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Energy and protein requirements of pigs and the utilization of fibrous feedstuffs in Nigeria: A review

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Abstract

A sound nutrition programme, which allows the understanding of the interaction between nutrients and requirements for different levels of production, is essential for raising swine profitably. Nutrient requirement is that amount of each essential nutrient that will result in maximum production with a minimum of feeding. Hence, high quality feeds containing the essential nutrients in the amounts necessary to meet the animal's requirements must be provided, in order to attain an optimal rate and efficiency of growth from birth to market. The formulation of balanced diets that provide the correct amounts and proportions of these nutrients is essential to support the requirements for maintenance, growth and reproduction of the animal. It is only then that the feeding programme can be said to have a major impact on the performance and the overall profitability of the swine herd. The scarcity of conventional feeds has hindered the growth and development of the livestock industry in Nigeria. The general shortage of energy and protein feeds appear to be more severe for non-ruminants that depend to a great extent on compounded feeds, especially pigs, which are bulk feeders. There are a number of agro-industrial by-products, farm waste or crop residues that have been exploited as alternative feed sources for the high energy cereals. This has made a substantial contribution towards better and more economic feeding of non-ruminants. However, fibrousness, a feature of most locally available agro-industrial by-products and wastes has limited their use.

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... The 10 essential amino acids are arginine, histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine. In a review article [8], it was explained that in pigs, amino acids are reported to be the chemical components of protein and are generally supplied to the pig from the crude protein in the diet. Failure to supplement low protein diet or feedstuf with suicient amounts of good quality protein source was observed [8], which results in poor growth, insuicient feed utilization, increased carcass fatness, general unthriftiness, and or reduced reproductive performance. ...
... In a review article [8], it was explained that in pigs, amino acids are reported to be the chemical components of protein and are generally supplied to the pig from the crude protein in the diet. Failure to supplement low protein diet or feedstuf with suicient amounts of good quality protein source was observed [8], which results in poor growth, insuicient feed utilization, increased carcass fatness, general unthriftiness, and or reduced reproductive performance. This researcher [8] also mentioned that in pigs, diet crude iber should not exceed 10-15% of the diet as feed intake may be depressed. ...
... Failure to supplement low protein diet or feedstuf with suicient amounts of good quality protein source was observed [8], which results in poor growth, insuicient feed utilization, increased carcass fatness, general unthriftiness, and or reduced reproductive performance. This researcher [8] also mentioned that in pigs, diet crude iber should not exceed 10-15% of the diet as feed intake may be depressed. Growing and lactating pigs should be fed ad libitum while others could be limitedly fed. ...
... Improved feed resources and pig feeding practices are key interventions that could empower pig farmers to increase farm returns. A pig's diet should contain adequate amounts of carbohydrates, proteins, minerals and vitamins (Goodman 1994;Aherne et al. 1999;de Lange and Mohn 1999;Adesehinwa 2008). Incomplete diets may limit nutrient balance and subsequently affect growth potential (Paul et al. 2007). ...
... Blood from the slaughter slab, beans, sweet potato leaves and vines, brewers waste, "omena" and rumen contents are some of the potential protein rich food identified in the study. Adesehinwa (2008) listed blood meal, bone meal, and chicken offal meal as protein alternatives for pigs. "Omena" fish and its waste dust (fish scraps) were described as the readily available source of protein for pigs in Busia District. ...
... A median growth rate of 130 g/day was reported in Kenya, in grower pigs on commercial farms keeping exotic breeds (Wabacha et al. 2004). Feeding pigs with low quality diets may result from insufficient knowledge on the nutritional requirements of the animals (Adesehinwa et al. 2003;Adesehinwa 2008). Training farmers on the importance of including other components of nutrients such as vitamins and proteins, to achieve a balanced diet and maximise growth and production, is one way to overcome the challenge. ...
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We used face-to-face interviews to gather data on pig feeding practices in rural Busia District, Kenya. We visited 164 pig farms three times in the course of the study period. The pigs were weighed in kilograms during the visits. Feeds offered to pigs were described during the interviews. The most frequently fed feedstuffs were; ground maize or "ugali" (88%), kitchen leftovers (83%) and dried fish locally called "omena" (78%). Farmers provided pigs with water separately from the feeds. Sweet potatoes, "ugali" and cassava were available and could serve as good sources of energy for pigs in the district. Fruits and vegetables were also available and could potentially act as good sources of vitamins. Sweet potato vines, "omena" fish and slaughter blood were available and could provide pigs with proteins. The average daily gain (ADG) for pigs ≤ 5 months of age, pigs of 5.1-9.9 months of age and pigs of ≥ 10 months old was 94.5 (± 43), 127 (± 49.8) and 99 (± 92) g, respectively (p = 0.000). This study has outlined the different local pig feeds available in Busia district. We recommend two things: first, additional research on nutrient composition for the identified local feeds, and second, developing and validating simple local feed combinations that would achieve balanced local pig rations.
... Recent research has demonstrated that microbial fermentation treatment can degrade some indigestible fiber components in corn straw, increase certain soluble monosaccharides and polysaccharides, as well as small peptides and enzymes, thereby improving its nutritional characteristics and enhancing its feeding effect in animal production [6][7][8]. Although pigs lack the ability to secrete fiber-degrading enzymes in their digestive tract, their large intestines host numerous microorganisms with cellulolytic activity, similar to the rumen of ruminants [9,10]. These microorganisms can partially or completely ferment certain fiber components to produce volatile fatty acids for energy supply [10]. ...
