Linguistics Across Cultures
... Evidence for the theory was later provided by Benson, (1988) (6) . The hypothesis comes in line with the earlier theory conceptualized by Lado (1957) (7) regarding the potential degree of L2 speech difficulties, which depends on the degree of phonological features markedness between the native language and target language. ...
... According to Lado (1957), the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH) simply states that the L2 phonological point of difficulties is easy to be indicated by comparing L1 native language phonological system with L2 targeted language. Looking at the differences and similarities between the native language and targeted language, a phonological interference would take place and results in negative transfer, where errors are, or positive interference with no errors in L2 speech. ...
... during this process, it has been noticed that sonority has a role, in which the most sonorant consonant won't be deleted, unlike the less sonorant consonant. This comes in line with Gierut, (2007) (12) and Steve (2012) (13) that more sonorant consonants are most likely and preferably to exist in the coda, unlike less sonorant consonants that are preferably to exist in onset. ...
This study aimed to provides an in-depth phonological analysis of the utterance of L2 coda clusters by Saudi Arabic second language (L2) English learners. Research in the domain of L2 phonetics and phonology show that L2 learners encounter difficulties in producing coda clusters. These studies investigated L2 learners whose native language disallowed codas or have restricted phonological construction for the coda. Therefore, the present study takes a step forward and conducts a controlled phonological investigation. It is divided into four sections, introduction to the subject of the study, literature, methodology, and finally results and discussion. It focuses on Saudi learners whose L1 Arabic allows complex codas. The research data came from 15 ESL students at an intermediate proficiency level. The task was to read pseudowords with controlled sonority distance between the targeted consonants. The results show some L1 transfer coda constraints; specifically, even though Arabic allows complex coda clusters, the subject had difficulties in producing some English codas. Yet, overall, there was no effect of markedness according to the sonority scale. The subjects’ phonological proficiency develops in L2, and their L2 phonological constraints are re-ranked towards L2-like production.
... The results of studies 2 & 3 (perception and production data) were compared with similar data collected from native AE listeners/speakers (Van Heuven et al., 2020;Wang & Van Heuven, 2006), and the results of study 3 on vowel production were also compared to varieties of Arabic other than PA. My predictions are based on partially competing principles of several recent L2 and cross-linguistic theories: the Contrastive analysis hypothesis (CAH, Lado, 1957;Wardhaugh, 1970), Markedness Differential Hypothesis (MDH, Eckman, 1977), Interlanguage Structural Conformity Hypothesis (ISCH, Eckman, 1991), Perceptual Assimilation Model (PAM, Best, 1994;Best et al., 2001) and its extension to L2 learning (PAM-L2, Best & Tyler, 2007;Tyler, 2019), Speech Learning Model (SLM, Flege, 1995Flege, , 2002 and its revised version (SLM-r, Flege & Bohn, 2021), and Second Language Linguistic Perception (L2LP, Escudero, 2005;) and its revised version ( Van Leussen & Escudero, 2015). These models and theories are employed to account for the different studies performed in this thesis and their results. ...
... This section (2.2) reviews the following three specific hypotheses. Namely, the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH, Lado, 1957;Wardhaugh, 1970), the Markedness Differential Hypothesis (MDH, Eckman, 1977), and the Interlanguage Structural Conformity Hypothesis (ISCH, Eckman, 1991), all of which are employed to assist in analyzing L2 phonology and to account for L2 acquisition difficulties in EFL settings that are relevant for this thesis. ...
... To create (or increase) cross-language awareness, contrastive linguistics has a very important part to play (Lado, 1957;Mair, 2005;Wardhaugh,1970Wardhaugh, , 1974. CAH (Lado, 1957(Lado, , 1964 explains that L2 speakers generally depend on their L1 rules, either to fill the knowledge gap or to compensate for their incorrect perception of the L2 sound structures, which consequently leads to different errors in pronouncing or forming the utterances. ...
This dissertation addresses the perception and production of American English monophthongs by Palestinian Arabic (PA) learners of English as a Foreign Language (EFL). It aims to identify (and predict) areas of difficulty in the perception and production of these sounds of American English (AE) within a framework of the most influential L2 perception and production theories and models and their most recent versions so that teaching (materials) can address these rather than spend time on sounds that do not constitute a problem. By devising three separate yet interrelated studies, PA learners’ perception and production of AE as EFL was explored and compared with similar data collected from native AE participants (van Heuven et al., 2020; Wang & Van Heuven, 2006).
The first study investigated PA learners’ perceptual assimilation of AE vowels. The study examined how the eleven AE monophthongs (Ladefoged, 1999: 41) map onto the six vowels of PA (Thelwall & Sa'adeddin, l999: 52). The Perceptual Assimilation Model (PAM) predicts learning problems when two L2 phonemes are perceived as equally good tokens of a Single Category in the L1 (SC scenario) (Best, 1995). SC contrasts will yield an incorrect perceptual representation of the AE vowel system in the mind of the (beginning) PA EFL learner, with insufficient spectral or temporal separation of categories (compared to native AE listeners). Forty (20 male and 20 female), adolescent PA high-school learners of EFL listened to the monophthongs of AE (four tokens of each, in different random orders per participant) spoken in /hVd/ words, and classified these as one of the six PA vowels /i, i:, a, a:, u, u:/ while rating them on a 5-point goodness scale. Seven SC contrasts were identified in the results, i.e., heed-hayed /i:-e:/, hid-head /ɪ-ɛ/, hud-hood /ʌ-ʊ/, hod-hawed /ɑ:-ɔ:/, hawed-hoed /ɔ:-o:/, hawed-who’d /ɔ:-u:/, and hoed-who’d /o:-u:/. Moreover, a Category Goodness (CG, intermediate difficulty predicted) problem was identified for the had-hod /æ:-ɑ:/ contrast. Contrasts that rely on a difference in vowel length did not cause any problems. The results of this study showed that there is a general confusion in mapping AE vowels within the same length category if they are spectrally close (i.e., have similar vowel quality). A comparison was made for the PA EFL results with results from similar studies on other L1 Arabic varieties’ perception of AE and revealed conformity between PA perception of AE vowels and the other studies’ results in the sense that the L1 Arabic perception of AE is not exclusively differentiated based on duration but also includes spectral differences between long and short counterparts. The results of the comparison also showed differences in relation to which AE vowels were the most confused ones. Finally, the results of the first study provided predictions and hypotheses for the second study concerning the mental representation of the AE vowel space in the minds of PA learners.
In the second study, the same 40 PA participants listened to and identified 86 artificial vowel sounds (7 degrees of height, 9 degrees of backness/rounding, and 2 lengths) sampled with perceptually equal steps along the F1 and F2 dimensions of the vowel space, excluding 20 impossible combinations (Van Heuven et al. 2020), in /mVf/ nonwords with vowel durations of 200 or 300 ms. Listeners identified each token as one of the eleven AE monophthongs while rating them on a 3-point goodness scale. The experiment was repeated with a control group of 20 (10 male and 10 female) native AE listeners. This study aimed to reveal the differences in the mental representation of the vowel space between native AE listeners and nonnative PA learners of AE. The main objective of this study was to determine whether nonnative listeners perceive the AE vowel space the same way as native AE listeners do and, if not, what their perceptual representation looks like in terms of vowel quality as determined by formant structure, duration, and the relative importance (trading relationship) between quality and duration. The results show that the PA learners’ conception of the AE vowel system is incorrect in several important respects. The PA participants’ perceptual representation of the AE vowels differed from the native AE norm and was strongly influenced by the vowel system of PA. Vowel duration proved a much more important characteristic for PA listeners than for AE controls, as EFL learners relied almost exclusively on vowel duration to differentiate spectrally adjacent vowels (in feel-fill or fool-full), while native listeners of AE relied on vowel quality rather than length (confirming Hillenbrand et al., 2000). Additionally, the EFL learners accepted monophthongal /e:/ and /o:/ (as in sale and whole), which were rejected by the native listeners because of insufficient diphthongization. The vowels in fill-tell were not differentiated, and most mid-low vowel sounds were incorrectly identified as /ʌ/ (as in null). This study concluded that these confusions require serious attention at the pedagogical level, as they will most likely lead to pronunciation errors. The argument is that the structure of the PA vowel system, with its three-point vowels /i, a, u/ and a phonemic length contrast (short, long), is the underlying cause of the flawed perceptual representation of the AE vowels, which, in turn, is hypothesized to cause deviations from the AE norms in the PA participants’ speech production.
