's responsibility: crisis' history and, as in previous research, the severity of it. Crisis severity is mentioned in several research papers from the fi elds of public relations and crisis management (Arpan & Pompper, 2003;Arpan & Roskos-Ewoldsen, 2005;Claeys, Cauberghe, & Vyncke, 2010;Hong & Len-Riós, 2015;Isaacson, 2012;Laufer, Gillespie, McBride, & Gonzalez, 2005;Lee, 2004;. ...
Scientific objective: The article describes the most important conclusions drawn from research conducted by a team led by the authors. Research methodology: It presents a new definition of an image crisis based on empirical data. Results and conclusions: It includes a description of factors that determine the image safety of corporate entities, like preparation, expert support, awareness of dangers or analytical activities. The last aspect presents the elements that contribute to an organization’s readiness for a crisis. The next part of the article contains an analytical decision chain that determines an organization’s image security and a response effectiveness model in an organization susceptible to crisis events.
... W innych badaniach T. Coombs (1998) zidentyfi kował dwa czynniki zwiększające odpowiedzialność fi rmy: historię kryzysu i -podobnie jak autorzy wcześniej wspomnianego badania -dotkliwość szkód. Pojęcie dotkliwości kryzysu pojawia się w szeregu publikacji z zakresu komunikacji i zarządzania kryzysowego (Arpan & Pompper, 2003;Arpan & Roskos-Ewoldsen, 2005;Claeys, Cauberghe, & Vyncke, 2010;Hong & Len-Riós, 2015;Isaacson, 2012;Laufer, Gillespie, McBride, & Gonzalez, 2005;Lee, 2004;Vassilikopoulou, Siomkos, Chatzipanagiotou, & Pantouvakis, 2009). ...
Cel: w artykule przedstawiono najważniejsze wnioski z badań przeprowadzonych pod kierownictwem jednego z autorów publikacji. Metodologia: artykuł oparty został na wynikach szeregu badań ilościowych przeprowadzonych przez autorów publikacji. Wyniki i wnioski: publikacja zawiera prezentację nowej definicji kryzysu wizerunkowego, opierającej się na danych empirycznych. Dokonano opisu czynników determinujących bezpieczeństwo wizerunkowe organizacji, takich jak przygotowanie, wsparcie eksperckie, świadomość istnienia zagrożeń czy działania analityczne. Ten ostatni aspekt ujęto w schemat pokazujący elementy mające wpływ na to, w jaki sposób organizacja zostanie przygotowana na kryzys. W dalszej części artykułu zaprezentowany został cykl decyzji analitycznych warunkujących bezpieczeństwo wizerunkowe organizacji oraz model skuteczności reakcji w organizacji czułej na zdarzenia kryzysowe.
... Indeed, Situational Crisis Communication Theory (SCCT) (see An and Cheng 2010) provides a host of recommendations for communicating during a crisis to external stakeholders, contingent on the organization's culpability. Thus, regardless of whether the organization justifies its behavior or makes an outright apology, discussing the sales crisis and how it will respond to it fosters the necessary credibility to overcome the crisis (Arpan and Roskos-Ewoldsen 2005). ...
The response from many firms to the recent COVID-19 crisis underscores a more fundamental and overarching question: How should salespeople and their firms prepare for and respond to sales crises more generally? In response, a group of sales scholars recently convened at the American Marketing Association’s Winter Conference to discuss the challenges and opportunities facing salespeople and their firms before, during, and after a sales crisis. Thus, based on this session and subsequent follow-up discussions, this paper develops a framework detailing how the sales function should prepare for, withstand, and learn from a sales crisis. In so doing, we argue that sales crises can originate internally and externally to an organization and can impact the entire sales organization, the sales manager, and/or individual salespeople. Moreover, viewing a sales crisis simply as a turning point rather than a devastating event, we highlight the implications for salespeople and their managers who must inevitably deal with sales crises and the changes involved. Finally, we conclude with potential future directions for sales scholars interested in exploring the impact of crises on the sales function, as the next sales crisis is likely just around the corner.
Purpose
A live-stream failure occurs when the product which is highly recommended by the influencers and exhibited quality problems. This study investigated how brand trust and influencers trust affect live-streaming purchase intentions (PIs) of consumers when live-streaming e-commerce failures occur and the role of the Stealing Thunder (ST).