... Although pigs lack the ability to secrete fiber-degrading enzymes in their digestive tract, their large intestines host numerous microorganisms with cellulolytic activity, similar to the rumen of ruminants [9,10]. These microorganisms can partially or completely ferment certain fiber components to produce volatile fatty acids for energy supply [10]. Previous research has shown that pig diets must contain a certain amount of fiber to support the normal physiological function and development of the digestive tract [11]. ...
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This study aimed to explore the effects of dietary fiber level and breed on the growth performance, nutrient utilization, intestinal morphology, slaughter performance, and meat quality of finishing pigs using fermented corn straw (FCS) as the fiber source. The experiment employed a 2 × 4 factorial design, selecting 96 Songliao Black (SLB) and Duroc × Landrace × Yorkshire (DLY) crossbred finishing pigs (a total of 192 pigs, with an initial body weight of 60.52 ± 4.59 kg) randomly assigned by breed to four dietary treatment groups (A: 2.92% crude fiber; B: 4.82% crude fiber; C: 6.86% crude fiber; D: 9.01% crude fiber). The results showed that DLY finishing pigs had higher final weight (FW), average daily gain (ADG), and average daily feed intake (ADFI) in both finishing stages 1 and 2 compared to SLB pigs (p < 0.05), while the ratio of feed to weight gain (F/G) showed no significant differences (p > 0.05). Compared to the basal diet, increasing the dietary fiber level to 4.82% improved FW and ADG in both SLB and DLY finishing pigs (p < 0.05) and reduced F/G (p < 0.05). Additionally, SLB finishing pigs had lower ether extract (EE) digestibility but higher crude fiber (CF) and acid detergent fiber (ADF) digestibility than DLY (p < 0.05). Dietary fiber level and breed exhibited an interaction effect on dry matter (DM) and crude protein (CP) digestibility in finishing pigs (p < 0.05). At a dietary fiber level of 4.82%, villus height, crypt depth in the jejunum, and cecal volatile fatty acid (VFA) concentrations were increased in both SLB and DLY finishing pigs (p < 0.05). Dietary fiber level and breed showed an interaction effect on cecal VFA production in finishing pigs (finishing stage 1; p < 0.05). The dietary fiber level of 4.82% increased loin eye area (LA) (p < 0.05) and decreased backfat thickness (BT) (p < 0.05) in both SLB and DLY finishing pigs. Dietary fiber level and breed had an interaction effect on LA in finishing pigs (p < 0.05). SLB pigs had higher muscle redness (a*), shear force, and contents of crude protein (CP), EE, saturated fatty acid (SFA), and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) than DLY (p < 0.05). Increasing the dietary fiber level improved pH24h and reduced drip loss and shear force in both SLB and DLY finishing pigs (p < 0.05). Dietary fiber level and breed showed an interaction effect on pig meat color and drip loss (p < 0.05). In conclusion, FCS is a beneficial source of dietary fiber for SLB and DLY pigs. Its proper addition can enhance the growth performance, carcass traits, and meat quality in fattening pigs.
... Pig rearing is an important venture with potential to alleviate poverty among smallholder farmers. This is because pigs exhibit remarkably high prolificacy, faster growth rates (Adesehinwa, 2008), and are easy to manage (Ninh et al., 2019). ...
... Grower pigs cannot effectively utilize high fibre feeds because they have a poorly developed digestive system (Lindberg, 2014). Furthermore, the poor digestibility of crude fibre by grower pigs (Adesehinwa, 2008). This might have reduced the performance of the pigs in the current experiment. ...
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In Uganda, the major limitation to pig production is the high cost of quality feeds. Consequently, smallholder farmers resort to using non-conventional feedstuffs within their surroundings, which are seasonal and do not solely meet the nutritional requirements of the pigs. In order to reduce feed costs, this study assessed the performance of growing pigs fed on a mixture of a commercial diet and a fermented composite of commonly used local feedstuffs namely sweet potato vines (SPV), cassava tubers (CT) and rice bran (RB). A completely randomised block design with two treatments (diets), each replicated three times was adopted for the study. The diets were; commercial diet (control), and a 1:1 mixture of commercial diet and fermented sweet potato vine-cassava tuber-rice bran composite. The chemical composition of SPV, CT and RB varied, with SPV having the highest crude protein (10.8%), CT having the highest digestible energy (3032 Kcal/kg) and RB having the highest crude fibre (20.3%). The crude protein content of the commercial feed was higher (16.5 %) than that of the mixture (13.33 %), while the mixture had a higher crude fibre content (11.6 %) than the commercial feed (6.3 %). However, the fat content and digestible energy content of the two diets did not differ. Grower pigs fed on the commercial diet registered higher daily weight gains and better feed conversion ratio (p<0.05) than those fed on the 1:1 mixture of the commercial diet and fermented composite. Therefore, feeding the 1:1 mixture of commercial and fermented SPV-CT-RB feeds to pigs lowered the performance of grower pigs and did not meet the goal of reducing feeding costs. Further research should be conducted at different levels of substitution of the commercial with the mixed feed to establish the combination that can reduce feeding costs without compromising the performance of the pigs. RÉSUMÉ En Ouganda, la principale limite à la production porcine est le coût élevé des aliments de qualité. Par conséquent, les petits exploitants agricoles ont recours à des aliments non conventionnels dans leur environnement, qui sont saisonniers et ne répondent pas simplement aux besoins nutritionnels des porcs. Afin de réduire les coûts d'alimentation, cette étude a évalué la performance de porcs en croissance nourris avec un mélange d'un régime commercial et d'un composite fermenté d'aliments locaux couramment utilisés, à savoir des boutures de patate douce (SPV), des tubercules de manioc (CT) et du son de riz
... As with the current study, [9] also reported high participation of married farmers in pig production. Since pigs are highly prolific [3] and have ready market [15], they could easily avail income to married farmers to acquire the household basic needs. Married farmers in the current study may therefore have opted for piggery to this end. ...
