NEW THOUGHTS ON NUTRITION OF NEWLY WEANED PIGS

Abstract

Nutrition of weanling pigs remains a key topic of interest in pig production because a good start in the post-weaning period is critical in the subsequent growth, development and survival of pigs through to market. The overriding aim of nutritional programmes is to transition pigs from relatively high-cost diets eaten in smaller quantities to less expensive diets that weaner pigs consume in greater quantities, without detriment to the health and welfare of the animals. Nutritional programmes for weanling pigs are still largely based on the inclusion of antimicrobial compounds such as antibiotics and ZnO, however there is some recognition, even in countries where these compounds are still permitted for use, that sentiment is changing and there is a need to search for other products/strategies to enable pigs to handle the post-weaning period.

Full text

London Swine Conference – Thinking Globally, Acting Locally 5-6 April 2006 63
NEW THOUGHTS ON NUTRITION OF NEWLY WEANED PIGS
John Pluske
School of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences
Murdoch University
Murdoch WA 6150, Australia
E-mail: J.Pluske@murdoch.edu.au
ABSTRACT
Nutrition of weanling pigs remains a key topic of interest in pig production because a good
start in the post-weaning period is critical in the subsequent growth, development and survival
of pigs through to market. The overriding aim of nutritional programmes is to transition pigs
from relatively high-cost diets eaten in smaller quantities to less expensive diets that weaner
pigs consume in greater quantities, without detriment to the health and welfare of the animals.
Nutritional programmes for weanling pigs are still largely based on the inclusion of
antimicrobial compounds such as antibiotics and ZnO, however there is some recognition,
even in countries where these compounds are still permitted for use, that sentiment is
changing and there is a need to search for other products/strategies to enable pigs to handle
the post-weaning period.
INTRODUCTION
The types of feeding programmes for weanling pigs differ around the world, and the nature of
these programmes predominately reflect differences in ingredient price/availability (hence
diet cost), management considerations (eg. age at weaning), and the general nature of the
production system (eg. restrictions on use of antimicrobials in the diet). A plethora of papers,
reviews and articles have been written concerning the nutrition of newly weaned pigs, and it
is not my intention to reiterate this information. There is no doubt, however, that diet
formulation and ingredient selection are critical factors in the successful implementation of
nursery feeding programmes, although the age and weight of pigs at weaning are major
determinants of performance in the first four weeks following weaning and subsequently
through to slaughter (discussed by Dritz, 2004). Similarly, the design of any feeding
programme for weaner pigs needs to consider the physiological development (or
underdevelopment) of the gastrointestinal tract and interactions with the resident microbiota
(Pluske et al., 2004), because the processes of digestion and absorption along with microbial
digestion of feed components play key roles in meeting the maintenance requirement of the
newly-weaned pig and contributing to growth and, in some circumstances, the gastrointestinal
health of the pig. This paper explores some alternative approaches to post-weaning nutrition.