Design/methodology/approach
Totally 584 adults with live-streaming shopping experience were invited to investigate the impact and mechanisms of live-streaming failure incidents, as well as the moderating mechanisms of ST.
Findings
Firstly, live-streaming failure accidents decreased the PI of consumers by reducing both brand trust and influencer trust, with trust in the influencers having a stronger impact on PI than brand trust. Secondly, if the influencers used the ST after a live-stream failure, the PI was the same as that in a non-failure scenario. Thirdly, the ST acts as a moderating variable neutralized the negative impact of live-streaming failure on trust in the influencers. Lastly, the negative impact of brand trust on PI was less significant using the ST.
Originality/value
This research deepens the understanding of service failures in live-streaming e-commerce. It provides insights into the consumer behavior and practical guidance on how influencers can actively respond to live-streaming failure to sustain reciprocal relationships in live-streaming e-commerce. The study addresses the effects of the coping strategies of influencers on the interests of product brands and discusses the potential solutions.
Purpose
This study aims to investigate how disclosures through different communication media were used by the Australian mining company Rio Tinto to manage its reputation after the Juukan Gorge Cave Blast.
Design/methodology/approach
Case study research was used with a focus on a single case, Rio Tinto and the Juukan Gorge incident. Data on sustainability disclosures were collected from Rio Tinto’s website, corporate reports and social media platforms (Facebook, X and LinkedIn) for the 2020 and 2021 periods. Gioia methodology was applied to analyse disclosure strategies and an extended Reputation Risk Management (RRM) framework was used as a conceptual lens.
Findings
The findings reveal a slow and inappropriate initial response from the company resulting in negative reputational consequences for the company’s senior executives. Although the company’s initial response was to avoid responsibility and mitigate offensiveness, it gradually accepted full responsibility and adopted reparation strategies such as corrective action, mortification and stakeholder engagement to rebuild its reputation. The temporal analysis suggests that Rio Tinto was “left behind” as a result of its initial response, limiting the effectiveness of its subsequent RRM strategies.
Research limitations/implications
The findings of this study contribute to an improved understanding of communication strategies for managing a reputation crisis. The extended RRM framework developed in this study provides a comprehensive list of various disclosure strategies that can be used in future studies that analyse disclosure post an environmental or social incident.
Practical implications
The findings of the study provide insights into the effectiveness of different communication strategies when communicating to stakeholders with varied interests. This study highlights that the timing of the response is critical to restoring lost reputation and a slow response which emphasises financial stakeholders at the expense of the affected communities can be detrimental to RRM, no matter how well-intentioned subsequent strategies are.
Social implications
This research focuses on a marginal stakeholder group, Indigenous people and communities. The findings offer insights to society into whether corporate strategies to manage a reputation crisis promote and support equity and inclusivity.
Originality/value
This study focuses on a community-based stakeholder, Indigenous groups, a context that has unique cultural intricacies and requires a transition beyond a corporate perspective on RRM.
The self-transformation of new media presents unprecedented challenges for crisis PR. In recent years, the rapid development of new energy vehicles in China has often led to widespread criticism when facing crisis Public Relations (PR) issues. This study takes Tesla, NIO, and Li Auto, three companies developing new energy vehicles in China. It compares their crisis PR strategies in the new media era, exploring their impact on corporate reputation. By collecting the quantity of cognitive and emotional assessments of positive, neutral, and negative nature, and calculating the conversion between evaluations of different natures, this research finds that incorrect response strategies lead to a decrease in both emotional and cognitive reputations, while successful response strategies primarily enhance cognitive reputation. Successful strategies may involve subjective proactive measures, characterized by swift or preemptive PR, positive emotional attitudes, and sustained responsiveness. This study provides empirical insights into understanding and addressing the challenges of crisis PR in the new media era, offering references for companies to formulate crisis management strategies.