... Pigs were kept as the major livestock species which agrees with [1] who also reported high preference for pigs compared to other livestock species. This, they attributed to the high prolificacy and small land requirement which were also reported by [3,4]. These characteristics may also be preferred by farmers in the current study. ...
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The potential of pig production to improve the livelihoods of smallholder farmers is constrained by inadequate use of pig production technologies. Technologies like the use of artificial insemination (AI) to improve breeds have been suggested to improve pig production. Pig production in Northern Uganda, however, remains low suggesting limited use of such technologies. Three technologies (Indigenous Microorganism (IMO) technology, artificial insemination and use of feed formula from dominant locally available feedstuffs) were introduced to the smallholder farmers in Gulu and Omoro districts of northern Uganda. Prior to implementation, however, it necessitated that the status of pig production among farmers be established against which the impact of the initiative to introduce these technologies will be assessed. This paper therefore aimed at determining the status of pig production in northern Uganda. A cross-sectional survey was carried out among 109 purposively selected pig farmers recruited to participate in technology implementation. 59.6% were males, aged between 36-64 years (53.2%), married (78%), with household size of 7-9 members (42.2%), had attained primary education (58.7%) and had 1-5 acres of land (54.1%). The average herd size was 4.6 pigs with 67.4% farmers keeping local pigs. Piglets dominated the herds in both districts with 89% farmers keeping pigs as the main livestock species. Income generation was the primary reason for keeping pigs. Piggery was constrained by expensive feeding (82.6%) and diseases (47.7%). 93.6% farmers fed pigs on local feedstuffs with no definite formula, 59.6% housed their pigs but none used either artificial insemination or indigenous microorganism technologies. In conclusion, there exists limited knowledge on, and use of the three technologies. There is therefore need to train farmers on these technologies and later assess their acceptance and adoption, and their impact on status of pig production.
... Estas diferencias se deberían a la composición de la pared celular, particularmente a la relación celulosa/hemicelulosa. Según Adesehinwa (2008) no hay consenso en la influencia de la fibra dietaria sobre la digestibilidad de la proteína. En la revisión hecha por este autor encontró trabajos que sugieren que cuando la fuente de fibra no aporta cantidades significativas de proteína a la dieta, un incremento en el nivel de fibra no afectaría la digestibilidad de la proteína en forma significativa; mientras que otros investigadores observaron que un incremento en los niveles dietarios de fibra deprimen la digestibilidad de la proteína. ...
... Existen ecuaciones de predicción con mayor o menor coeficiente de determinación (R 2 ), y que según los alimentos con los que se hayan obtenido utilizan una, dos, o más variables, entre ellas el contenido de PC, FC, extracto etéreo (EE), carbohidratos solubles (CS), etc. (Adesehinwa, 2008). ...
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Pig farming in Uruguay is carried out mainly under outdoor conditions, and pastures are often used as a component of food. In order to explore pigs feeding alternatives which can make a contribution in times that pastures do not offer forage, an experiment was conducted to assess consumption by pregnant sows of the whole plant of sweet sorghum (Sorghum saccharatum, br. M81) as deferred forage (once the crop cycle has finished), according to time of year and preservation method. The effect of balanced feed restriction, and the addition of a molasses solution to improve the palatability of material, was also studied. The experiment was conducted at Unidad de Producción de Cerdos, located on the Centro Regional Sur of the Facultad de Agronomía of Uruguay. It consisted in offer ad libitum the entire plant of sweet sorghum, harvested and milled at the supply time, in two moments of the year (M1 = fall, M2 = winter) and ensilaged (only in M2). Five treatments were defined: T1 = milled fresh sorghum + 1250 gr/day of balanced feed, T2 = milled fresh sorghum + 750 gr/day of balanced feed, T3 = milled fresh sorghum and molasses solution added at 5% + 750 gr/day of balanced feed, all on M1; T4 = idem to T2 but in M2, and T5 = sorghum silage + 750 gr/day of balanced feed also on M2. Each treatment was evaluated in 6 sows (repetitions) that were between 38 and 76 days of gestation (second third), with an average live weight of 158.4 ± 18.4 kg. Animals were housed and fed individually. The experiment consisted in a 5 days acclimatization period, and a 5 days of consumption measurement period. The food was supplied on two or three opportunities along the day to guarantee it was always available, and the balanced feed was supplied at the end of the day. The rejected material was collected early in the morning on next day. Both the offered material as the rejected, were chemically analysed. Data were analysed with the GLM procedure of SAS software. The average DM consumption was 1137 ± 287 gr (a), 1119 ± 190 gr (a), 854 ± 222 gr (b), 669 ± 240 gr (b) and 743 ± 304 gr (b) for T1 to T5 respectively (p<0.05). Results shows that balanced feed restriction did not promoted DM consumption and instead, with the same restriction, the molasses addition has depressed it. Keep the crop on the field has depressed consumption due to the changes on its chemical composition, while silage preserved the nutrient content, but did not obtained differences on consumption. With these consumption levels, sweet sorghum is capable to supply 42% of required DE of the sow in fall, and 26 and 29% when it is deferred to winter, keeping the crop on the field or as a silage respectively.
... There exists in the country some agro industrial byproducts and crop residues that can be used as total or partial replacements of conventional ingredients in finished livestock feeds. Pigs are capable of converting these agro-industrial byproducts or 'wastes' of all kinds (which will normally be discarded by humans) into wholesome animal protein (Adesehinwa, 2008). ...
... Proteins form the basic unit of cells and other substances that are necessary for bodybuilding, repairs and maintenance of homeostasis, regulation of vital body functions, energy source and defense against infectious agents (Adesehinwa, 2008). Protein deficiency has been reported to reduce most haematological and serum parameters (Mafuvadze and Erlwander, 2007) through reduced or impaired synthesis of the blood cells which are largely proteinaceous. ...