London Swine Conference – Thinking Globally, Acting Locally 5-6 April 2006
64
BASIS OF NUTRIENT SPECIFICATIONS FOR WEANER PIGS
Tokach et al. (2003) listed the three major concepts when formulating diets for newly weaned
pigs as:
1. Adjusting pigs to the simplest and relatively lowest cost diets as quickly as possible after
weaning,
2. Maximizing feed intake to ensure that the pig consumes sufficient energy and nutrients at
a time when excess mobilization of body reserves (primarily lipid) can occur, and
3. Formulating the initial diets with highly digestible ingredients that complement the pattern
of digestive enzymes, and digestive enzyme development, in the gastrointestinal tract.
Therefore, weanling pig diets have been manipulated predominately to overcome the
limitations or immaturity in digestive function so as to maximize the growth of the whole
animal. As such, ingredient selection (in addition to cost) to meet these objectives is generally
based on nutrient digestibility, amino acid density, lactose concentration, and stimulatory
effects on voluntary feed intake from products such as spray-dried animal plasma. The NRC
(1998), for example, list the nutrient requirements for pigs of different weights and, as has
been described previously in many other papers, nutrient requirements per kg of diet (eg.
lysine) and the diet complexity generally decrease with age in accordance with increased feed
intake by the pigs. Inherent to changes in diet specifications after weaning is an understanding
of the gastrointestinal changes that occur, and this will now be discussed.
FEEDING THE GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT AFTER WEANING
Burrin and Stoll (2003) highlighted the temporal changes in gastrointestinal development and
growth after weaning, showing that early-weaned pigs (14 days in this case) have an ‘acute
phase’ lasting about 7 days and a subsequent ‘adaptive phase’ in which the gastrointestinal
tract recovers from the immediate post-weaning insults. Although the duration and magnitude
of these phases varies according to factors such as weaning age, environment, genotype and
health status, they are generally coincidental with patterns of energy intake and weight gain
after weaning (Le Dividich and Seve, 2000), although the variation surrounding these indices
can be enormous (Brooks and Tsourgiannis, 2003). Feeding programmes and feed budgets
after weaning have evolved to accommodate these two phases and place pigs as soon as
possible onto cheaper diets, but the percentage of pigs in a population that fit this generalized
pattern is unknown. Indeed, what are the implications for pigs that fall outside this pattern?
In this regard, Burrin and Stoll (2003) remarked that given increases in the understanding of
intestinal nutrient utilization of recent times, it is (theoretically perhaps) possible to formulate
diets for weanling pigs with the specific goal of optimizing the growth, function and health of
the gastrointestinal tract. Their review comprehensively describes some of the most promising
candidates they believe could be used in weanling pig diets based upon their known mode(s)
of action in the gastrointestinal tract and their utilization in the portal-drained viscera (PDV),
the tissues of which include the stomach, pancreas, small and large intestine, and the spleen.
In pigs, the PDV tissues contribute approximately 5% of body weight yet account for 20-35%
of whole-body protein turnover and energy expenditure (Yen et al., 1997), which reflects their

London Swine Conference – Thinking Globally, Acting Locally 5-6 April 2006 65
disproportionately high fractional protein synthesis rates and O2 consumption. The high rates
of metabolism and nutrient utilization in the gut are directly linked to the high rates of
proliferation, protein secretion, apoptosis and desquamation of various epithelial and
lymphoid cells within the mucosa (Burrin and Stoll, 2003), all of which are a key feature of
the post-weaning period.
Gut specific nutrients suggested by Burrin and Stoll (2003) include the amino acids
glutamine, glutamate and threonine, and the reader is directed towards this review for more
extensive information. Glutamine and glutamate are not considered as “essential” amino acids
in traditional diet formulations, however there is a large body of evidence in many species,
including young pigs, showing some benefits to the addition of these amino acids in the
immediate post-weaning period. Arginine, an essential amino acid for neonates but not for
growing pigs, was shown by Wu et al. (2004) to decline markedly in plasma during suckling,
and supplementation of 0.2 and 0.4% arginine to 7- to 21-day-old artificially-reared pigs
increased piglet growth rates by 28 and 66% respectively. Whether there is a conditionally
essential requirement for arginine after weaning has not been investigated to my knowledge,
however for producers that feed pigs milk liquid diets then attention to arginine levels may be
warranted. Obviously major consideration for any of these amino acids of course is the cost of
such interventions.
In addition, the influence of post-weaning infections and associated inflammatory responses
on aspects of gastrointestinal function warrants mention. Burrin and Stoll (2003) suggested
that enteric infection increases intestinal nutrient requirements that in turn limit the
availability of dietary nutrients for growth. A schematic illustration of this is shown below
(Figure 1). Key questions include how an infection, such as enterotoxigenic Escherchia coli
infection, alters the pattern of intestinal nutrient utilization, and what are the key nutrients that
may either become limiting for intestinal function/body growth and/or assist with
gastrointestinal repair. In the case of enterotoxigenic Escherchia coli infection for example,
which can still be prevalent 10-12 days after weaning, it seems ironic that some pigs in a pen
could be offered a lower specification diet just at the time they require a higher specification
diet to boost gut repair. Economics and facility management obviously play key roles in
addressing this, however from a biological perspective I think this is an interesting question
and one worth discussing.
ALTERNATIVES TO ANTIMICROBIALS
Much has been written and spoken, especially in view of the EU ban from 1st January 2006 on
the use of prophylactic levels of dietary antibiotic growth promotants, regarding a nutritional
‘magic bullet’ to assist pigs overcome the post-weaning growth check, even in situations
where antimicrobials are still permitted for use. Debate and discussions will obviously ensue
for some time and more so in parts of the world that face increasing pressure to severely
limit/abolish the use of current antimicrobials. Regardless, there is a plethora of
products/strategies mentioned when this topic is raised. What I have attempted to do in the
following discussion is highlight some ideas that could be considered/reconsidered in this
general environment.