This study provides a comprehensive understanding of how companies address reputational risks posed by the increasing spread of online misinformation. Employing an empirical approach, the research draws on the results of an in-depth longitudinal multiple-case study conducted from 2019 to 2023. The data were collected through media monitoring, social media descriptive analysis, analysis of internal documents and interviews with managers and their colleagues who have experienced misinformation paracrises. The findings reveal the response strategies employed during misinformation paracrises and the factors influencing managers’ decisions regarding strategy selection and modification. Key aspects such as breaking points in paracrises, post-paracrisis actions, and the communication goals of companies in defending their reputations are highlighted. The study identifies several effective communication tactics for countering corporate rumors, including deliberate silence, legal actions, debunking, media outreach, humour, and employee management. Additionally, it introduces a decision tree as a practical tool for managers navigating these challenges. This research contributes empirical evidence and an insider perspective, thereby offering practical recommendations through the presentation of lived experiences drawn from five European companies.
Crises are inevitable. Their size, cause and origin may vary, but as a professional communicator you must always be ready to deal with any crises—and preferably prevent them from happening in the first place. This chapter zooms in on the key points of attention and theories in relation to the communication management of crises.
Organizational crises management in many cases relies on ad hoc created teams to handle these unexpected events. Due to the demanded short reaction time, there is pressure on all persons involved in handling the situation. Crisis management team members instinctively search for the “best possible outcome” of the crisis mostly based on their professional background. Some of the individual professional goals are conflicting, and conciliation might be necessary. Ultimately, each of the apparently conflicting professional goals points to the same organizational goal: the resilience after the crisis. Our findings are based on a survey done at some Eastern European multinational organizations. In the paper we not only provide arguments for multidisciplinary crisis management teams, but also show that crisis managers sometimes have concerns about the time-consuming reconciliation of the goals and the one-track-minded approach of some professionals.
The primary concern of this article is to review the knowledge and ability of people to act to protect themselves and others in the face of various risks and hazards, and to manage accident and crisis situations. Relevant issues include the needs and requirements of emergency situations, people’s ability to respond to them, and factors that affect coping ability. The selected sub-areas are practiceoriented and defined in terms of real-world problems rather than theories or scientific concepts. One of the purposes of choosing to structure the review of risk, accident and crisis management psychology in this way is to emphasize the importance of human limitations and capabilities as an element in all areas of activity and responsibility. This approach, in turn, assumes that the review contains a broad theoretical base and multifaceted approaches, which are necessarily treated here rather generically.
To meet growing demands for information on their environmental impacts, firms may engage in selective disclosure by strategically reporting only a subset of relevant data. In this article, we draw out and problematize an antecedent to selective disclosure, public attention. Prior studies suggest that public attention brings scrutiny that reduces selective disclosure by increasing the risk of getting caught (the floodlight thesis). The impression management literature, however, suggests that public attention offers the possibility of broad-based image benefits from the disclosure of strategically filtered data (the spotlight thesis). Panel regressions with Trucost data from 2008–19 provide overall support for the spotlight thesis as well as a negative moderator, environmental damage. Results also point to an underlying mechanism: Companies receiving public attention disclose a larger number of environmental metrics, but not ones that, altogether, represent more environmental damage, a tactic that we call strategic fluffing.
Purpose
Using a video revealing unhygienic practices in Chinese five-star hotels as the case study, this study aims to understand the impact of service failure online exposure on hotel revenue performance in terms of seriousness, magnitude and duration, as well as to identify the hotel-characteristics and hotel-responsiveness factors that influence revenue recovery.
Design/methodology/approach
This study uses the actual Revenue per Available Room data of ten hotels involved in the incident and five different market segments during 2016–2019. Event study method is used to investigate the effect of online exposure on hotel revenue performance.
Findings
This study confirms the significant negative effect of online exposure and that hotels take nearly nine months to fully recover. The results indicate that hotel size, hotel age and response strategy play an important role in reducing negative impacts. Moreover, this study reveals the dynamic spillover effects of online exposure on different hotel market segments. These effects change from a competitive to a contagious effect with a decrease in class ratings.
Practical implications
Low-class hotel managers should take effective actions to avoid possible negative spillovers from others’ service failure incidents. Hotel managers could consider the synergy of different strategies rather than a single response strategy to minimize losses.
Originality/value
This study theoretically broadens knowledge about the negative impact of online exposure on Chinese hotel revenue. Additionally, the findings examine the dynamic spillover effects on hotels in different segments. Furthermore, they extend the existing findings on the negative impact of online public opinion crises.