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The increasing cost of conventional feeds calls for the unconventional ones. The effect of Allzyme®SSF and diet physical form on performance, haematological and serum biochemical indices of growing pigs fed with palm kernel meal-based diet was determined. Twenty four growing pigs comprising of twelve male and twelve female weighing 8.95±1.01Kg were assigned into four dietary treatment groups involving dry mash diet, wet mash diet, dry mash diet+ Allzyme®SSF and wet mash diet+ Allzyme®SSF in a completely randomized design. After feeding experiment for six weeks, haematological and serum biochemical parameters were determined. Growth performance was observed on a weekly basis for six consecutive weeks. The results showed that the diet physical form and Allzyme®SSF supplementation in a palm kernel meal-based diet did not significantly affect the haematological and serum biochemical parameters; however weight gain and feed conversion ratio were significantly influenced by the diet physical form and Allzyme®SSF supplementation, thus making dry mash diet + Allzyme®SSF the best dietary treatment. The experiment showed that the diet physical form and Allzyme®SSF supplementation in a palm kernel meal-based diet did not have any negative effect on the growing pigs and growth performance was not hindered; therefore palm kernel meal-based diet in wet or dry mash form with or without Allzyme® SSF supplementation could be fed to growing pigs.
... Although grasses and sunshine are the best nutrient sources for cattle and sheep, they cannot provide sufficient nutritional value to other monogastrics and ruminants. Furthermore, animals can benefit from grassland feed if this is integrated with other feedstocks (legumes, shrubs) (Adesehinwa, 2008). ...
... Biotechnology is applied to enhance the feed nutrition value by preserving the essential proteins, amino acids, and fats (Adesehinwa, 2008). To improve the nutrient availability of feed and reduce waste generation from feed enzymes, it is being used in the form of prebiotics and probiotics. ...
Chapter
The use of biotechnology has revolutionized the market of animal nutrition and increased the potential feed utilization to meet up with a hike in global requirements of livestock products., which has reserved the role of animal nutritionist to set forth the optimize conditions which will increase feed efficiency to yield high livestock from less feed. Improved animal health conditions from vaccines, medicines, and diagnostic tests result in safer foods for consumers. Besides, food quality may be improved by introducing desirable traits through new genes into farm livestock and poultry. To achieve these developments, adopting biotechnology by utilizing enzymes and microbes as additives, using genetically altered plants, and further utilizing antibiotics as in-feed additives to inhibit the growth of harmful microbes and its application in the livestock feed industry to enhance feed nutritional value. Livestock has become progressively important for the growth of the agriculture sector in developing countries. The use of biotechnology will lead to drastic economic drift and improve livestock with sustainable living. This chapter discusses animal nutrition and biotechnological application requirements in improving the nutritional value of feed and its utilization in livestock.
... The alternative feedstuff, therefore, must be ingredients with less competition by other secondary industrial users and producers which are readily available in commercial quantities and affordable prices 1 . Also, pigs should be capable of converting these alternative feedstuffs (which will normally be discarded by humans) into wholesome animal protein 3 . Fibrous feed ingredients are abundant and cheap. ...
... A report had shown that a low albumin content is a consequence of dietary protein shortage 44 . Proteins form the basic unit of cells and other substances that are necessary for body building, repairs and maintenance of homeostasis, regulation of vital body functions, energy source and defence against infectious agents 3 . Protein deficiency has been reported to reduce most haematological and serum parameters 31 through reduced or impaired synthesis of the blood cells which are largely proteinaceous. ...
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This study examined the effects of pig feed supplementation with dried cassava peels, Vernonia amygdalina and Pennisetum purpereum stems, which are readily available, on pigs' body weights and some biochemical parameters. Twelve large White x Dunroc weaner pigs with an average body weight of 5.85±0.70 kg were used for the study. The pigs were randomly divided into 4 treatment groups and were fed with formulated experimental diet twice daily for 21 days. In addition, pigs in groups 2, 3 and 4 received dried V. amygdalina stems, cassava peels, and P. purpureum stems ad libitum, respectively, as food supplement in the afternoon daily. At the end of the feeding trial, the animals were weighed and bled. Serum obtained from the blood samples was used for biochemical analysis. Pigs fed only the formulated diet had the lowest weight gain (0.47±0.29 kg) while those that received cassava peels as food supplement had the highest weight gain (1.67±0.82 kg). There was no significant difference (P>0.05) in serum creatinine, aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) values in the pigs, but serum glucose, cholesterol, albumin, calcium, urea and urea nitrogen differed significantly (P<0.05) among the experimental groups. The results indicate that pig feed supplementation using dried cassava peels, V. amygdalina and P. purpereum stems can provide growing pigs with additional nutrients. They also show that pig feed supplementation with dried cassava peels, V. amygdalina stem and P. purpereum can increase the weight of growing pigs on the short term without any toxic effects to the liver and kidney.
... Although nutrition becomes a major problem when pigs are confined permanently, some strategies are available to assist pig farmers to improve the economy of their enterprises by making use of locally available feedstuffs including agricultural by-products and waste products, improving the quality of local feedstuffs by inexpensive additives or making the most of feeds to fatten pigs when those feeds are abundant (Adesehinwa, 2008;Akinfala and Tewe, 2004;Bosma et al., 2004;Halimani et al., 2007;Peters, 2008). The choice of breed can also influence feeding costs. ...