Based on the predictions of the previous two studies, the third study aimed to assess PA learners’ production of AE monophthongs through a qualitative and quantitative analysis to provide a comprehensive description of AE vowels produced by PA learners. The study measured the articulation of the 11 monophthongs of AE in /hVd/ words (e.g., heed, hid, head, had, …) by the 40 PA learners of EFL and compared their results with results of 20 (10 male and 10 female) native AE university students for the same test (Wang & Van Heuven, 2006). In general, the results of this chapter show a clear carry-over of Arabic phonetic spectral attributes. The learners’ results showed a great deal of overlap in producing AE new vowels. Only vowels with unique counterparts (i.e., AE high front/back long /i/, /æ/, and /u/) between the two vowel inventories showed a distinct distribution from their spectrally adjacent competitors. All other AE vowels were confused in three vowel clusters in a partially overlapping manner. Vowel durations of the L2 and L1 speakers proved strongly correlated but were (much) shorter in L2 than in L1. To conclude this study, the nonnative PA production results show confused alignment of the L2 AE vowel system, especially for the new AE vowels.
The learner’s L1 affects the production of EFL vowels in general, yielding a foreign accent that diverges from the native English norms and resembles EFL learners’ L1 more. Therefore, the PA results in the production study were compared with those found in the literature for EFL learners with Arabic L1 backgrounds other than PA, both spectrally and temporally, to inspect whether their different L1 Arabic varieties affect their production of AE differently. The results show both differences and similarities between the speakers of what is often considered one shared L1, i.e., Arabic. Among the similarities are the overall shrinking of the AE L2 vowel space (relative to L1 control data in Wang & Van Heuven, 2006) and the systematic overshortening of all vowel durations. The remaining differences in the spectral organization of the nonnative vowel spaces can be attributed to differences in the L1 varieties. Depending on how the differences in the AE vowels impact the nonnatives’ intelligibility, this dissertation provided some pedagogical implications and recommendations for EFL curriculum developers, teachers, and learners that require different tailer-cut remedies for each regional variety of Arabic.
... Utafiti huu uliongozwa na nadharia ya Uchanganuzi Linganuzi (Lado, 1957 Lado (1975). ...
... Ulinganishaji huu huzingatia mfanano pamoja na tofauti zilizoko katika lugha. Lado (1957) anaeleza kuwa Uchanganuzi Linganuzi unahusu jinsi L1 inavyomwathiri mwanafunzi wa L2 kimsamiati, Kisarufi, kimatamshi ama kisemantiki. Kiisimu athari hii huitwa athari za lugha. ...
Makala haya yananuia kuainisha na kuchanganua makosa ya kifonolojia miongoni mwa wanafunzi wanaozungumza Kiigembe katika ujifunzaji wa lugha ya Kiswahili. Athari hizo hutokea kwa sababu ya kuingiliana kwa lugha hizi mbili ambazo ni Kiswahili na Kiigembe. Ni kutokana na maingiliano haya ambapo tunapata athari ya Kiigembe katika Kiswahili na athari hizo pia hutegemea miundo ya lugha zinazohusika. Makala haya yameongozwa na nadharia ya Uchanganuzi Linganuzi. Hii ni nadharia ya ujifunzaji wa lugha ya pili ambayo hulinganisha na kulinganua lugha mbili ili kuonyesha jinsi zinavyofanana na kutofautiana. Data ya makala haya inatokana na sampuli ya wanafunzi mia mbili na arobaini wa shule za upili za kutwa kutoka Kaunti Ndogo ya Igembe Kusini, Kaunti ya Meru nchini Kenya. Utafiti wa nyanjani ulihusisha mahojiano, hojaji, usimuliaji wa hadithi na pia uandishi wa insha. Matokeo ya utafiti yalibainisha kuwa kuna tofauti kidogo katika baadhi ya fonimu za lugha ya Kiigembe na ya Kiswahili. Tofauti katika miundo ya lugha hizi mbili imebainika kuwa chanzo cha athari ya Kiigembe inayojitokeza katika lugha ya Kiswahili
... In fact, the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH) was introduced by Lado over fifty years ago, and asserts that unequal features between two languages create "interference" errors. Lado stated that "those structures that are different will be difficult because when transferred they will not function satisfactorily in the foreign language and will therefore have to be changed" (Lado, 1957, as cited in Gass & Selinker, 2008. This study suggests that the differences between students' L1 and L2 impact students' intelligibility and comprehensibility especially in lower levels. ...
... According to the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis, the unequal features between languages are the main source of errors (Gass & Selinker, 2008). Lado (1957) claims that "those structures that are different will be difficult because when transferred they will not function satisfactorily in the foreign language and will therefore have to be changed" (cited in Gass & Selinker, 2008, p. 96). Work in second language acquisition (SLA) over the past fifty years has shown there are other important influences on the L2 learning process besides just L1 interference, including the important role of Universal Grammar (Ortega, 2009). ...
This research article focuses on the English pronunciation of Iranian students who are learning English as a foreign language in a language school in Tehran, Iran. The participants are eighteen adult language learners with three different proficiency levels: beginner, intermediate, and advanced. A quantitative method was used to gather and analyze the data. This study reveals the pronunciation errors of students based on their proficiency level and shows what features of their L1 affects their intelligibility. In order to gain a better understanding of the strengths and weaknesses of students in each level, a pronunciation diagnostic test designed in accordance with their proficiency level was given to them. This test evaluated students based on the production of the segmental and suprasegmental features of English. Also, a picture story was given to the students in order to understand how students' pronunciation changes when they produce language spontaneously. The results indicated that students' production of segmental features improves as they become more proficient in English; however, the errors made in the production of suprasegmental features were mostly shared among all proficiency levels. Moreover, the study provided evidence that students' inability to produce the segmental features, affected their intelligibility negatively whereas advanced students' inability to produce the suprasegmental features of English slightly affected their intelligibility. Resumen El artículo reporta los resultados de una investigación del desarrollo de las habilidades de pronunciación en inglés de alumnos iraníes quienes aprenden inglés como lengua extranjera en una escuela de idiomas ubicada en Tehran, Irán. Los participantes son 18 adultos con distintos niveles de competencia: principiantes, intermedios, y avanzados. Se utilizó un método cuantitativo para recolectar y analizar los datos, cuyos resultados revelaron cuáles fueron los errores de pronunciación de los estudiantes de acuerdo a su nivel, y cuáles características de su L1 afectaron la inteligibilidad en inglés. Para entender mejor las destrezas y debilidades de los participantes en cada nivel se diseñó un examen diagnóstico para evaluar su producción tanto de aspectos segmentales como suprasegmentales del inglés. Además, los participantes contaron una historia basada en dibujos para medir su pronunciación en una situación de producción espontánea. Los resultados indicaron que los alumnos avanzan de acuerdo a su nivel de competencia en la pronunciación de aspectos segmentales, sin embargo los errores en la pronunciación de elementos suprasegmentales fueron similares entre todos los niveles de competencia. Las conclusiones argumentan que las dificultades que tienen los alumnos para producir sonidos segmentales afectaron de manera negativa su inteligibilidad en inglés, mientras que para los participantes avanzados sus problemas con aspectos suprasegmentales afectaron muy poco la inteligibilidad. Introduction As the preeminent international language, English has become the most studied foreign language around the world. In order to be able to communicate with native and non-native speakers, L2 English learners must be able to make themselves understood. However, we recognize that in English as a Second or Foreign Language classes (ESL/EFL), pronunciation is one of the areas that can be neglected easily, due to the complexity of acquiring communicative competence and the time constraints most teachers work with.
... Ona pripada oblasti primenjene lingvistike budući da je nastava stranog jezika jedan od značajnih domena njene primene. Pa ipak, jedna od ključnih hipoteza koja je potekla od Roberta Lada, utemeljivača moderne kontrastivne lingvistike, o tome da se može povući znak jednakosti između poteškoća u savladavanju stranog jezika i jezičkih razlika koje u tim jezicima postoje (Lado, 1957), danas više ne predstavlja stanovište koje zauzima većina lingvista. Savremena lingvistika, drugim rečima, ne zastupa tezu da se sve, ili većina grešaka koje učenik pravi tokom procesa ovladavanja stranim jezikom mogu pripisati negativnom uticaju maternjeg jezika, što znači da se, osim lingvističkog faktora, u proceni poteškoća i grešaka moraju uzeti u obzir i faktori koji pripadaju psihološkom, pedagoškom i vanjezičkom domenu, kao i to da neće sve razlike između maternjeg i stranog jezika proizvesti nužno poteškoće, ili dovesti do grešaka (Mukattash, 1984). ...
... Posebno značajna za dalji razvoj kontrastivnih istraživanja predstavlja 1957. godina, kada Robert Lado (Lado, 1957), koji se i smatra začetnikom moderne kontrastivne lingvistike, objavljuje knjigu Lingvistika kroz kulture, ali i kada Noam Čomski (Chomsky, 1957) objavljuje svoju verziju generativne sintakse u knjizi Sintaksičke strukture. To je istovremeno i godina u kojoj je strukturalizam bio u svom punom usponu, pa je i promena vizure koja se tiče samog fenomena kontrastivne analize povezana sa ovim paralelnim dešavanjima. ...