Purpose
Once a corporate crisis is entangled with a social issue, how consumers make sense of the crisis can be impacted by issue-based opinion polarization. This study investigates the underlying mechanisms as consumers go through this process. This study also examines whether corporate social advocacy (CSA) can be an effective crisis-response strategy for mitigating reputational loss.
Design/methodology/approach
Theoretical inquiries were empirically tested using an online experiment ( N = 792). The experiment set the context in China, in a working-overtime-issue-related crisis. It had a 2 (online exposure: anti-issue opinion vs. pro-issue opinion) × 2 (CSA: absence vs. presence) between-subject design with a continuous variable (pre-existing issue attitudes) measured before the manipulation.
Findings
This study found that pre-existing issue attitudes can be directly and indirectly associated with corporate reputation, for the issue attitudes influence how consumers attribute crisis blame. Such a direct effect of pre-existing issue attitudes varies depending on which polarized opinion consumers were exposed to on social media. This study also found CSA to be a robust crisis response strategy, through multiple mechanisms, in protecting the corporate reputation.
Originality/value
Scholars are scarcely aware of the threats that issue-based opinion polarization poses to corporate reputation. This study serves as an early attempt to provide theoretical explanations. In addition to this, this study extends the current conceptual understandings of CSA during corporate crises that involve social issues while adding fresh insights into the established typology of crisis-response strategies.
The main objective of this research, directly related to the introduction of the COVID-19 pandemic, is to answer the question: has the epidemiological situation and energy crisis affected the CSR policy of transport industry companies and the forms of its implementation? This research aims to answer whether the social objective set out in the CRS policy, implemented by the studied entities, conflicts with commercial purposes, whether the implementation of CRS is profitable for these entities, and in which areas of activity it manifests itself. The aim is to investigate why the studied entities engage in CSR? The following research methods were applied: an economic and legal analysis of CRS principles and activity reports. The study focused on the activities of enterprises pursuing their business objectives and, at the same time, their socio-cultural mission. The CSR policies for 2019–2021, which surveyed transport industry companies operating in Poland, are analyzed. Empirical findings show that companies are responsive to the CSR concept and those considering international standards.
Previous research indicates that organizations in crisis situations must address multiple audiences with distinct needs. The public communication offered by Jack in the Box restaurants in response to a severe food poisoning outbreak is analyzed as a case study. The analysis indicates that ambiguity may provide organizations with a means for satisfying the divergent needs of their multiple audiences—even in cases where these distinct needs appear to be contradictory.
In theory a function of management, the practice of public relations assumes various roles in different organizations, ranging from technician to manager. Crises present organizations with significant financial, social and ethical challenges.This article suggests a relationship between organizational crisis experience and the placement of the public relations function. A relationship between organizational size and crisis experience is noted. It also uncovers an alarming absence of crisis planning and training in organizations.
This article begins to integrate ideas from the relational management perspective of public relations with the symbolic approach to crisis communication. The fusion centers on the relation history as part of an organization's performance history. The belief is that relationship affects the crisis situation by shaping perceptions of the crisis and the organization in crisis. The experimental study found support connecting relationship history to the crisis situation. The results are termed the velcro effect because only a negative relationship history produced an effect on organizational reputation and crisis responsibility. The article offers a model of the crisis situation to explain how relationship history fits with the variables used in the symbolic approach.
MacKenzie, Lutz, and Belch have enhanced our understanding of the mediating role of attitude toward the ad (AAd). The current study replicates and extends the structural equation tests of the four competing models they presented. Two independent datasets are used to examine the role of processing involvement. Consistent with the earlier findings, the dual mediation hypothesis model provides the "best" fit of the data in both experiments. However, the hypothesized causal path between brand cognitions and brand attitudes that emerges for each of the datasets conflicts with the earlier findings. Contrary to expectations, processing involvement does not produce substantial differences in the specification or strength of the causal paths.
Recent research has identified attitude toward the ad (AAd) as an important construct mediating the effects of advertising on brand attitude and purchase intention. To date, however, little attention has been directed toward explaining the origins of AAd. The authors present the latest version of a theory of AAd formation, report the results of an empirical test of a portion of that theory, and offer further refinements to the theory based on the observed results. Implications of the findings for advertising practice are discussed.