... The sharp rise in pig numbers, particularly in West and East Africa, in the 1980s and 1990s occurred in response to a demand for affordable meat for rapidly growing urban populations (Adesehinwa, 2008;FAO, 2012a,c;Owolodun et al., 2010b;Phiri et al., 2003;Youssao et al., 2008). The demand for pork in cities is met largely by smallholder to large scale commercial farming of pigs in areas with easy access to city markets (FAO, 2012a,b,c;Mopate Logtene and Kabore-Zoungrana, 2010;Wabacha et al., 2004;Youssao et al., 2008). ...
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African swine fever was reported in domestic pigs in 26 African countries during the period 2009 - 2011.The virus exists in an ancient sylvatic cycle between warthogs (Phacochoerus africanus) and argasid ticks of the Ornithodoros moubata complex in many of the countries reporting outbreaks and in two further countries in the region. Eradication of the virus from the countries in eastern and southern Africa where the classic sylvatic cycle occurs is clearly not an option. However, the virus has become endemic in domestic pigs in 20 countries and the great majority of outbreaks in recent decades, even in some countries where the sylvatic cycle occurs, have been associated with movement of infected pigs and pig meat. Pig production and marketing and ASF control in Africa have been examined in order to identify risk factors for the maintenance and spread of ASF. These include large pig populations, traditional free-range husbandry systems, lack of biosecurity in semi-intensive and intensive husbandry systems, lack of organisation in both pig production and pig marketing that results in lack of incentives for investment in pig farming, and ineffective management of ASF. Most of these factors are linked to poverty, yet pigs are recognised as a livestock species that can be used to improve livelihoods and contribute significantly to food security. The changes needed and how they might be implemented in order to reduce the risk of ASF to pig producers in Africa and to the rest of the world are explored.
... Increasing demands for energy by productive animals increased the importance of sourcing high-quality cassava peel which has been processed to reduce anti-nutritional factors and improve its nutritional content. Several studies have investigated the performance of broiler chickens fed diets containing high-quality cassava peel, these studies have shown promising results, indicating the high-quality of cassava peel can be a high viable feed ingredient for broiler chickens (Adesehinwa, 2008). High-quality cassava peel is a good source of energy, crude protein and minerals such as calcium and phosphorus. ...
Article
This study was aimed at evaluating the haematological indices and serum biochemistry of finisher broiler chickens fed high-quality cassava peel meal. A total of 160-day-old Arbor Acre broiler chicks were sourced from a reputable hatchery in Ibadan, Oyo State. The birds were randomly weighed and assigned into four dietary treatment groups supplemented with HQCP at 150, 200 and 250kg/ton of feed, each replicated four times with ten birds per replicate in a completely randomised design. Results shows that the haematological indices of birds fed high-quality cassava peel meal had significant (P<0.05) differences in Red blood cell (RBC), Packed cell volume (PCV) and Haemoglobin (Hb). Birds fed diet 2(150 kg HQCP/ton) and diet 3 (200kg HQCP/ ton) had the highest values for RBC, PCV and Hb (3.26 x106/mm3, 3.19%, and 13.07g/dl) and (28.0 x106/mm3, 27.67%, and 13.27g/dl), respectively. They are significantly (P<0.05) higher than those of birds on diet1(Control) and diet4(250kg HQCP/ton). However, there were no significant (P>0.05) differences across the treatment groups for white blood cell. The serum biochemistry revealed that total protein of birds fed diet 3 was significantly (P<0.05) higher than those fed diets 1 and diet 4 respectively. The result of the Alanine transaminase (ALT), Aspartate transaminase (AST), alkaline phosphates (ALP), and Bilirubin shows no significant (P>0.05) differences across the treatment groups. The result of the total cholesterol shows that birds fed diets 3 and 4 were not significantly different from each other but they were significantly lower than others. Therefore, cassava peels can replace maize at 150kg –250kg/ton inclusion level without any detrimental effect on the hematological parameters, and serum biochemical indices of finisher broiler chickens.
... This is in agreement with the report of [15] reported improvement in the total protein of primiparous gilts and pregnant sows fed diet with fermented rapeseed meal (FRSM) over those fed diets without FRSM. The high total protein content also indicates efficient protein utilisation for proper building, repair and regulation of vital body functions [27]. Pigs fed diet containing 100% UMTRH also had the highest (P<0.05) ...
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This study investigated the effect of varying levels of urea-molasses treated rice husk (UMTRH) in the place of wheat offal on serum and haematological parameters of growing pigs. A total of 60 pigs of 18-20kg weight were used in the study. Pigs were allotted on weight equalization basis into five dietary treatments. The pigs were randomly allotted into 15 pens and each treatment contained 12 pigs consisting of 3 replicates of 4 pigs each. The diets formulated consists of a standard basal diet Control; (wheat offal based without treated rice husk) and treated rice husk was used to replace wheat offal at 25, 50, 75, and 100% levels. Blood collection was done at the end of 8th week for serum and haematological analysis. Data obtained were subjected to one way analysis of variance. Pigs fed diet containing 25% UMTRH had highest (P<0.05) glucose (151.00 mg/l). Replacement of UMTRH at 100% resulted in highest (P<0.05) serum albumin (46.50 g/l), globulin (37.25 g/l) and total protein (83.75 g/l). The replacement of wheat offal with UMTRH at 25% increased (P<0.05) Packed cell volume (PCV) (50.50 %) and Red blood cell (RBC) (7.62 x10 12 /l) while those fed control diet had the lowest (P<0.05) PCV (38.17%) and RBC (5.67 x10 12 /l). The replacement of UMTRH at 75% increased (P<0.05) haemoglobin concentration (13.85 g/dl). White blood cell (WBC) count (22.40 x10 9 /l) was highest (P<0.05) for pigs fed diet with 100% UMTRH. Mean corpuscular haemoglobin concentration (MCHC) increased with replacement of UMTRH at 0 and www.mutagens.co.in 9456 100%. Eosinophil count increased (P<0.05) with replacement at 25 and 50% UMTRH in the diet of pigs while monocyte count was not significantly (P>0.05) affected by dietary UMTRH replacements. It was concluded that Urea-molasses treated rice husk can replace wheat offal in the diet of growing pigs up to 75% without detrimental effect on the serum and haematological parameters.