... Ладо [4] (1957) ўзининг «Маданиятлар бўйлаб тилшунослик» китобида таъкидлаганидек, агар иккинчи тилнинг айрим элементлари талабанинг она тилидан сезиларли даражада фарқ қилса, бу талаба қийинчиликларга дуч келиши мумкин. ...
... Иккинчи тилни ўрганиш грамматик компетенция, коммуникатив компетенция, тилни билиш ва маданий тушуниш каби бир қатор турли ўлчовларни ўз ичига олади [4]. Чет тилини ўргатиш шунчаки синтактик тузилмалар ҳақида нутқ сўзлаш ёки янги луғатни ўрганиш эмас, балки маданий элементларни ўз ичига олиши керак. ...
Мулоқотнинг мураккаблиги ва яхлитлигини маданий ҳодиса сифатида англаган ҳолда, тил ўқитувчилари эътибор беришлари керакки, ўқитиладиган материаллар ҳақиқий мулоқот ҳодисаси деб ҳисобланиши лозим. Бунинг учун энг маъқул усуллардан бири контекст орқали ўқитишдир. Ўқув материаллари ўзларининг ижтимоий-маданий шароитларида ўқитилиши лозим, шунда ўқувчилар уларни ҳақиқий тарзда қўллашлари мумкин. Дастлаб, ўқувчилар саломлашишнинг маъноларини тушунишга ўргатилган бўлса-да, «хайрли тонг, хайрли кеч, хайрли тун, хайрли тун ва бошқа шу каби сўзларни ҳақиқий контекстда қандай ишлатишни билишлари мухим ҳисобланади.
... In a positive crosslanguage transfer, the acquired language promotes target language acquisition; in a negative cross-language transfer, the acquired language hinders target language acquisition (Odlin, 2001). Structuralist linguistics and behaviorist psychology assert that greater similarity between L1 and a target language facilitates target language acquisition, whereas greater differences are detrimental to target language acquisition (Lado, 1957). However, several studies have found that L1's influence on learners' second language acquisition is limited by several factors (Odlin, 1989;Odlin and Jarvis, 2004;Jarvis and Pavlenko, 2008), and that the extent to which L1 influences target language acquisition is not necessarily the same for learners with different target language proficiency levels (Sjoholm, 1995;Jarvis, 1998;Cenoz, 2001;Ringbom, 2007). ...
... Behaviorism asserts that L1 is the primary cause of learners' language acquisition difficulties and errors, with a greater difference between L1 and the target language leading to more difficulty learning the target language (Lado, 1957;Stockwell et al., 1965). However, the behaviorist viewpoint raises theoretical and empirical questions. ...
How linguistic distance affects second language acquisition is a major concern in cross-language transfer research. However, no study has explored how systematic differences between Chinese and learners’ native language (L1) influences Chinese character, vocabulary, and grammar acquisition, or how these influences change as Chinese proficiency improves. To address this, we employed the World Atlas of Language Structures (WALS) index method to multidimensionally quantify the linguistic distance between Chinese and L1, and examined the effect of systematic linguistic distance on acquisition of Chinese character (Quasi-Experiment 1), vocabulary (Quasi-Experiment 2), and grammatical knowledge (Quasi-Experiment 3) in Chinese as a second language (CSL) learners with elementary, intermediate, and advanced Chinese proficiency levels. We examined a random sample of 58,240 CSL learners’ test scores from 24 different L1 backgrounds, and analyzed 2,250 CSL learners’ Chinese character, vocabulary, and grammar scores in each of the three quasi-experiments. We found that closer linguistic distance facilitated more favorable Chinese character and vocabulary acquisition at elementary, intermediate, and advanced Chinese proficiency levels, and that the influence of linguistic distance on CSL learners’ vocabulary acquisition tended to decrease as Chinese proficiency increased. Finally, linguistic difference did not significantly affect CSL learners’ grammar acquisition at elementary proficiency, but as Chinese proficiency improved, an L1 interference effect occurred among CSL learners with a short linguistic distance from Chinese, which hindered grammar acquisition. These results suggest that linguistic distance has differential proficiency-dependent effects on Chinese character, vocabulary, and grammar acquisition.
... It is a fact that the nature of language transfer and the mechanism in the minds of its learners remain a mystery for linguists (Dechert & Raupach, 1989). Lado (1957) referred to the transfer of the forms and meanings and the distribution of forms and meanings of one's MT and culture to the FL and culture. There are two types of transfer: negative transfer, which leads to erroneous usage and positive transfer which leads to correct usage. ...
... This theory was approached in order to predict potential errors that FL learners commit by the cautious comparison of the multi-linguistic aspects of L1 and FL. This theory was originated by Lado in 1957. He emphasised the importance of discerning the linguistic systems of the MT and those of the TL. ...
This research focuses upon the analysis of Pre-Intermediate (PI) and Upper-
Intermediate (UI) students’ errors of interlanguage, focusing upon their syntactic,
lexical, and phonological types. Firstly, the notion of transfer is presented in relation to
its concept and historical background. Secondly, the notion of error analysis (EA) is
reviewed with its models. Finally, the concepts of syntactic, lexical and phonological
interference from the mother tongue (L1) into the foreign language (FL) are
thoroughly reviewed and discussed. It also tries to seek the factors that play a main
role in accelerating or reducing the process of interference.
Samples of syntactic, lexical, and phonological interference errors are then
introduced, which are collected from interviews, free composition tests, language
Placement tests, and motivation & attitude questionnaires. The samples of this study
are 120 PI and UI students at the Higher Institute of Languages (HIL) at Aleppo
University in September-November 2010. There is a comparison between PI and UI
students' types of errors, paying particular attention to syntactic, lexical and,
phonological interlingual and intralingual types.
The findings of the statistical analysis reveal that there is a natural development
in students' control of the syntactic, lexical, and phonological aspects. The study
indicates that there is a radical reduction of the types of errors that UI students have
made in comparison to those of PI students.
... Ипак, како истичу поједини аутори, предвиђање захтевних сегмената не заснива се само на контрастивној анализи двају језика (Lado 1957, у Edwards, Zampini 2008, већ се показало да на овај процес утиче мноштво фактора (Edwards, Zampini 2008: 1). У досадашњим истраживањима се одређени концепти истичу као релевантни за усвајање фонолошких особина страног језика. ...
... Један од најзначајнијих је трансфер, који је почео веома рано да се истражује 4 . То истраживање довело је до стварања одређених хипотеза, као што је хипотеза контрастивне анализе 5 (Lado 1957). ...
У раду се истражују учестале фонетске и фонолошке грешке у писаној продукцији које праве студенти прве године неохеленских студија на Филолошком факултету Универзитета у Београду. Реч је о студентима који по први пут долазе у додир са модерним грчким језиком и теже да достигну А1 ниво ЗЕОЈ-а током првог семестра основих студија. Испитују се грешке у писању личних имена и топонима приликом њиховог преношења из српског у модерни грчки језик. Рад садржи емпиријско истраживање, након којег се представљају и анализирају примећене и забележене фонетске и фонолошке грешке. Испитују се, такође, и појаве употребе графема из изворног језика и замењивање графема из грчког алфабета, док се посебан акценат ставља на феномен хиперкорекције. Резултати истраживања се тумаче у складу са сродним студијама и дају се предлози за будућа истраживања ове врсте, као и дидактичке импликације.
... Teaching materials can make use of contrastive analysis and the difficulties between the two languages can predict by CA" (Tajareh, 2015(Tajareh, , p. 1106. Furthermore, Lado (1957) stated that contrastive analysis addresses the learning of first language (L1) in relation to the learning of second language (L2). Traditionally, classic contrastive linguistics from the time of Lado (1957) is centred on three basic assumptions. ...
... Furthermore, Lado (1957) stated that contrastive analysis addresses the learning of first language (L1) in relation to the learning of second language (L2). Traditionally, classic contrastive linguistics from the time of Lado (1957) is centred on three basic assumptions. ...