London Swine Conference – Thinking Globally, Acting Locally 5-6 April 2006
66
Figure 1. Illustration of the relationship between intestinal amino acid metabolism
and luminal bacteria (after Burrin and Stoll, 2003).
Should I Use Probiotics?
Many different and diverse nutritional strategies are being investigated, and some are being
used commercially, to maintain animal performance and intestinal health in the absence of
antimicrobial agents. One of these strategies is the use of probiotics, a feed additive
containing bacteria that is claimed to improve the intestinal microbial balance (quite vague)
and reduce gastrointestinal disturbances in the post-weaning period. Data in the literature
purporting the benefits of probiotics for nursery pigs are equivocal, which is no real surprise
given the different species and strains that are used and the wide array of weaning and feeding
conditions that products work under. Differences in herd health status undoubtedly also
contributes to the ambiguity in efficacy seen. Even if a particular probiotic has potential, its
usefulness is limited by the newly weaned pig’s inability to consume enough bacteria in the
immediate post-weaning period, ironically when it is most susceptible to gastrointestinal
insults. This lack of a constant, threshold level of probiotic bacteria in the gastrointestinal
tract in the population of nursery pigs is a possible reason for the disparity seen in the overall
effectiveness of probiotic preparations.
Is there a better way of delivering probiotics? Can we think ‘outside the box’ with regard to
delivering potentially beneficial bacteria instead of relying on a stressed newly-weaned pig to
do the job? Work from the UK with fermented liquid feeding (Demeckova et al. 2002) and
Germany with Bacillus cereus var. toyoi (eg. Taras et al. 2005) has suggested that transfer
between sows and newborn piglets of bacteria (or a particular species) coupled to an altered
microbiota in the feces of the dam exerts a beneficial influence on both pre- and post-weaning
development of the young pig. There is also some suggestion of altered milk ‘quality’ in sows
with feeding spores of B. licheniformis and B. subtilis (Alexopoulos et al., 2004). In the study

London Swine Conference – Thinking Globally, Acting Locally 5-6 April 2006 67
by Taras et al. (2005), one group of sows were fed for a period of 17 weeks, from day 24 after
mating to day 28 after farrowing, and the piglets from these sows were fed for 6 weeks, from
day 15 of lactation to 8 weeks of age. The control group of sows/piglets did not receive the
probiotic strain. The Bacillus cereus var. toyoi was recovered from the feces of sows and
piglets throughout the trial, including the period 0-14 days of age before introduction of the
starter diet occurred, and there was an improvement in FCR of pigs in the post-weaning
period derived from sows fed the probiotic during pregnancy and lactation. Of particular
interest in the weaned pigs offered the probiotic was a significant reduction in the incidence of
liquid feces (Figure 2) and post-weaning diarrhoea. Diets did not contain any antimicrobial
agents, suggesting that this particular probiotic strain reduced the proliferation of
enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli in the gastrointestinal tract of weaned piglets.
Figure 2. Prevalence of liquid feces (consistency score 4-5) during the total post-
weaning period (day 29-56) of piglets in the Control (open boxes) and
probiotic (closed circles) group, respectively (after Taras et al., 2005).
Liquid Feeding of Weanling Pigs
Liquid feeding of growing-finishing pigs is gaining popularity around the world, and in
Ontario an estimated 20-30% of pigs are raised using liquid feeding systems (Braun and de
Lange, 2004). Liquid feeding can involve partial fermentation of ingredients or diets, and in
this instance the production of high concentrations of organic acids (especially lactic acid) and
lactic acid bacteria (LAB) are seen as key aspects of the process. Liquid feeding of newly
weaned pigs is less common as it is generally viewed as more problematic, but nevertheless
there are numerous potential advantages such as the use of cheaper co-products and positive
effects on gastrointestinal health and function. Liquid feeding research being conducted at the
University of Guelph in newly weaned pigs has focused on comparisons with dry diets, the
use of high-moisture corn, and phytase and phosphorus. Data will be presented during the
presentation to highlight some of the results of these studies.