Crisis management research is developing a solid line of research that examines the communicative responses of organizations in crisis. As we begin to address crisis responses, it is essential to develop an understanding of how to make the most effective use of these symbolic resources. Analyzing the crisis situation is an important step toward understanding the effective use of crisis responses. If we accept that the situation influences communicative choices, the crisis situation should influence the selection of crisis responses. This article reports the results of a study that tested a system of crisis situation analysis based on crisis responsibility. The article develops a rationale for the crisis responsibility base and reports the results of the study. The end product is an analytic system that provides a rough guide to the type of crisis responses the crisis manager should be employing.
Although the relationship management perspective of public relations is the focus of a substantial body of scholarship, a theory of that perspective has yet to be articulated and explicated. Herein, I review the emergence of the relational perspective, summarize the relevant literature, and construct a theoretical statement of that perspective. I then argue for relationship management as a general theory of public relations and offer suggestions for future research within a relational paradigm.
Describes a study with 400 female undergraduates in which an attribution analysis viewed opinion change as the outcome of a series of stages in message recipients' information processing. This processing was initiated by information about the communicator's background that led recipients to form an expectancy concerning what position the communicator would take in the message. The degree to which this premessage expectancy was confirmed or disconfirmed by the position the communicator took in the message then affected the outcome at each step of recipients' postmessage processing. In the 1st post-message step, disconfirmation of the expectancy led recipients to attribute the message primarily to the factual evidence associated with the issue, and confirmation led them to attribute it primarily to the communicator's background. Then, to the extent that recipients attributed the message to the factual evidence rather than to the communicator's background, they perceived the communicator as unbiased, a response that increased opinion change toward the message. In general, poor comprehension of message content lessened opinion change toward the message. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The effectiveness of a persuasion technique referred to asstealing thunder was assessed in two simulated jury trials. Stealing thunder is defined as revealing negative information about oneself (or, in a legal setting, one's client) before it is revealed or elicited by another person. In Study 1, 257 college students read or heard one of three versions of a criminal assault trial in which a damaging piece of evidence about the defendant was absent (no thunder), brought up by the prosecutor (thunder), or brought up by the defense attorney and repeated by the prosecutor (stolen thunder). In Study 2, 148 college students heard a civil negligence trial in which damaging evidence about the key plaintiff's witness was absent (no thunder), brought up by the defendant's attorney (thunder), or brought up by the witness himself (stolen thunder). In both studies, stealing thunder significantly reduced the impact of the negative information. A path analysis of the processes underlying the effect suggested that verdicts were affected because of enhanced credibility.
Frequently, considerable knowledge of the attributes of decision alternatives is available in memory so as to permit a thoughtful and deliberate choice. However, in many instances, individuals neglect to use such knowledge and instead rely on "attitude-based" strategy to make a memory-based decision. The findings from two experiments suggest that as to the motivation to make a correct decision or the opportunity to use the available attribute knowledge decreases, the likelihood that attitudes will guide a memory-based decision increases. The findings illustrate the functional role attitudes play in guiding decisions and behavior. By providing a ready means of evaluating choice alternatives, attitudes enable an individual to make a decision relatively quickly and effortlessly.
Ss were given instruction sets to induce either on-line or memory-based processing while reading behavioral statements about individual and group targets. Impression-set instructions induced online judgments, and comprehensibility-set (comp) instructions induced memory-based judgments regardless of target type. More important, with nondirective instructions (memory set), natural differences in processing information about individuals and groups were observed, with more online judgments for individuals. As expected, illusory correlations between minority targets and infrequent behaviors (a memory-based product) emerged with comp instructions (which induced memory-based judgments for both target types) and in the memory-set condition for group targets only. These data provide insights into the differences in impression formation for groups and individuals and furnish direct evidence of the processes responsible for illusory correlations.
Stealing thunder refers to a dissuasion tactic in which an individual reveals potentially incriminating evidence first, for the purpose of reducing its negative impact on an evaluative audience. We examined whether it was necessary to frame the negative revelation in a manner that downplayed its importance, and found that stealing thunder successfully dissuaded mock jurors even without framing. We also sought to determine the mechanism by which stealing thunder operated, and found that stealing thunder led mock jurors to change the meaning of incriminating evidence to be less damaging to the individual. We also found that stealing thunder's effectiveness did not hinge on whether or not opposing counsel also mentioned the thunder evidence, and that the stealing thunder tactic was no longer effective when opposing counsel revealed to the mock jurors that the stealing thunder tactic had been used on them.