This desk study aimed at comparing English and selected Zambian Languages with a view of identifying some similarities and differences. Data was collected through author introspection and document analysis of existing literature. Publications in English and some Zambian Languages were collected from international databases such JSTOR, Cambridge Journals Online, and Palgrave Macmillan Journals. Searches for literature was extended to Google Scholar, Institutional Repository and visited the University of Zambia library in person. The documents collected were subjected to content analysis where key words, concepts and themes were picked and compared. Findings of the study revealed that English Language has an opaque orthography as there is no grapheme-phoneme correspondence while Zambian Languages have a transparent orthography where each grapheme correspond to individual sounds and that the number of graphemes is almost equal to phonemes. Literacy and language instruction would be much easier for learners in a transparent orthography than opaque. English has certain parts of speech such as articles (determiners) which are not there in Zambian Languages. Unlike English, vowel length is distinctive in all Zambian language. English and Zambian languages use alphabetic writing system with about 93% shared symbols or graphemes. These similarities and variations imply that pedagogically, if learners learn letter knowledge and decoding in a Zambian language, they will transfer such knowledge to English or any other alphabetic language and vice versa. Conversely, in areas where there are differences, literacy and language learners will face difficulties. The study recommended that teachers in early grade classes should understand the variation of English and selected Zambian languages well in their regions to guide learners in schools.
... Ainsi, au moyen de la version on évaluait la compréhension en langue cible, et au moyen du thème la production écrite, l'apprentissage de nouveaux mots, l'application de règles grammaticales. Quelques approches de l'enseignement et de l'apprentissage des langues ont suivi cette tradition ou l'ont encouragée comme, par exemple, l'analyse contrastive de Lado (1957), qui vise à discerner les différences entre la LS (langue source) et la LC (langue cible) et à comparer toutes les structures (phonologiques, morphologiques, syntaxiques et lexico-sémantiques). Lado distingue transfert et apprentissage, le premier pouvant être positif ou négatif, selon la proximité entre la langue source et la langue cible, c'est-à-dire que le transfert peut permettre l'utilisation de nouvelles expressions correctes ou, au contraire, induire en erreur l'apprenant. ...
... Pour les promoteurs de cette dernière approche, la traduction servirait à faire « apparaître les signifiants correspondants aux signifiants de la langue maternelle de l'apprenant et lui faire comprendre que les signifiés auxquels il renvoie, ne se recoupent qu'approximativement ». Cette idée a été empruntée à Lado (1957), bien que cet auteur ne faisait pas encore référence à l'approche communicative. ...
La présente communication se donne pour tâche de réhabiliter la traduction comme un moyen d’enseignement. Pour ce faire, elle invite à réfléchir sur la didactique de la traduction en classe de langue étrangère. Tirant des leçons précieuses des résultats publiés dans le cadre de récentes recherches, nous proposons une approche centrée sur la traduction pédagogique et la traduction professionnelle, au sens aussi bien large que restreint du terme (traduction intersémiotique et traduction interculturelle comprises), visant à intégrer la composante culturelle dans l’apprentissage des langues par des méthodes innovatrices qui font appel à des moyens divers. L’ère d’une « culture en ligne développée par les utilisateurs » redéfinit le rôle de l’« enseignant » et de l’« apprenant » comme « producteurs d’actes de parole » (authentiques ou non), utilisateurs de langues et créateurs-consommateurs de produits linguistiques (y compris des produits de traduction), dans un espace d’apprentissage où se côtoient et se confrontent pour faire rapprocher les différentes langues à apprendre.
... Teaching materials can make use of contrastive analysis and the difficulties between the two languages can predict by CA" (Tajareh, 2015(Tajareh, , p. 1106. Furthermore, Lado (1957) stated that contrastive analysis addresses the learning of first language (L1) in relation to the learning of second language (L2). Traditionally, classic contrastive linguistics from the time of Lado (1957) is centred on three basic assumptions. ...
... Furthermore, Lado (1957) stated that contrastive analysis addresses the learning of first language (L1) in relation to the learning of second language (L2). Traditionally, classic contrastive linguistics from the time of Lado (1957) is centred on three basic assumptions. ...
... Intercultural communication (IC) scholarship is grounded in multiple disciplinary research areas, such as psychology, communication studies, linguistics, anthropology, and cultural studies, with a practical interest in understanding how people from different cultures could communicate more effectively (McLuhan, 1962). Focusing on discourse structures in IC, linguistic scholars (e.g., Lado, 1957;Ten Thije, 2003;Sharifian and Jamarani, 2013) inquired into the formation of discourse and examined to what extent different linguistic means could OPEN ACCESS EDITED BY users instead of merely the property of Anglophone countries (Seidlhofer, 2011;Widdowson, 2017;Galloway and Rose, 2018). The sense of global ownership of English has fundamentally changed the traditional goals of English language teaching (ELT) and questioned the exclusive norm Anglophone cultures serve in ELT classrooms (e.g., McKay, 2002;Jenkins, 2006;Kirkpatrick, 2012;Baker, 2015b). ...
In academic research on intercultural communication (IC), students' perceptions and experiences regarding English as a lingua franca (ELF) have been central to the discussion because they form the basis for English teaching policies and practices in multilingual and multicultural environments. Substantial theoretical research on ELF has called for a paradigm shift from emphasizing the over-simplistic correlation between language and Anglophone cultures to recognizing the legitimacy of non-native English learners' home culture in English teaching pedagogy. Nonetheless, little empirical research has been conducted to examine how ELF speakers understand their home culture in ELF communications. Relatively fewer studies have investigated to what extent ELF users' perceptions of home culture influence their IC practices. To address these gaps, this study aims to explore Chinese international students in a liberal arts university in the United Kingdom and their understanding of Chinese culture in authentic ELF interactions. In addition, the perceived effects of Chinese culture on students' IC were explored in great depth. This study adopts a mixed-method approach, including a student questionnaire (N = 200) and follow-up semi-structured interviews (N = 10). Following descriptive statistics and thematic analysis of the obtained data, the findings revealed that most participants lacked a thorough understanding of their home culture, while they considered home culture playing a significant role in ELF communications. The contribution of this study builds on work in English users' awareness of home culture in IC to identify the significance of enabling the presence of English learners' home culture in English language teaching (ELT) classrooms.
... The implication is that the nation is at variance on matters of language, ethnic and cultural concerns with English as a second/official language bridging the gap of this diversity. Lado (1957) argues that if certain elements of a second language differ greatly from the student's native language, that student is likely to encounter difficulties. Lado further attributes these difficulties to the dissimilarities in the syntax, pronunciation and structure existing between the learner's first language (L1) and second language (L2). ...
This study adopted three practical teaching strategies intended to positively affect learners’ writing skill while neutralising negative factors affecting their writing competence. To achieve the study objective which aimed at the assessment of the best teaching strategy to enhance learners’ writing proficiency, a comparative study of three teaching methods (namely communicative, eclectic and task-based methods) was used over a 6-week period as a treatment on three experimental groups A, B, C respectively and a control group (D) was taught using the conventional method. A pre-test was administered on two hundred (200) freshmen/subjects purposively selected from different Departments at the Federal University of Technology, Owerri (FUTO). A post-test was used to ascertain the outcome of the six weeks period of treatment on their essay writing. Results varied according to groups but, most importantly, Group B showed very significant improvement and control group D showed no significant improvement at all in the post-test assessment while groups A and C’s writing ability improved just marginally at best post-test. Our findings suggest the need to pay attention to eclectic teaching techniques as a crucial element in enhancing writing proficiency among learners. The implications and limitations of this research in addition to guidelines for future research are discussed.
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... This phenomenon is called language transfer. Language transfer, according to Lado, is the transfer of a person's original language and culture's forms and meanings to a foreign language and culture [1]. However, in recent decades, research on the phenomenon of transfer in second language learning was mainly focused on linguistic, lexical, and phonological aspects. ...
... Moreover, the structures that were thought to be most difficult to acquire were those that differed most from the native language. Thus, contrastive analysis (e.g., Lado, 1957) focused on identifying differences between the first language Introduction 3 3 (L1) and L2, which formed the target of instruction (VanPatten & Williams, 2015). This early emphasis on differentiation was led by two assumptions that would later be challenged: (1) that a structure similarly rendered across the L1 and L2 would be easy to acquire and (2) that structural difference was difficult in and of itself, regardless of whether there was a difference in the frequency or complexity of the realization of the structure in the L1 compared to the L2. ...
The present chapter provides a historical overview of the notion of communicative competence, including a detailed account of early publications in the field of second language acquisition that argued for the importance of the construct and debated what it should include. The chapter explains important constructs in the study of communicative competence, including the sub-competences of grammatical competence, sociolinguistic competence, and strategic competence. We then shift to more recent discussions of communicative competence. We examine revisions to early models of communicative competence and review recent work that assesses to what extent the field has progressed in its consideration of communicative competence and in what areas the field is still lacking. Finally, we describe the contents of the volume, organized around sub-sections of theory, method, and applications, and we summarize the main content of the component chapters within each sub-section.