... Furthermore, a large proportion of feed cost is expended on energy. However, because pigs are bulk feeders, conventional energy feedstuffs (especially maize) are often too expensive in their rations (Adesehinwa, 2008) in this part of the world. Maize is the major energy feedstuff for pigs and constitutes about 40% or more of the diet. ...
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The growth performance and nutrient digestibility of pigs fed diets containing rain tree pods (RPs) were evaluated using 20 pigs. Five diets were formulated with RP replacing maize in the control diet at 10, 20, 30 and 40%. The pigs were randomly allotted to the 5 dietary treatments, with 4 replicates of one (1) pig per replicate, and fed ad libitum for eight weeks. Data were collected on initial weight, final weight (FW), daily feed intake (DFI), daily weight gain (DWG), feed conversion ratio (FCR), cost per kilogram feed (CKF), and feed cost per kilogram weight gain. At week eight, the pigs were moved into individual metabolic crates for a digestibility trial. Rain tree pods, feed and fecal samples were analyzed for proximate composition, and metabolic energy was calculated following standard procedures. The apparent digestibility of dry matter, crude protein, ether extract, ash, and nitrogen-free extract were calculated. Data generated were analyzed using a one-way analysis of variance. The growth performance of pigs fed a 10% RP diet was similar to those fed a control diet. As the dietary inclusion of RP increased, the DFI, DWG and FW of the pigs decreased (p<0.001). The FCR increased while CKF reduced significantly (p<0.001) with an increasing level of RP in the diets. Apparent nutrient digestibility was depressed (p<0.01) with the inclusion of RP in the diets of pigs. This study concluded that the inclusion of 10% RP as a replacement for maize in the diet of growing pigs gave optimal growth performance and reduced feed cost.
... It would therefore be economically expedient to explore the use of non-conventional feed resources for animal production (NCFR), mainly agro-industrial byproducts (AIBP), which are abundant and cheap ). These are regarded as unused feed resources, little used, of less or no nutritional value for humans (Adesehinwa 2008). ...
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A 16-week study was conducted to evaluate the effects of replacing fish meal with hatchery waste meal (HWM) on growth performance and carcass characteristics of grower-finisher pigs. Sixty (60) Large White grower intact male pigs at an average liveweight of 17.55 ± 0.1 kg were randomly allotted in equal numbers to 5 dietary treatments designated as 0% HWM, 2.5% HWM, 5.0% HWM, 7.5% HWM and 10.0% HWM. The diets were formulated to be iso-caloric and iso-nitrogenous. The pigs were fed on restricted basis at 5% of the group body weight and had free access to water. Whereas ADG by the grower- finisher pigs were best on HWM 0%, HWM 2.5% and HWM 5%, FCR and day to slaughter were best on HWM 2.5%. The data revealed that feeding HWM 7.5% (210.49 kg) and HWM 10% (210.92) resulted in significantly (p < 0.05) higher total feed intake (TFI) compared to those fed 0% HWM (175.12 kg), 2.5 % HWM (172.87 kg) and 5.0 % HWM (190.49 kg). Inclusion of HWM up to 10%did not affect any of the carcass parameters measured. From the results of the study, it can be inferred that HWM could be included in pig diets up to 5% without any adverse effects on growth performance and carcass evaluation.
... The use of cassava as an alternative to conventional energy feed stuffs like maize could help to reduce feed costs (Ukachukwu, 2005). Several researchers had earlier confirmed the suitability of cassava for animal feeding including poultry and the potential of cassava meal as a feed substitute for maize, for all classes of monogastric animals (Adesehinwa, 2008). The results of the previous studies revealed that taro corn meal is a cheap source of carbohydrates in animal nutrition (Onu and Madubuike, 2006; Adejumo and Bamidele,2012). ...
... In pig diets, a high percentage of the respondents (77.4%) could not quantify the amount of rumen contents they use. Despite the fact that numerous feed ingredients provide nutrients that pigs require to grow, pigs too require balanced feed ration that provide optimum energy, proteins, and vitamins for better growth performances (Adesehinwa, 2008;Mwesigwa et al., 2013). Moreover, rumen contents are high in fiber that can limit feed intake and lead to poor growth due to insufficient feed utilization. ...
... Therefore, growth models published for lean genotypes (NRC, 2012) do not apply to MHP, which implies that their nutritional requirements are different, as well growth rate, body composition and composition of the gain. In this aspect, Adesehinwa (2008) emphasizes that the determination of nutrients requirements is crucial to optimize the productivity and profitability of pig production systems; due to variation in management and animal genotype. ...
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The Mexican hairless pig (MHP) is a slow-growing pig with an obese genotype and nutritional requirements which are different from those of pigs with lean genotypes. The objective of the present study was to determine the effects of metabolizable energy (ME) and crude protein (CP) levels in the diet of female MHP during the growth period (10–25 kg). Forty five growing females with initial body weight of 12.05 ± 2.43 kg were randomly distributed in a 3 × 3 factorial arrangement (n = 5) to evaluate the productive performance. When the animals reached the desired weight of 25 kg, three animals of each treatment were randomly selected and slaughtered for evaluation of carcass traits and commercial cuts. The main factors were three levels of ME (2,800, 3,000, and 3200 kcal of ME/kg) and three levels of CP (180, 200, and 220 g of CP kg⁻¹). Animals were individually housed in elevated cages (1.0 × 0.70 m) and provided with a feeder and a nipple drinker. Feed was offered ad libutum. There was no significant (P > 0.10) interaction between energy and protein levels on any of the variables evaluated. Females consuming feed with 3200 kcal of ME/kg had the greatest (P < 0.05) daily weight gain (336 g) and reached the desirable slaughter weight in shorter time (39.87 d) with lower feed consumption (38.97 kg) and better feed conversion (2.92 kg:1 kg). Carcass yield, backfat thickness and commercial cuts were similar (P > 0.10) among treatments. It´s conclude that the optimal levels of ME and CP in the diet of growing female MHP are 3200 kcal EM and 180 g PC per kg of feed.