London Swine Conference – Thinking Globally, Acting Locally 5-6 April 2006
68
Feed may be fermented with wild and/or introduced LAB, and this process has been shown to
reduce coliform numbers in both the feed and the gastrointestinal tract. High numbers of LAB
in fermented liquid feed (FLF) have been shown to modulate the mucosal immune system (eg.
Gill and Rutherfurd, 2001) that, in a sow, could potentially cause higher levels of colostral
immune factors (better colostrum ‘quality’) and therefore contribute to a more robust piglet at
the point of weaning. Demecková et al. (2002) fed sows for approximately 2 weeks before
farrowing and 3 weeks after parturition on one of three diets: (i) dry pelleted feed, (ii) non-
fermented liquid feed (NFLF), and (iii) FLF. A strain of Lactobacillus plantarum was used in
the FLF. Demecková et al. (2002) showed that faeces excreted from sows fed FLF had lower
numbers of coliforms, and piglets sucking from sows fed FLF excreted faeces higher in LAB
and lower in coliforms than their counterparts sucking sows fed dry pellets. Of particular
interest in this study though was the enhanced mitogenic capacity of the colostrum derived
from sows fed liquid feed, especially the FLF. Colostrum from sows fed FLF and NFLF had a
greater mitogenic activity on epithelial cells compared to dry-fed sows, but the colostrum
from sows fed FLF only had the greatest effect on mitogenic activity in blood lymphocytes
indicating a greater level of lymphocyte proliferation and, by association, possible enhanced
immune function (Figure 3).
Figure 3. Mitogenic activity of sow colostrum on blood lymphocytes. Data are
expressed as mean counts per minute (CPM). Error bars are standard
error of the mean. *** P < 0.001 (after Demecková et al., 2002).
Collectively, the data presented in the studies by Taras et al. (2005) and Demecková et al.
(2002) suggest an alternative means whereby the overall robustness of the neonatal and
weaned pig could be improved, i.e. through the sow. Such an approach could circumvent the
issue of low feed intake in the post-weaning period, and hence the low intake of
additives/compounds reputed to be beneficial to the newly weaned pig. The data of
Demecková et al. (2002) suggest that neonatal defence may be enhanced by manipulating the
immune status of farrowing/lactating sows because of the provision of colostrum/milk of
greater immunological and nutritional quality. The question remains to be seen, however,

London Swine Conference – Thinking Globally, Acting Locally 5-6 April 2006 69
whether any benefits bestowed on sucking piglets can be transferred to the period after
weaning.
GASTROINTESTINAL HEALTH, CARBOHYDRATE AND PROTEIN IN DIETS
Data presented nearly 40 years ago by Smith and Halls (1968) showed clearly that providing a
source of insoluble dietary fibre in diets for weanling pigs reduced the incidence of
enterotoxigenic diarrhea after weaning. The widespread use of antimicrobial agents coupled
with advances in feed processing, diet formulation and production systems since this time
virtually consigned the word ‘fibre’ to the sin bin with regard to its usefulness in modulating
the gastrointestinal environment of the young pig. The wheel has seemingly turned full circle
in some parts of the world because some nutritionists again view dietary fibre as a key
weapon in their arsenal to combat post-weaning enteric problems in the absence of
antimicrobials.
A large body of information is available on dietary fibre and its effects in pigs, and I will not
add to the mound. Rather, I think it is important to discuss dietary fibre, or specifically
components of dietary fibre (eg. non-starch polysaccharides and resistant starch), in relation
to other dietary components such as crude protein where the gastrointestinal health of the
weaned pig is concerned. It appears that an appropriate balance between the ‘carbohydrate’
content of the diet and the ‘protein’ content (or undigested protein content) of the diet might
play a role in gastrointestinal health and function that in turn impinges upon growth
efficiency. Such a concept might not neatly be accommodated with a least-cost diet
formulation philosophy, but in situations where, for example, legislation restricts the use of
pharmacological levels of minerals and/or antibiotic growth promotants are banned, then such
a concept becomes more attractive.
In broilers for example, de Lange (2005) presented data showing a positive linear relationship
between FCR and the amount of undigested crude protein in the diet, with the nature of this
relationship being different with or without antibiotic growth promotants. The presence of
more undigested crude protein in the distal part of the gastrointestinal tract caused
deterioration in FCR, with this author suggesting that the end-products of proteolytic
fermentation were harmful to the host and stimulated the growth of sulphite-producing
bacteria and some LAB that further impaired FCR. More recently in Quebec, Cardinal et al.
(2006) examined 34 herds with a weaning age less than 22 days in which 17 herds did not
have post-weaning E. coli diarrhoea (PWECD) and 17 herds were affected by PWECD. Risk-
factor analysis for PWECD showed that the affected herds used higher levels of soybean meal
and canola products, and had higher Ca (and Mg) levels and lower Zn and electrolytic balance
(EB) levels, than non-affected herds. Cardinal et al. (2006) recommended that to
prevent/reduce PWECD, protein of animal origin should be included in the feed for the first 3
weeks post-weaning without high Ca levels.
In somewhat of a contrast, we (Kim et al. 2005) have shown that adding 20 g oat hulls per kg
diet to a diet containing cooked white rice as the only cereal (where the starch is 98%
apparently digestible at the ileum) and animal protein sources (most likely of varying ileal