... In the history of applied linguistics, CIA can be connected to three analytical frameworks proposed in the early days (see Thomas, 2013): contrastive analysis (CA) (Fries, 1945;Lado, 1957), which aimed to clarify the structural differences between L1 and L2 as a possible source of difficulties in L2 learning, error analysis (Corder, 1967), which aimed to probe the status of interlanguage by analysing learners' L2 errors, and interlanguage analysis (Selinker, 1972), which aimed to examine the whole of interlanguage as an independent linguistic system in its own right. Granger (1996) explicitly mentions the link between CA and CIA by noting that CA "went through a period of disfavour" after the 1960s, but it is re-emerging and reviving "as a major approach in translation and interlanguage studies" thanks to "the new age of computerized bilingual and learner corpora." ...
... In the past, learners' errors have been viewed as symptoms of undesirable performance caused by negative interference from the mother tongue (Fries, 1945;Lado, 1957). In fact, it has been claimed that "Individuals tend to transfer the forms and meanings, and the distribution of forms and meanings of their native language and culture to the foreign language and culture, both productively when attempting to speak the language and receptively when attempting to grasp and understand the language" (Lado, 1957: 2). ...
Recently there has been an upsurge in research into why students of foreign languages make mistakes. There have been many reasons given including interference of the mother tongue and over-generalisation of the rules of the language being studied. This research is concerned with the reasons for mistakes but will concentrate on a particular focus, i.e. the mistakes made by English language students regarding the auxiliary verb “do”. This is seen as a particularly difficult area for many foreign students of English language as this linguistic term does not feature in many other languages and is, therefore, a problem for some language students to grasp.It is hoped that reasons for the many mistakes (i.e. omissions, incorrect verb tense, etc.) can be identified and that from this identification, methods can be found to teach this term in a way that will allow students to grasp the concept and retain it throughout their language- learning careers.This dissertation is based on an error analysis of English written performances by students in the Third Grade (equivalent to Ninth Grade elsewhere) of the Intermediate Boys and Girls’ schools in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. It focuses on the examination and analysis of the students’ performances in a translation test. This should reveal information about some of the students’ errors in the acquisition of the auxiliary “do”, and other factors which might affect their English language learning. Furthermore, this dissertation seeks to find out whether there are any disparities in the responses of each of the two groups to the translation test which may be attributable to gender.
... En definitiva, no resultaría apropiado estudiar desde un enfoque bilingüe la adquisición de lenguaje, ya que las investigaciones sobre adquisición bilingüe durante los primeros años de vida, en general observan la relación y grados de influencia entre una lengua y otra, pero lo anterior sólo es posible cuando existen conocimientos previos sobre los patrones de adquisición como L1 en cada una de las lenguas que se observan (Anderson, 1987;Eckman, 1957;Lado, 1957;Lleó, 1997;Sato, 1984; entre otros). ...
En los últimos 70 años los estudios sobre la adquisición del lenguaje han cobrado especial importancia dentro de la lingüística, lo cual se ha visto reflejado en el surgimiento de variadas teorías, que bajo distintos prismas han intentado explicar dicho proceso. En la actualidad, existe relativo consenso en que ninguna teoría puede explicar algo tan complejo y multifactorial como lo es la adquisición de la lengua materna. Sin embargo, hasta ahora sólo se ha documentado el 1% de las lenguas del mundo, por lo que el estudio de la adquisición y desarrollo en lenguas originarias es aún más escaso. La siguiente revisión presenta las investigaciones que se han hecho en mapuzungun evidenciando que la mayoría de éstas se han enfocado en etapas posteriores de la adquisición.
... What is not so obvious is when it is appropriate to resort to them. e idea of looking at differences between the L1 and L2 as a basis for teaching the L2 is not novel: it was the main line of inquiry of the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (Lado 1957). e problem with Contrastive Analysis, however, is that not all differences between languages are relevant to L2 learning (Wardhaugh 1970, Odlin 1989. ...
This edited volume includes a series of papers concerned with the use of electronic corpora in both language teaching and translation teaching. The principal themes of the volume are corpora constructed for learners, by learners and with learners.
... Turning to the role of L1, Eckman (1977: 321) proposed the Markedness Differential Hypothesis (MDH) to account for the shortcomings of the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (Lado, 1957), which claimed that L1 transfer and particularly the differences between L1 and L2 account for the difficulties L2 learners encounter. MDH predicts that more marked L2 structures that are different from L1 structures will be more difficult than less marked ones. ...
This paper examines the understudied phenomenon of consonant gemination in the pronunciation of English among Levantine Arabic learners of English (LA learners). The very few studies that touched on gemination among LA learners attributed gemination to spelling in the target language (English). This study challenges this analysis and demonstrates that gemination is primarily a phonological phenomenon that is triggered by first language under-represented structural rules as well as Universal Grammar (UG) markedness principles. Data were elicited through semi-structured interviews with three groups of LA learners. Contrary to previous studies (on other phonological aspects), which argue that interference errors decrease over time, findings show that gemination is attested across all groups of LA learners and persists even among advanced learners. Results show that interface phenomena involving more than one phonological level pose a great challenge to second language learners.
... in the 1960s, Contrastive Analysis, of which the fundamental claims are that transfer explains all errors and on this basis it is possible to predict all errors, reached its heyday with the work of Fries (1945) and Lado's landmark work (1957) [4]. Lado expresses that the phenomenon of transfer was that "Individuals tend to transfer the forms and meanings, and the distribution of forms and meanings of their native language and culture to the foreign language and culture" [5], which stands for "carrying over the habits of his mother-tongue into the second language" [6]. Ellis also suggests that the psychological foundation of CAH is transfer theory, substituting the first language for the prior learning and the second language for the subsequent learning [7]. ...
L1 transfer represents the process that mother tongue would impact learners’ second language acquisition. Prior knowledge from their first language would be consciously and unconsciously applied to their target language learning as an aid. Furthermore, positive and negative influences would be asserted in this process. To be specific, negative transfer or interference would be the focus foci of this article. Considering numerous research done by linguistics and educators from home and abroad, English writing in China has faced serious barriers mainly due to the mother tongue negative transfer, such as phonological, morphological, lexicon, syntax, and discourse errors. Therefore, this article concerns some typical errors that non-English major Chinese college students would make in writing. The house of error analysis regards that language transfer covers a majority of errors, which could be used as lubricants to facilitate Chinese college students’ English writing skills. Hence, it is of significant essence that at the end of this article, several suggestions with reference value are advanced, desiring to contribute to the improvement of Chinese college students’ writing capacity.
... Thus, translation acts as mediation between the language in construction and the known language, allowing them to say what they cannot say in the language they are learning. However, it is worthy to note that Lado (1957) discouraged the use of language transfer, regarding it as negative. Still, we had to experience translation in a particular context: Writing. ...
Mohamed Gacemi has been teaching French in Algeria for over 30 years. He has taught French in high school and has gained wide experience in teaching this language. He is also teacher trainer of French language. Currently, he is completing a doctorate in socio-didactics. Azzeddine Bencherab is a university lecturer in Algeria. He has a wide experience in ELT in High School and College. He is author of several articles in international magazines worldwide. His interests include teacher development and developing skills. Abstract Much research has been devoted to the mobilization of L1 in the learning of foreign languages. Part of the research has been able to establish that the use of language "already there" is achieved through teaching or learning strategies depending on the case: encoding alternation, translation, mediation ... In this article, we propose an experience of translation into the production of writing as a strategy for mobilizing Arabic (dialectal Arabic used outside schools or classical Arabic used in schools) in teaching/ learning French. This article includes two parts. The �rst part presents an overview of teachers' conceptions of the use of translation in their classes. The second part shows an experience through which we tried to test the Arabic-French translation as an aid in the French written production activity (paragraph writing). It is less a matter of systematizing translation into the practice of teaching French learning, but rather providing the student and the teacher with a tool for intermediation between two languages that mix with each other in class.
... Moreover, the structures that were thought to be most difficult to acquire were those that differed most from the native language. Thus, contrastive analysis (e.g., Lado, 1957) focused on identifying differences between the first language Introduction 3 3 (L1) and L2, which formed the target of instruction (VanPatten & Williams, 2015). This early emphasis on differentiation was led by two assumptions that would later be challenged: (1) that a structure similarly rendered across the L1 and L2 would be easy to acquire and (2) that structural difference was difficult in and of itself, regardless of whether there was a difference in the frequency or complexity of the realization of the structure in the L1 compared to the L2. ...
Communicative competence is an essential language skill, the ability to adjust language use according to specific contexts and to employ knowledge and strategies for successful communication.
This unique text offers a multidisciplinary, critical, state-of-the-art research overview for this skill in second language learners. Expert contributors from around the world lay out the history of the field, then explore a variety of theoretical perspectives, methodologies, and empirical findings, and authoritatively set the agenda for future work.
With a variety of helpful features like discussion questions, recommended further reading, and suggestions for practice, this book will be an invaluable resource to students and researchers of applied linguistics, education, psychology, and beyond.