MacKenzie, Lutz, and Belch have enhanced our understanding of the mediating role of attitude toward the ad (A Ad ). The current study replicates and extends the structural equation tests of the four competing models they presented. Two independent datasets are used to examine the role of processing involvement. Consistent with the earlier findings, the dual mediation hypothesis model provides the “best” fit of the data in both experiments. However, the hypothesized causal path between brand cognitions and brand attitudes that emerges for each of the datasets conflicts with the earlier findings. Contrary to expectations, processing involvement does not produce substantial differences in the specification or strength of the causal paths.
Recent research has identified attitude toward the ad (AAd) as an important construct mediating the effects of advertising on brand attitude and purchase intention. To date, however, little attention has been directed toward explaining the origins of AAd. The authors present the latest version of a theory of AAd formation, report the results of an empirical test of a portion of that theory, and offer further refinements to the theory based on the observed results. Implications of the findings for advertising practice are discussed.
For a number of reasons, communication scholars have neglected the attitude construct. However, recent research on the cognitive basis of attitudes has thrived. This research suggests that the abandonment of the attitude construct may be premature. A complete understanding of how persuasive messages are processed and the effectiveness of attempts at social influence necessitates a reconsideration of the utility of attitudes. This chapter reviews research on an important aspect of the construct: attitude accessibility. Attitudes that are highly accessible from memory are likely to influence the allocation of attention and the degree of message elaboration, result in selective information processing, and influence behavior. Mechanisms by which persuasive messages may make attitudes accessible are discussed, and a model of the transactive relationship between persuasion and attitude accessibility is proposed.
show that such conflict arises in the case of accidents, in which (1) the needs of victims are immediate and concrete and the potential corporate liability is great and (2) management can plausibly claim there are mitigating circumstances and factors beyond its control. In the case of accidents, if managers are accommodating to victims, shareholders are likely to suffer. The conflict does not arise in the case of scandals, for neither of those conditions holds. Shareholders benefit when managers are accommodating. This article discusses the theoretical and managerial implications of these findings. In this research, we empirically analyzed the impact on the stock market of the announcements that corporate managements make during three types of crisis: accidents, scandals, and product safety incidents. Such crises affect all a corporation's stakeholders (Freeman, 1984), including shareholders, customers, employees, and suppliers. They also create a new category of stakeholders-the victims. As Shrivastava wrote, in a crisis "the most profoundly affected stakeholders, and ironically sometimes the most easily forgotten because of their powerlessness, are the victims" (1987: 23). Although the announcements managers make during a crisis can have profound impacts on both shareholders and victims, researchers have not carefully studied this phenomenon or constructed a theory of how such announcements Many people helped bring this project to fruition. We would like to acknowledge the assistance of Patrick Hess, Gordon Alexander, and George Benson, who helped with the financial models; Grant Yonehiro, who provided technical assistance; Hyoung Koo Moon and Mark Weber, who helped analyze the data; and Ray Willis and Cheenu Balakrishnan, who helped us solve some statistical and methodological problems. Larry Cummings, Norman Bowie, Peter Ring, and Elizabeth Maines read and commented on early drafts and Judith Thompson made very useful suggestions when we presented this research at an annual Academy of Management
Reputation, image, prestige, and goodwill are concepts used by different disciplines, e.g., economics, marketing, sociology, and accounting, to denote the general standing of organizations among their counterparts. In this paper, the various concepts are reviewed and compared in terms of semantics, organizational cost, determinants, and implications, among others. An interdisciplinary, multiconstituency framework of organizational standing is developed, and research propositions are delineated.
Legal strategy dominates the organizational decision-making process in times of crisis, according to this study of how organizations respond to public charges of sexual harassment. In almost two-thirds of the cases studied, legal strategy—rather than public relations strategy—was used by official spokespersons who responded on behalf of the accused.Given the obvious public relations and legal consequences for organizations that ignore the public relations implications of statements made during crises, this legal dominance is shortsighted and potentially costly. This article demonstrates the need for organizations to reconcile the often contradictory counsel of public relations and legal professionals and take a more collaborative approach to crisis communications.Fitzpatrick is an assistant professor and head of the public relations department at Southern Methodist University and Rubin is a professor of journalism at California State University, Northridge.