London Swine Conference – Thinking Globally, Acting Locally 5-6 April 2006
70
digestibility) reduced the incidence of post-weaning diarrhoea and the number of antibiotic
treatments. The levels of blood urea nitrogen and concentrations of some biogenic amines
were also reduced in pigs given the diet with oat hulls, suggesting that oat hulls changed
fermentation characteristics in the hindgut, possibly by altering the balance of the microbiota.
Jeaurond and de Lange (2005) reported similar changes in biogenic amine contents using
poultry meal and sugar-beet pulp.
It is recognized that the ‘quality’ of animal protein sources varies enormously (eg. Hendriks et
al., 2004 showed enormous variation between manufacturing plants in the ‘quality’ of New
Zealand meat-and-bone meal), so it is of little surprise that there is disparity between studies.
Greater attention to the indigestible component of some protein sources coupled to greater
awareness of dietary fibre sources could impact positively on post-weaning pig performance
and health, although obviously account needs to be taken of the specific situation in question.
CYTOKINES AND FATTY ACIDS
Interactions between nutrition and immunity are diverse and can have profound implications
for pig growth and productivity. Pro-inflammatory cytokines released from macrophages act
to both amplify the cellular immune response following immunological challenge and act
systemically to change behavior, metabolism and neuroendocrine secretions (Johnson, 1997).
The pro-inflammatory cytokines are important mediators of the inflammatory response, and
one of the consequences of the weaning process sometimes observed is an elevation in indices
of inflammation (King et al., 2003). Transient anorexia in the immediate post-weaning period
impairs the integrity of the mucosal epithelium and elevates markers of the inflammatory
response (Pie et al., 2004).
Grimble (1998) reviewed the effects of nutrients, predominately antioxidants, proteins and
amino acids and fats, influencing the ability of cells to produce cytokines and affecting the
ability of target tissues to respond to cytokines. With respect to fats, there is now sufficient
evidence both in the literature and commercially advocating the use of some fatty acids in
diets modulating both immune and anti-bacterial responses in pigs. In the weaned pig the
notion of using specific fatty acids is obviously attractive because they can simply be added to
the diet often at little cost and are sometimes as effective as antimicrobial agents. For
example, research from Belgium by Dierick et al. (2002) shows strong in vitro and in vivo
anti-bacterial effects of medium-chain fatty acids on the pig proximal small intestine in the
absence of traditional antimicrobials.
FEED MANUFACTURING AND QUALITY
Issues including grinding and particle size and pellet ‘quality’, whether or not to use cooked
cereals, and pellets versus meal, are always of keen interest to feed manufacturers and
producers. Pelleting of diets for young pigs is generally regarded as providing better
performance and feed conversion efficiency than meal diets, although attention needs to be
paid to the percentage of fines because an increased concentration of fines can bridge feeders