... The fundamental nutrients obligatory for animal production, including energy, protein, and amino acid as macronutrients, as well as minerals, vitamins, and other micronutrients are provided by livestock feed [5] The production and accessibility of livestock feed is very less in amount than the demand since there is a scarcity of lands in our country and therefore the price is sky-high. The poor quality fibrous feed is deficient in readily fermentable carbohydrate, digestible protein, and some minerals [6]. Such fibrous feeds provide about 96%, 91%, and 84% of the dry matter (DM), metabolizable energy, and crude protein (CP), respectively, available for the ruminant animals of Bangladesh [7]. ...
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Objectives: We investigated the impact of rice gruel as an alternative energy source of molasses as well as measured the effectiveness of rice gruel on the physiology of the rumen environment and the growth performance of growing lamb. Materials and methods: A number of 18 sheep with an average age of 7 months and mean body weight of 5.9 kg were selected and divided into three groups for 60 days long feeding trial with urea molasses straw (UMS), urea rice gruel straw (URS), and concentrate feed. Every fortnight interval, live weight was recorded and rumen liquor from every group was collected four times before and after feeding at 4-h interval to examine the rumen environment. Results: Color, odor, consistency, and protozoal motility remain unchanged in all three groups. The pH of the rumen liquor was highest at 8 h of post feeding among three groups. The bacterial count (6.1 × 1010) was higher in the group that consuming UMS than URS and concentrate feed. The rumen protozoa also showed a similar growth pattern in proportion to a number of rumen bacteria. At the end of the 60 days feeding trial, no significant differences (p ≤ 0.05) were found among the three groups in contrast to body weight gain. Conclusion: In the current feeding trial, the close similar effectiveness of rice gruel and molasses was found as a fermentable energy source. However, we suggest that rice gruel can be supplemented as a substitute for molasses under the situation when molasses are not available or expensive in field condition.
... Energy and protein feedstuffs form the major components of feeds for monogastrics. However, due to competing demands between man and animal, conventional energy and protein feedstuffs are often too expensive for use in feeding this group of animals, especially pigs, which are bulk feeders (Adesehinwa, 2008). The high cost of conventional feedstuffs as well as fluctuations in their supply may result in imbalanced nutrition and cause animals to perform poorly. ...
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This study determined effects of replacing dietary maize offal with raintree (Albizia saman) pod on growth performance, carcass and blood profile of weaner pigs. Fifteen (8-week old) male weaner pigs of 10.67kg average live-weight were randomly allotted to five dietary treatments containing 0, 10, 20, 30 and 40% raintree pod (RP) as replacement for maize offal (MO) and replicated 3 times. Data were collected on feed intake, weight gains, feed conversion ratio (FCR), feed cost per kilogramme diet (FCK), feed cost per kilogramme weight gain (FCG), haematology, serum chemistry and carcass characteristics, and analysed using ANOVA. Results revealed that final weight, feed intake, weight gain and feed conversion ratio were not significantly (P>0.05) influenced by level of RP inclusion. Highest (P<0.05) FCK (N43.52/kg) was obtained with 0% RP inclusion while least cost (N33.52/kg) was obtained at 40% RP inclusion. Pigs fed diet containing 40% RP had (P<0.05) least FCG (N94.84). Haematological and serum chemistry parameters of the pigs were not influenced (P>0.05) by level of RP. Highest (P<0.05%) dressing percentage (67.69%) was obtained with pigs on 10% RP inclusion while pigs on 30% RP inclusion recorded the least (63.49%). The study concluded that use of RP as replacement for MO in the diets of weaner pigs had no detrimental effects on growth performance and blood profile of weaner pigs. Pigs on 40% RP inclusion gave least feed cost per kilogramme diet and feed cost per kilogramme weight gain, and optimal carcass and organs characteristics. Therefore, 40% RP inclusion in the diet of weaner pigs could be explored for better economic benefit without detrimental effect on growth and health.
... Most of the effort was directed towards poultry production. The policy to expand the production of poultry is seen as surest way of bridging the gap between production and consumption of animal protein (Adesehinwa, 2008). Atteh (2004) noted that the protein from poultry meat is of high quality and in several cases, it is used as a standard against which other proteins are compared. ...
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An 8-week experiment was conducted to assess the growth performance of broiler chicken served with rain tree (Samanea saman) seed meal as alternative source of protein. The study was conducted at the Animal Science Department at the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology in Ghana. The chicks were divided into four treatments and each treatment was replicated thrice with 20 chicks per replicate in a completely randomised design. S. saman seed meal was included at 20, 40 and 60 g in the diets as replacement for fish meal and soybean meal from the 3rd to 8th week. The results of the analysis indicated that 20 g S. saman seed meal diet resulted in higher weight gain (1.02 kg) and feed intake (1.48) but lower feed conversion efficiency (69%). Control treatment containing 100% fish meal and soybean meal had the best feed conversion efficiency (92%). The result of this study shows that 100% fish meal and soybean meal diet (0 g of S. saman seed meal) was more expensive Gh¢ 46.65 per kg of feed than the S. saman seed meal at 60 g (Gh¢ 44.62 kg; 1$ = 3.92 Gh¢). The cost and return analysis shows that 20 g diet gave the highest return (Gh¢ 5,905.08), followed by 0 g of S. saman seed meal (Gh¢ 4,346.07) and Gh¢ 2,380.20 for 40 g S. saman seed meal diet. For improved growth rate and higher profit margin, it is advisable to include 20 g S. saman seed meal per 100 kg broiler chicken diet.