... Ces difficultés peuvent se multiplier ou diminuer selon que la langue maternelle (LM) et la langue étrangère (LE) se ressemblent ou non. D'après les concepteurs de la théorie contrastive, l'apprentissage d'une LE sera plus facile lorsque les structures des deux langues sont comparables alors que les différences amèneront à des transferts négatifs (interférence) et entraîneront des erreurs (Polivanov, 1931;Fries, 1945et Lado, 1957. À l'inverse, des recherches ont démontré que les ressemblances entre les systèmes en contact peuvent également être sources d'erreurs, notamment, quand les phonèmes des deux systèmes sont similaires mais pas tout à fait identiques (Oller et Ziahosseiny, 1970;Flege, 1987;Best, 1995). ...
Cette étude expérimentale se propose de diagnostiquer l’effet de la langue arabe sur la prononciation des étu-diants arabophones apprenant le français. Elle comporte les résultats de mesures acoustiques portant sur la durée acoustique des consonnes graphiquement doubles dans la prononciation de locutrices natives du fran-çais et d’étudiantes jordaniennes. L’étude inclut également des tests perceptifs effectués auprès d’auditeurs arabophones non apprenants. L’étude acoustique démontrent que les consonnes cibles prononcées par les apprenantes sont significativement plus longues que celles produites par les locutrices françaises. Les tests de perception soulignent que la plupart des mots cibles ont été réalisés avec des consonnes géminées par les ap-prenantes. Les apprenantes prononcent les consonnes, qui doivent habituellement se prononcer comme si elles étaient simples, de manière géminée. La recherche trouve sa conclusion dans des propositions pratiques ayant pour objet d’aider les apprenants à surmonter l’interférence de la gémination de l’arabe vers le français.
... A Hipótese da Análise Contrastiva explica a aquisição de uma L2 como sendo conduzida pelas estruturas da língua nativa do aprendiz (LADO, 1957). De acordo com essa hipótese, as estruturas de L2 que coincidem com aquelas da língua materna são adquiridas de maneira rápida e fácil, por meio de transferência positiva. ...
Este livro é um material produzido a partir do curso de atualização “A Gramática e a Linguística na Sala de Aula”, ministrado por dis- centes do Programa de Pós-Graduação em Semiótica e Linguística Geral do Departamento de Linguística da Universidade de São Paulo (DL-USP). O objetivo central do curso e do livro é o de promover a reflexão sobre o papel da Linguística e da Gramática no Ensino de Língua Portuguesa na educação básica (Ensino Fundamental, Ensino Médio e Educação de Jovens e Adultos). Assim, o livro destina-se a um público-alvo composto, primordialmente, por professores de português ativos do ensino básico das redes pública e privada, mas não se restringe a eles, podendo ser utilizado por todos aqueles interessados na interface Linguística-Ensino de Português; o interesse é o de ins- trumentalizar os leitores com conceitos de descrição (meta-)linguística que ajudem a facilitar e ressignificar sua prática de ensino de gra- mática e redação.
Ao longo de suas oito edições presenciais (2016 a 2019), o cur- so contou com a participação de mais de 300 professores da grande São Paulo e de cidades do interior do estado. Nos anos de 2020 e 2021, por exemplo, em que o curso foi realizado de maneira remota, tivemos cerca de 160 participantes oriundos de diversos estados do Brasil e do exterior. A publicação do conteúdo ministrado no curso em forma de livro se justifica pelo interesse cada vez maior por atualização e auto-instrumentalização, da parte dos professores, e, da parte dos alunos de pós-graduação, pelo contato com as diversas práticas e vivências escolares. É recente a empreitada de realizar projetos para a elaboração de materiais didáticos que se localizam na interface entre a Linguística e as atividades de sala de aula. Desse modo, o presente livro se insere nesse contexto justamente com outros livros publicados também pelo DL-USP como Fonologia, Aquisição e Educação e Ensino de Gramática: reflexões sobre a semântica do português brasileiro.
Direcionamos todos os interessados ao site https://linguistica. fflch.usp.br/node/710, no qual as informações sobre as próximas edições do curso estarão disponíveis. O livro pode ser consultado no site citado acima, bem como no site da editora Pontes, à qual agradecemos pela parceria e pelo auxílio na publicação do livro.
Gostaríamos de agradecer a todos os participantes do curso, aos autores que aceitaram contribuir para este material, aos pareceristas que nos auxiliariam e aos coordenadores do Programa de Pós-graduação em Semiótica e Linguística Geral do DL-USP. Finalmente, agradecemos à Pró-Reitoria de Cultura e Extensão Universitária e ao Banco Santander pelo financiamento do presente material didático por meio do 7o Edital Santander/USP/FUSP de Fomento às Iniciativas de Cultura e Extensão.
Organizadores
... and "*Engilish" because Japanese consonants are always separated by a vowel. The concept of transfer led to the approach called Contrastive Analysis, which looked for differences between the two languages; these form the main areas of difficulty for learners and automatically lead to 'negative' transfer from the L1 (Lado, 1957). ...
This paper investigates pronominal subjects dropping in Telugu and Indian English and the severity of first language impact on learning and usage of a second language. Numerous languages from various language families are spoken in India. Many of the languages among them are pro-drop languages. Telugu is a full-fledged consistent null subject language with rich verbal agreement. So, pro-drop is common in spoken Telugu. This paper aims at how first language (L1) influences its rules and morpho-syntactic properties on second language (L2) in relation to pro-drop at various levels. To some extent, pro-drop parameter helps us to understand how the language acquisition takes place in children and adults mind/brain in setting the parameter in a specific language. Based on the empirical evidence, several Telugu speaking children and adults are examined on how they drop pronouns in spoken Telugu and Indian English.
... A Hipótese da Análise Contrastiva explica a aquisição de uma L2 como sendo conduzida pelas estruturas da língua nativa do aprendiz (LADO, 1957). De acordo com essa hipótese, as estruturas de L2 que coincidem com aquelas da língua materna são adquiridas de maneira rápida e fácil, por meio de transferência positiva. ...
Resumo: Com o intuito de incentivar a reflexão sobre práticas docentes que instrumentalizam os estudantes a decifrarem os textos presentes em seu cotidiano, apresenta-se uma abordagem semiótica
para a análise de alguns objetos significantes – anúncios publicitários, contos e filmes. Metodologicamente, os conceitos da teoria serão apresentados, seguidos de sua aplicação a análises
possíveis de serem feitas em sala de aula. Acredita-se que essa gramática do sentido tem potencialidades analíticas que auxiliarão no processo de ensino-aprendizado, alargando os horizontes textuais de quem aprende e de quem ensina a interpretação de textos, primando por uma significação ainda mais abrangente, a compreensão de mundo. Livro publicado por meio do 7º Edital Santander/USP/FUSP de Fomento às Iniciativas de Cultura e Extensão.
Palavras-chave: Semiótica; ensino-aprendizagem; Semiótica na sala de aula; Semiótica aplicada, BNCC.
... In the 1920s, Western linguists used the method of contrastive analysis to compare two or more languages, and to compare the structure and function of different languages. In Linguistics Across Cultures (1957), American linguist Robert Lado proposed the concept of language transfer, which refers to that when learners communicate in the target language, they rely extensively on the native language they have already mastered, and often transfer the phonetics, word meanings, structural rules of the native language, and the culture associated with the native language to the second language acquisition (Lado, 1957 main obstacle to second language acquisition, and the difference between the native language and the target language is proportional to the difficulty it may cause, and the greater the difference is, the greater the difficulty will be. That is to say, when the rules of the mother tongue are different from those of the foreign language, the learner will transfer the rules of the mother tongue to the foreign language, and the mother tongue will seriously interfere with the learning of the foreign language. ...
... The focus on larger sequences in foreign language teaching (FLT) has a long tradition. Already in 1945, Fries, and later his student Lado (1957), drew on insights from behaviorist psychology with its stimulus-response model to develop an innovative teaching method based on the learning of so-called 'patterns' . This new approach was motivated by the need of American troops being sent to Europe in World War II to learn foreign languages very quickly in order to be able to communicate with the Europeans in basic terms. ...
One of the main difficulties foreign students experience is the acquisition of lexis. However, the problem goes beyond that issue since learners ignore or neutralize the difference between lexemes of the same semantic field that share a common core of semes. Often it occurs not just because of the wrong choice, but because of the generalization of the use of only known lexeme. The semantic field that generates more errors in the process of teaching/learning of Spanish as a foreign language is related to the choice and use of the verbs ser, estar and haber. This article is the result of the merger between the acquisition of second languages and corpus linguistics. The research data was obtained through collecting, analyzing and providing results from the compositions written in students’ blogs. A blog was used as a written genre. A blog is a transparent and simultaneous means of writing and publishing with discursive features that are converted into linguistic characteristics. These characteristics reflect the personal, informal and spontaneous nature of this genre and compile a corpus of written language and observe a variety of mistakes that students make when learning Spanish as a second language. Specifically, in this article, the mistakes they make with the verbs ser, estar and haber. In particular, we follow a methodology based on the principles of corpus linguistics in its different stages, from the collection of the corpus, its labelling (identification and classification of errors) and annotation to the extraction of the results.