London Swine Conference – Thinking Globally, Acting Locally 5-6 April 2006 71
and hence decrease performance (Table 1). Another possible advantage of pellets over meals
relates to flow ability of diets. Research using the angle of repose [a measure of the maximum
angle (º) at which a pile of ingredients retains its shape] showed greater flow ability in meal
diets with granulated specialty protein or coarsely ground lactose sources (Carney et al.,
2005).
Table 1. The effect of fines in nursery diets on pig performance (after Stark et al.
1994)A.
Minimum fines 300g fines added/kg
of diet Difference, %
Weight gain, g/day 469a 454b -3
Feed intake, g/day 772 771 0
Feed:gain (g:g) 1.65a 1.70b +3
ATrial conducted between 7-21 days after weaning.
a,bValues in a row with a different superscript are significantly different (P < 0.05).
A topic that is always of interest is pellet size, yet there is little empirical evidence to make a
formed decision. In a factorial study, Edge et al. (2005) offered sucking pigs a creep feed with
a diameter of either 5.0 mm or 1.8 mm followed by pellets of either 1.8 mm, 2.4 mm or 5.0
mm diameter after weaning. These authors failed to find any long-lasting effects of pellet
diameter on production in the peri-weaning period. Earlier, Traylor et al. (1996) presented
data showing that pellets to 12 mm in diameter had no influence on post-weaning
performance, as did the provision of a meal-based diet. Nevertheless, details are lacking as to
whether manufacture of a smaller pellet influences nutrient (eg. amino acid) availability.
CONCLUSIONS
This paper has attempted to outline some different/alternative philosophies or approaches to
nursery pig nutrition. The perennial problem of low feed intake in the immediate post-
weaning period, by implication, means that potentially useful compounds are delivered
irregularly and/or in suboptimal concentrations to evoke a positive response. Obviously there
are many other strategies that could be pursued as ‘new thoughts’ on weaner pig nutrition, but
the cost and overall acceptance by producers of such strategies must be taken into account.
LITERATURE CITED
Alexopoulos, C., I.E. Georgoulakis, A. Tzivara, S.K. Kritis, A. Siochu and S.C. Kyriakis.
2004. Field evaluation of the efficacy of a probiotic containing Bacillus licheniformis
and Bacillus subtilis spores, on the health status and performance of sows and their
litters. J. Anim. Physiol. Anim. Nutr. 88: 381-392.
Braun, K. and C.F.M. de Lange. 2004. Co-products used in swine liquid feeding: aspects of
food safety and nutritional value. Eastern Nutrition Conference, Ottawa, pp. 205-222.

London Swine Conference – Thinking Globally, Acting Locally 5-6 April 2006
72
Brooks, P.H. and C.A. Tsourgiannis. 2003. Factors affecting the voluntary feed intake of the
weaned pig. In (J.R. Pluske, J. Le Dividich and M.W.A. Verstegen, Eds.): Weaning
the Pig: Concepts and Consequences. Wageningen Academic Publishers, Netherlands,
pp. 81-116.
Burrin, D. and B. Stoll. 2003. Intestinal nutrient requirements in weanling pigs. In (J.R.
Pluske, J. Le Dividich and M.W.A. Verstegen, Eds.): Weaning the Pig: Concepts and
Consequences. Wageningen Academic Publishers, The Netherlands, pp. 301-335.
Cardinal, F., S. D’Allaire and J.M. Fairbrother. 2006. Feed composition in herds with or
without post weaning Escherichia coli diarrhea in early-weaned piglets. J. Swine
Health Prod. 14: 10-17.
Carney, E.E., C.N. Groesbeck, R.D. Goodband, M.D. Tokach, J.L. Nelssen and S.S. Dritz.
2005. Lactose and specialty protein sources influence flow ability of nursery pig diets.
In: Swine Research 2005, Kansas State University, pp. 118-121.
De Lange, L. 2005. Nutribiotics could replace antibiotics in feed. World Poultry 21(10): 26-
28.
Demecková, V., D. Kelly, A.G.P. Coutts, P.H. Brooks and A. Campbell. 2002. The effect of
fermented liquid feeding on the faecal microbiology and colostrum quality of
farrowing sows. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 79: 85-97.
Dierick, N.A., J.A. Decuypere, K. Molly, E. van Beek and E. Vanderbeke. 2002. The
combined use of triacylglycerols (TAGs) containing medium-chain fatty acids
(MCFAs) and exogenous lipolytic enzymes as an alternative to nutritional antibiotics
in piglet nutrition. II. In vivo release of MCFAs in gastric cannulated and slaughtered
piglets by endogenous and exogenous lipases; effects on the luminal gut flora and
growth performance. Livest. Prod. Sci. 76: 1-16.
Dritz, S.S. 2004. Management to optimize productivity of the weaned pig. In (J.M. Murphy,
Ed.): Proceedings of the 4th London Swine Conference. London, ON, pp. 7-18.
Edge, H.L., J.A. Dalby, P. Rowlinson and M.A. Varley. 2005. The effect of pellet diameter on
the performance of young pigs. Livest. Prod. Sci. 97: 203-209.
Gill, H.S. and K.J. Rutherfurd. 2001. Viability and dose response studies on the effects of the
immunoenhancing lactic acid bacterium L. rhamnosus in mice. Br. J. Nutr. 86: 285-
289.
Grimble, R.F. 1998. Modification of inflammatory aspects of immune function by nutrients.
Nutr. Res. 18: 1297-1317.
Hendriks, W.H., Y.H. Cottam, P.C.H. Morel and D.V. Thomas. 2004. Source of the variation
in meat and bone meal nutritional quality. Asian-Aust. J. Anim. Sci. 17: 94-101.
Jeaurond, E. A. and C.F.M. de Lange. 2005. Growth performance, gut health and digestive
function in newly weaned pigs fed fermentable proteins and carbohydrates. J. Anim.
Sci. 83 (Suppl.1): 181.
Johnson, R.W. 1997. Inhibition of growth by pro-inflammatory cytokines: An integrated
view. J. Anim. Sci. 75: 1244-1255.
Kim, J.-C., B.P. Mullan, D.J. Hampson and J.R. Pluske. 2005. Insoluble non-starch
polysaccharides fed as oat hulls reduce protein fermentation in the large intestine of
newly-weaned pigs. In (J.E. Paterson, Ed.): Manipulating Pig Production X.
Australasian Pig Science Association, Werribee, VIC, p. 145.
King, M.R., D. Kelly, P.C.H. Morel and J.R. Pluske. 2003. Aspects of intestinal immunity in
the pig around weaning. In (J.R. Pluske, J. Le Dividich and M.W.A. Verstegen, Eds.):