Three decades of research involving the definition and measurement of the source credibility construct are reviewed and a new study reported. It is concluded that factor analytic research reported over the past decade has strayed from the original credibility/ethos construct and has treated that construct as virtually isomorphic with the construct of person perception. It is argued that future factor analytic studies of source credibility would serve no useful purpose, that the historical definitions of the construct should be retained, and that satisfactory measures of that construct already exist.
Reputation, image, prestige, and goodwill areconcepts used by different disciplines, e.g., economics,marketing, sociology, and accounting, to denote thegeneral standing of organizations among their counterparts. In this paper, the variousconcepts are reviewed and compared in terms ofsemantics, organizational cost, determinants, andimplications, among others. An interdisciplinary,multiconstituency framework of organizational standing isdeveloped, and research propositions aredelineated.
A number of scholars recently have published scales designed to measure respondent relationship–public relationship attitudes. The scale that was developed by Bruning and Ledingham showed that organization public relationships focus on key public member personal, professional, and community relationship attitudes. The current investigation was an attempt to expand the scope of that scale by including two dimensions of personal relationship commitment—personal and structural—to provide a more complete examination of organization–public relationships. Data were collected from 135 respondents. A factor analysis with a Varimax rotation was computed and showed that organization–public relationships have at least five dimensions: anthropomorphism, professional benefits/expectations, personal commitment, community improvement, and comparison of alternatives. The results are discussed, the implications of the findings for practitioners presented, and the limitations to the investigation reported.
An experiment was conducted to examine the effectiveness of a highly proactive approach to crisis communication called “stealing thunder.” Reporters and journalism students were asked to read one of two fictitious crisis scenarios: one in which the organization’s public relations practitioner stole thunder (broke the news about the crisis) by contacting the journalist, and one in which the journalist learned about the crisis from another party. When the organization stole thunder, journalists rated the practitioner as more credible, but also indicated greater interest in the story. No differences were found across the two conditions in terms of perceptions of crisis severity or framing in reporters’ news leads. Implications for crisis communication and the ongoing journalist–practitioner relationship are discussed.
Purpose
The aim of this research was to examine psychological processes that may mediate effects of corporate social performance on evaluations of and behavior toward organizations.
Design/methodology/approach
An experimental design examined how previously formed, summary attitudes versus consideration of specific information about CSP affected intended behaviors toward fictitious organizations. Theories of attitude structure and attitude change form the theoretical basis for the paper.
Findings
In general, participants relied on summary attitudes toward stimulus organizations. However, when fear of making an invalid decision was stimulated, participants were more likely to consider specific attributes of organizations (such as CSP) when making decisions about them.
Research limitations/implications
The study is limited by its use of fictitious organizations in an experimental situation. The study suggests that organizational managers as well as those who study crisis management and CSP should consider the influence of existing attitudes toward an organization on reactions to both positive and negative new information about the organization. Suggests that negative information might not be damaging, as previously thought, to organizations with strong reputations.
Originality/value
This paper is one of few studies that examine psychological processes that can occur when people learn about organizations and consider their behaviors toward those organizations. The paper should be of value to those who study effects of CSP and organizational crises as well as crisis managers and community relations or public affairs managers.
The March 24, 1989 grounding of the Exxon Valdez oil tanker on Alaska's Prince William Sound caused severe damage to both the local environment and Exxon's corporate image. This essay examines the strategies employed by Exxon while attempting to manage the Valdez crisis. The essay argues that Exxon's crisis communication efforts failed because of a slow initial response, and an ineffective use of burden sharing and scapegoating strategies.
This article presents an integrated four-step symmetrical model for the effective management of crises. Although the model is also applicable to the management of accidental and operational crises, it is formulated primarily for those crises whose occurrence is more likely a consequence of the inherent fallibility of management—that is, mismanagement. It is based on Grunig's situational theory and on the emerging theoretical framework of issues management—that is, on an early identification, redirection, or influence of issues. A biological analogy is used to suggest an early crisis intervention that averts further development of a potentially troublesome issue. The model incorporates both proactivity and symmetry and has three overarching principles: issues management, planning-prevention, and implementation. Two widely known corporate crises—Intel's Pentium flaw and McDonald's hot coffee spill—are used to illustrate the model.