The purpose of this PhD project was to uncover, describe and explain the difficulties
that Danish university students would encounter in the acquisition of written English
and in the learning of theoretical grammar. As an extension to the mapping of said
difficulties, the project also aimed at providing informed recommendations as to
how the teaching of English and grammar, and the evaluation of the students’ performance might be improved.
The object of study in the project was freshmen of English Business Communication
at Aalborg University, that is, language learners whose command of English was already fairly strong – at least in speech – when they entered the field of vision of this study. The project focused exclusively on the students’ written language,
because that was the focus of the study program itself.
Apart from attempting to uncover the students’ difficulties, the project tested three theories. Two of them are well known within the research field of second language
acquisition. These were Krashen’s monitor theory, and the theory of cross-linguistic
influence. The former concerns the relationship between explicit knowledge of grammar and the implicit mastery of a language. The latter is about the influence that one language might exert on another during language acquisition and production. The third theory, Keenan and Comrie’s accessibility hierarchy of
relativization, was brought in from the field of linguistic typology and linguistic
universals.
The monitor theory was tested because it claims that learning grammar explicitly
is unnecessary and futile for developing a practical mastery of a language. This
claim contradicts the very basis of one of the courses taught in English Business
Communication, namely English Grammar, in which the students were taught theoretical grammar with the expressed expectation that they would be able to convert the theoretical knowledge into improved writing skills.
The theory of cross-linguistic influence was tested to determine how large a
proportion of the students’ deviation from standard English could be attributed to
their Danish background. Similarly, but to a lesser extent, the theory was tested to
see whether English could influence the students’ use of Danish. The theory was
tested with respect to the use of relative clauses and the order of clause constituents.
The project was article based. Five articles had already been published prior to
the writing of this thesis, and one has been accepted for publishing. In addition to
the articles, four papers were presented at one department-internal, two national and one international conferences, respectively.
The students’ use of practical language skills was considered within the genres
free composition in English, summarising of English texts in English and translation
from Danish into English. To a limited extent, the students’ ability to translate from
English into Danish was also investigated. The students’ works were evaluated with
respect to orthographical, grammatical and semantic precision. The students’
knowledge of theoretical grammar, i.e. their ability to analyse the structure of English
expressions morphologically and syntactically in terms of a theoretical linguistic
framework, was evaluated on the basis of grammar home assignments and grammar
exams.
The study of the students’ mastery of English and theoretical grammar was
primarily based on the analysis of the regular curricular work of students from 2009
to 2016 in the courses English Grammar and Production of Written Texts. The students’
texts were analysed in the same framework of error analysis which had been
developed for providing feedback to the students during the courses, and which also
served as the basis for grading the students’ exams.
Besides the corpus of the students’ course work, questionnaire surveys were
also used to gather additional data. The surveys provided linguistic data to augment
the corpus with items that were underrepresented in it, and data on the students’
educational background as well as study motivation and attitudes. The latter were
used to seek alternative explanations of the linguistic difficulties that were detected.
One published article and one paper presented at an international conference
were devoted to the testing of the monitor theory. The same article and another conference presentation were also used to disseminate preliminary findings on the students’ linguistic difficulties. One published article, the article forthcoming and two conference presentations were dedicated to the testing of cross-linguistic influence.
The applicability of the accessibility hierarchy of relativization was the theme of one
article. One article dealt with issues concerning the learning of theoretical grammar.
One article was allocated to a study of the students’ pre-university knowledge of
grammar, motivation and attitudes to studying.
It was found that the students were motivated to study, but were rather unprepared
for studying at a university and did not have a clear awareness of their own
knowledge. With respect to precision in writing, it was determined contrary to expectations that grammar did not pose the greatest challenge, but vocabulary and
especially orthography did. Nevertheless, mistakes with seemingly elementary
grammatical phenomena, for instance subject-verb agreement, did have an alarmingly high rate of occurrence. As for theoretical grammar, clause constituents and subordinate clauses proved to be the most challenging topics closely followed by morphological
analysis.
The testing of the theory of cross-linguistic influence showed that negative
transfer from Danish might explain up to three quarters of the students’ mistakes,
and influence from English could also be identified in the students’ Danish. Some
interference from Google Translate could be detected as well. The testing of the
monitor theory remained inconclusive. A weak to medium strength correlation could
be demonstrated to exist between knowing theoretical grammar better and writing
English more precisely. However, a causal relationship could not be established in
either direction because of insufficient data.
Based on the project’s results, it is recommendable that more effort be exerted
especially on practising vocabulary, morphology and some important – even if
seemingly elementary – parts of both theoretical grammar and practical grammar.
The present study is a study of the effect of age upon SLA in a crosssectional
situation. It tries to hold a linguistic comparison between two age
groups; adolescents and children who have started acquiring a second language,
namely English, at the same age which is "two". It tries to find an answer to the
old preoccupied question whether children are better that adolescents or vice
versa. The subjects in this study are randomly elicited from two international
schools in Syria where English is used as a second language. These subjects are
representative of English acquirers in a semi-natural milieu. The research is
conducted in two international schools in Syria; the Pakistani School in
Damascus and the American School in Damascus. A questionnaire that tests the
linguistic capacities of the subjects has been distributed to them (Language
Proficiency Test no.1) (see Appendix B) in addition to the (Attitude and
Motivation Questionnaire) (see Appendix A). The former questionnaire has
been studied in details using the qualitative and quantitative analysis. Another
group of subjects have been tape-recorded and their discourse has been
analysed using the error analysis procedure. This study finds out the superiority
of adolescents upon children in some linguistic aspects. This is attributed to a
possible reason that adolescents have been exposed to the target language
"English" more than children in addition to their mental maturation and the
positive existence of 'critical period hypothesis'.
There is a paucity of empirical research documenting the errors made by Arab learners, specifically those enrolled in higher education, when acquiring spoken English. The current study examined the most common types of verbal errors made by 20 Arab tertiary students of English in Israel. Data were collected based on in-class oral presentations made by first-year students and observations of English lessons taught by third-year students. The most frequent errors were classified into three main categories: (a) grammar and syntax, (b) pronunciation, and (c) vocabulary choice. Errors were documented by the researchers, who also served as course instructors/mentors. A significant number of errors (1050) were documented in the delivery of the presentations and lessons. Analysis of the results suggest that the documented errors are largely attributable to L1 interference (interlingual causes), although some derive from challenges inherent to English itself (intralingual). The importance of this study is that it clarifies the difficulties Israeli Arab learners face while speaking English as a foreign language, which can cast light on potential remedies.
In commercial materials for the teaching of second language (L2) pronunciation, common bottom‐up approaches segment phonology into a series of discrete and decontextualized linguistic components with rules that students are encouraged to internalize. Such approaches seem out of step with recent second language acquisition (SLA) theory and research that emphasize the central influence of social context, interlocutor, empathy, and nonverbal elements on the meaningful use of L2 forms. Research showing that these factors profoundly influence the pronunciation of an L2 in social discourse suggests a more top‐down, holistic pedagogy to better harness the agentive energy of motivated and goal‐oriented L2 learners. Drawing on findings in interlanguage phonology and Bakhtinian sociocultural theory, this article documents ways that 7 adult L2 learners in an intensive English program improved their English intelligibility, while some of them also improved their delivery, as they all mirrored and subsequently channeled the voices of model speakers in rehearsed oral presentations over the course of a short 7‐week pedagogical treatment. The findings of this study support the view that the construct of voice and the influence of social contextual factors in SLA are critical in shaping interlanguage phonology and raise a number of important pedagogical implications for addressing learning outcomes in L2 pronunciation. Graphical abstract:
At the beginning of the twentieth century, efficiency and scientific management promised to make industrial production more efficient by regulating workplace behaviours. Educational psychologists sought to bring this same efficiency to schools, allowing more students to be educated to a higher level and at a faster pace. Monitoring progress in writing required an accurate means for capturing evidence and measuring it. This chapter describes the struggle to improve education through a rigorous new technology of testing that had a profound impact on the teaching and assessment of languages, eventually leading to the birth of language testing as a distinct field in applied linguistics and to new methods of eliciting evidence of L2 writing competence that focussed on component abilities such as knowledge of vocabulary and syntax.