London Swine Conference – Thinking Globally, Acting Locally 5-6 April 2006 73
Weaning the Pig: Concepts and Consequences. Wageningen Academic Publishers,
The Netherlands, pp. 219-257.
Le Dividich, J. and B. Sève. 2000. Effects of underfeeding during the weaning period on
growth, metabolism, and hormonal adjustments in the piglet. Domest. Anim.
Endocrinol. 19: 63-74.
NRC. 1988. National Research Council. Nutrient requirements of swine. National Academy
Press.
Pie, S., J.P. Lalles, F. Blazy, J. Laffitte, B. Sève and I.P. Oswald. 2004. Weaning is associated
with an upregulation of expression if inflammatory cytokines in the intestine of
piglets. J. Nutr. 134: 641-647.
Pluske, J.R., P.E. Vercoe and D.J. Hampson. 2004. Dietary manipulation of gastrointestinal
microbiota. In: Proceedings of the 25th Western Nutrition Conference: Nutrient
Requirements and Ingredient Evaluation in the 21st Century, pp. 55-69. Saskatoon,
SW, Canada.
Smith, H.W. and S. Halls. 1968. The production of oedema disease and diarrhoea in weaned
piglets by the oral administration of Escherichia coli: factors that influence the course
of the experimental disease. J. Med. Microbiol. 1: 45-59.
Stark, C.R., K.C. Behnke, J.D. Hancock, S.L. Traylor and R.H. Hines. 1994. Effect of diet
form and fines in pelleted diets on growth performance of nursery pigs. J. Anim .Sci.
(Suppl.1): 72: 214.
Taras, D., W. Vahjen, M. Macha and O. Simon. 2005. Response of performance
characteristics and fecal consistency to long-lasting dietary supplementation with the
probiotic strain Bacillus cereus var. toyoi to sows and piglets. Arch. Anim. Nutr. 59:
405-417.
Tokach, M.D., S.S. Dritz, R.D. Goodband and J.L. Nelssen. 2003. Nutritional requirements of
the weaned pig. In (J.R. Pluske, J. Le Dividich and M.W.A. Verstegen, Eds.):
Weaning the Pig: Concepts and Consequences. Wageningen Academic Publishers,
The Netherlands, pp. 259-299.
Traylor, S.L., K.C. Behnke, J.D. Hancock, P. Sorrell and R.H. Hines. 1996. Effects of pellet
size on growth performance in nursery and finishing pigs. J. Anim .Sci. (Suppl.1): 74:
67.
Yen, J.T., Nienaber, J.A. and Pond, W.G. 1997. Effect of neomycin, carbadox and length of
adaptation to calorimetry on performance, fasting metabolism and gastrointestinal
tract of young pigs. J. Anim. Sci. 65: 1243-1248.
Wu, G.Y., D.A. Knabe and S.W. Kim. 2004. Arginine nutrition in neonatal pigs. J. Nutr. 134:
2783S-2790S.