This article examines the adequacy of the “rules of thumb” conventional cutoff criteria and several new alternatives for various fit indexes used to evaluate model fit in practice. Using a 2‐index presentation strategy, which includes using the maximum likelihood (ML)‐based standardized root mean squared residual (SRMR) and supplementing it with either Tucker‐Lewis Index (TLI), Bollen's (1989) Fit Index (BL89), Relative Noncentrality Index (RNI), Comparative Fit Index (CFI), Gamma Hat, McDonald's Centrality Index (Mc), or root mean squared error of approximation (RMSEA), various combinations of cutoff values from selected ranges of cutoff criteria for the ML‐based SRMR and a given supplemental fit index were used to calculate rejection rates for various types of true‐population and misspecified models; that is, models with misspecified factor covariance(s) and models with misspecified factor loading(s). The results suggest that, for the ML method, a cutoff value close to .95 for TLI, BL89, CFI, RNI, and Gamma Hat; a cutoff value close to .90 for Mc; a cutoff value close to .08 for SRMR; and a cutoff value close to .06 for RMSEA are needed before we can conclude that there is a relatively good fit between the hypothesized model and the observed data. Furthermore, the 2‐index presentation strategy is required to reject reasonable proportions of various types of true‐population and misspecified models. Finally, using the proposed cutoff criteria, the ML‐based TLI, Mc, and RMSEA tend to overreject true‐population models at small sample size and thus are less preferable when sample size is small.
Structural equation modeling (SEM) is a viable multivariate tool used by communication researchers for the past quarter century. Building off Cappella (1975) as well as McPhee and Babrow (1987), this study summarizes the use of this technique from 1995–2000 in 37 communication-based academic journals. We identify and critically assess 3 unique methods for testing structural relationships via SEM in terms of the specification, estimation, and evaluation of their respective structural equation models. We provide general guidelines for the use of SEM and make recommendations concerning latent variable models, sample size, reporting parameter estimates, model fit statistics, cross-sectional data, univariate normality, cross-validation, nonrecursive modeling, and the decomposition of effects (direct, indirect, and total).
This analysis asserts that most crisis management research tends to neglect the communication component of crisis situations.As a corrective, this study suggests that a terminological approach is useful to studying public relations crises, particularly those in which the organization is guilty of wrongdoing and delivers an apology.This study analyzes the corporate apologetic discourses of three paradigmatic cases—at Chrysler, Toshiba, and Volvo—and examines the use of persuasive descriptions and strategic dissociations preferred by these corporate apologists.
Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Georgia, 1999. Directed by Leonard M. Reid. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 165-178).
Typescript. Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Toledo. "A dissertation [submitted] as partial fulfillment of the requirements of the Doctor of Philosophy degree in Psychology." Includes bibliographical references (leaves 93-95).
Crises can't be planned, but they can be anticipated. Having tactical and strategic guidance teams in place and having a written plan of action ensure that your organization will have the best possible chance of handling whatever crisis arises quickly and forthrightly.
Effects of stealing thunder by a political candidate: Admit or deny? Paper presented at Midwest Psychological Association
- S A Ondrus
- K D Williams
Ondrus, S. A., & Williams, K. D. (1996). Effects of stealing thunder by a political candidate: Admit or deny? Paper presented
at Midwest Psychological Association, Chicago.
Cognitive procesess in the formation, change and expression of attitudes
- S J Sherman
Sherman, S. J. (1987). Cognitive procesess in the formation, change and expression of attitudes. In M. P. Zanna, J. M. Olson,
& C. P. Herman (Eds.), Social influence: The Ontario symposium (Vol. 5, pp. 75-106). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates.
Revealing the worst first: Stealing thunder as a social influence strategy
- Williams
Williams, K. D., & Dolnik, L. (2001). Revealing the worst first: Stealing thunder as a social influence strategy. In J. Forgas &
K. D. Williams (Eds.), Social influence processes: Direct and indirect influences (pp. 213-231). New York: The Psychology
Press.
Fess up or stonewall? An experimental test of prior reputation and response style in the face of negative news coverage
- L Lyon
- G T Cameron
Lyon, L., & Cameron, G. T. (1998). Fess up or stonewall? An experimental test of prior reputation and response style in the face
of negative news coverage. Web Journal of Mass Communication Research, 1(4).