Errors are crucial in the process of analysing a language learner's knowledge of the target language, as well as the efficiency of the teaching methods adopted. The present paper attempts to highlight the most common mistakes made by adult Indian students who are learning English as their second language. The present paper will not only discuss the errors of the students, but will also deal with some tested ways to rectify the errors and to make the students understand the correct usage of various words and sentence structures. This study aims to be relevant to teachers and language learners alike.
Contrastive analysis (CA) is used in the study of language as a method of explaining why some features of a target language are more difficult to learn than others. It is predicated on the assumption that the structure of an already internalized language will influence the learning of another language. In this Chapter, we provide a contrastive analysis of the verbal group structures of English and Urhobo (Niger-Congo), to give insights into the effective learning of both languages. Urhobo belongs to the South Western Edoid language groups of the Benue Congo family. It spans nine local government areas in Delta State, where it is the dominant language. It is also spoken in some communities in Bayelsa, Edo and Ondo States. The verbal group which functions at the predicator position, is a mandatory element in Urhobo and English sentences. The structure of both languages was contrasted using Halliday’s systemic grammatical model (Halliday in World 17:241–292, 1961). Findings reveal that there are phenomenal differences between their VG structures with few similarities. Furthermore, knowledge of these differences and similarities will facilitate the learning of the verbal group structures of English and Urhobo.KeywordsContrastive analysisContenative constructionExponenceUrhoboVerbal group
Este capítulo aborda a distinção entre fonética, fonologia e ortografia e como a percepção de que estamos diante de três sistemas diferentes nos permite perceber certos fenômenos da língua. Mais especificamente, olhamos para a maneira em que as teorias abordam a oposição fonética-fonologia e para questões mais concretas, como o inventário de sons do português, as configurações silábicas (im)possíveis dessa língua e os processos fonológicos nela existentes. Nosso foco principal é entender o funcionamento articulatório e fonológico dos sons, ressaltando que a diversidade de pronúncias e usos é uma das riquezas da nossa língua.
Involving first language (L1) in second language learning (L2) is considered as an effective method to be practiced. This research focuses on a contrastive study between Arabic and Indonesian. It aims to investigate similarities and differences of the two languages, especially about their interrogative sentence forms. It is descriptive qualitative research which applies two methods; observation and introspection method. Then, Contrastive Analysis (CA) is used to analyze the data. The result shows that similarity concept between Arabic and Indonesian is many shown on matā, ayna, limādzā, and hal. Meanwhile, differences between both of them are shown on mā, man, ayy, and kayfa. As a result, it may occur errors in the use of question, errors in translating interrogative sentence, and errors in understanding question.
Intercultural rhetoric and intercultural pragmatics are two linguistically based fields with many principles and processes in common: both examine the use of language systems in encounters between people with different L1s, coming from different cultures, but communicating in a common language. This chapter provides an overview of intercultural rhetoric highlighting the ways in which intercultural pragmatics and intercultural rhetoric parallel and complement one another. The chapter begins with a description of the evolution of intercultural rhetoric from contrastive rhetoric drawing particular attention to the shift to understanding culture dynamic, understanding the importance of analyzing texts in context, and drawing greater attention to the use of negotiation and accommodation. The chapter then explores the influences that intercultural rhetoric and intercultural pragmatics have exerted on English for Specific Purposes, English for Academic Purposes, and second language teaching, particularly noting the ways the two fields have complemented and paralleled one another and suggesting ways the fields can serve as a bridge across chasms that have formed in linguistics, second language writing, English as a Lingua Franca, and translingualism. The chapter ends with a short discussion of the future of intercultural rhetoric and suggestions for future trends.
In recent decades, a growing interest in learning Spanish as a foreign language has grown. The impact of socioeconomic and sociocultural events on Spanish society (internationalization of the Spanish economy, opening of Cervantes Institute, Erasmus students, linguistic tourism, and an increased interest in Spanish culture) has led to new lines of research derived from the teaching of Spanish as foreign language. The article we present tries to serve as a guide for teachers to be able to diagnose, classify and solve the characteristic problems of learners of Spanish. The phonetic, morphological, lexical, grammatical and pragmatic peculiarities of their mother tongue interfere and hinder the process of learning Spanish. The research is oriented in its different stages to collect, analyze and provide results from written compositions in students’ blogs. Specifically, the research aims at the design of a methodology based on the principles of corpus linguistics in its different stages, from the corpus compilation, its labeling (identification and classification of mistakes) and note taking until the extraction of the results. The main result is the creation of a taxonomy and its labeling subdivided into four major subsections: lexical, grammatical, discursive and graphical errors.
English articles, being some of the most common function words in English, are non-existent in Cantonese. The use of English articles has been regarded as an area of difficulty for many ESL learners. The present paper investigates Cantonese ESL learners’ interpretation of the use of English articles for representing generic reference. Two language tasks, namely a grammaticality judgment task and a truth-value judgment task, were conducted with a total of 57 advanced Cantonese ESL learners in Hong Kong. It was found that Cantonese ESL learners had confusion about the structures of noun phrases for representing generic reference. Although ZERO + plural was largely recognized, some learners had a tendency to use the + plural or bare singular noun phrases for representing generic reference. The definite generic was largely unnoticed. It is argued that the absence of structural equivalents of English articles and the infrequent use of plural marking in Cantonese interact intricately and result in learners’ problems with the structures. ESL teachers are advised to put more pedagogical efforts onto this area of learner difficulty. Explicit teaching is needed to help Cantonese ESL learners recognize the variant structures used for representing generic reference.
This chapter focuses on formulating North American English (NAE) phonological rules and discussing their pedagogical implications. It begins with a brief account of NAE phonology as a rule-governed system and then outlines feature-based phonology as a theoretical framework in which phonological rules operate. The chapter further defines an inventory of distinctive features for characterizing the NAE phonological system. After discussing rule components and matrix underspecification, the chapter presents phonological rules subsumed under seven categories: deletion, epenthesis, metathesis, reduction, assimilation, dissimilation, and morphophonology. Most rules are couched in three expressions—prose, semi-formal, formal—to meet different needs of readers. Pedagogical implications of phonological rules, discussed in the last section, are explicated in the framework of language transfer and universal grammar. The same section also emphasizes the importance of balancing linguistic analysis and classroom practice.
In the field of mass communication and media, the use of language has become so versatile that it can help to improve relationship between peoples, but it can somehow have a negative effect on the mutual understanding. Rhetoric makes it clear and persuasive to communicate to make language work for their purposes. Sociolinguistics in the contrastive analysis deals with speech communities and the language use in particular contexts such as dialects or bilingualism in society and language variation and change over time, especially in the post-COVID-19 era. This chapter presents Kenneth Burke's rhetorical theory and William Labov's sociolinguistic method, analyzing genres and registers in the systemic functional linguistics perspective to derive a conceptual framework for the study of news report. The resulting framework provides for the identification of news writing style in mass media and other social networks and its performance in language use regarding the power of words to avoid the ambiguity in situational contexts and to better interpersonal and intercultural communication.
This chapter surveys the basics of the syntax of main clauses, with special attention to English. Readers are guided through the process of doing syntactic analysis with the aid of syntactic trees that model the properties of linearity, hierarchy, and recursion that characterize the syntax of human languages. The model used is a somewhat simplified version of X-bar syntax, which is currently the best-known and best-tested model of phrase structure within the subfield of syntax and which combines the virtues of simplicity, breadth, and predictive power. There is a section on the theory of grammatical relations and its relationship to phrase structure theory, as well as a section providing an overview of basic world constituent orders.
This research aimed to describe the nominalization of French and Indonesian language deverbal noun and it's implications in French learning for Indonesian speakers. The data was collected from various printed sources; dictionaries, short stories, and texts. The data were analyzed by using referential identity method and distributional method. The results of the research show that (1) there are similarities both morphologically and semantically in the pattern of formation of French and Indonesian noun deverbal. Verbs ending in-er in French tend to have similarities in the pattern of forming noun deverbal in Indonesian, namely by affixation. (2) There are similarities, the formation of noun deverbal in French and Indonesian also has differences. The difference is related to prefixation. French does not have noun-forming prefixes, while Indonesian has noun-forming prefixes. (3) In terms of composition, there are differences in the pattern of morphological procedures in forming noun deverbal. The difference is due to the fact that in Indonesian, the base of a verb that collocates with a noun or adverbial category, remains a noun, while in French, the pattern can form a noun. (4) The similarity in the formation of noun deverbal in French and Indonesian provides an advantage for Indonesian mother tongue learners because they can remember the pattern and use it in French. (5) The difference in morphological procedures for the formation of noun deverbal in French and Indonesian can provide difficulties for learners of the Indonesian mother tongue because negative interference can occur, namely the use of Indonesian morphological patterns in French.
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