... Para minimizar essa situação, alguns alimentos alternativos têm sido avaliados, dentre os quais o sorgo (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench), que pode ser uma estratégia para manutenção da suinocultura em regiões com maior escassez de milho (MARQUES et al., 2007;PÉREZ et al., 2010). Segundo Adesehinwa (2008) , as fontes de energia alternativas devem ser regionalmente avaliadas e apresentar baixo custo e capacidade de substituir o milho sem efeitos adversos no desempenho dos animais. O sorgo caracteriza-se por responder relativamente bem à pequena disponibilidade de água e por adaptar-se a condições áridas e em áreas marginais (O'KENNEDY et al., 2006). ...
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The study evaluated the effect of partial substitution of corn by sorghum in diet of castrated pigs and the effects on performance, carcass traits and economic feasibility. It were used 27 crossbred barrows from commercial line with 19.66 ± 2,92kg of initial live weight, divided in three groups with increasing rates of sorghum - 0%, 25% and 50% - replacing corn, distributed in a completely randomized design. The trial evaluated: daily weight gain, daily feed intake and feed:gain ratio, backfat thickness and blood biochemical parameters - urea, total proteins, creatinine, glucose, triglycerides and cholesterol. For carcass traits it was evaluated: hot and cold carcass weight, hot and cold carcass yield, pH and temperature in hot and cold carcasses and industrial weight cuts. For economy feasibility was calculated the cost of feed consumed, cost of pig kg, average cost index and economy efficiency rate. It was used regression analysis to evaluate the productive variables. No effects were found for performance data and carcass traits. For the biochemical variables, the effects were linear for urea and total protein, with animals in control group (0% of sorghum) showing higher rates. The bioeconomical performance showed that 50% sorghum had the lowest cost and the highest rate of economic efficiency. Thus, it was concluded that substitution of corn by sorghum at levels up to 50% of the diet represents an alternative to sustainability of regional swine production.
... The alternative feedstuff, therefore, must be ingredients with less competition by other secondary industrial users and producers which are readily available in commercial quantities and affordable prices. Also, pigs should be capable of converting these alternative feedstuffs (which will normally be discarded by humans) into wholesome animal protein (Adesehinwa et al., 2011;Adesehinwa, 2008). ...
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This study investigated the effects of Aspergillus niger CSA35 pretreated-cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) peel feed (CPFG) on the body weight gain and some selected biochemical parameters of pigs. Cassava peels treated with biomass of A. niger CSA35 for a period of three weeks to initiate enzymatic digestion of peels were dried, ground and used in varying proportions to formulate pig rations in combination with other feed ingredients. Twenty 85–95 days old pigs (5.85 ± 0.70 kg) were randomly divided into four experimental groups. Group 1 received 0% CPFG amidst other feed ingredients (control), while Groups 2, 3 and 4 received 40%, 60% and 100% CPFG respectively. At the end of the feeding trial (21 days), the animals were weighed and blood samples collected for biochemical analysis. Results showed that increasing the amount of the fungus-pretreated cassava peels in pig rations increased the protein, fat and carbohydrate contents of the experimental feeds. Conversely, the percentage fibre content was reduced. The weight gain of pigs fed the control diet was significantly (p<0.05) lower than those fed with 60% CPFG and 100% CPFG but did not differ from those fed 40% CPFG. Serum calcium and albumin levels were observed to be significantly lower (p<0.05) in control group than in treatment groups. The highest serum calcium level was, however, observed in 100% CPFG group. Activities of liver function enzymes and serum creatinine level of pigs fed the formulated diets did not significantly differ from those of control unlike their serum urea levels. It was concluded that pig feeds formulated with cassava peels pretreated with A. niger CSA35 enhanced feed’s nutritive value and metabolisable energy, boosted serum albumin and calcium levels in pigs, increased pigs body weight and are health-friendly since the feeds did not pose threat of liver damage in the pigs investigated.
... Para minimizar essa situação, alguns alimentos alternativos têm sido avaliados, dentre os quais o sorgo (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench), que pode ser uma estratégia para manutenção da suinocultura em regiões com maior escassez de milho (MARQUES et al., 2007;PÉREZ et al., 2010). Segundo Adesehinwa (2008) , as fontes de energia alternativas devem ser regionalmente avaliadas e apresentar baixo custo e capacidade de substituir o milho sem efeitos adversos no desempenho dos animais. O sorgo caracteriza-se por responder relativamente bem à pequena disponibilidade de água e por adaptar-se a condições áridas e em áreas marginais (O'KENNEDY et al., 2006). ...
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The study evaluated the effect of partial substitution of corn by sorghum in diet of castrated pigs and the effects on performance, carcass traits and economic feasibility. It were used 27 crossbred barrows from commercial line with 19.66 ± 2,92kg of initial live weight, divided in three groups with increasing rates of sorghum-0%, 25% and 50%-replacing corn, distributed in a completely randomized design. The trial evaluated: daily weight gain, daily feed intake and feed:gain ratio, backfat thickness and blood biochemical parameters-urea, total proteins, creatinine, glucose, triglycerides and cholesterol. For carcass traits it was evaluated: hot and cold carcass weight, hot and cold carcass yield, pH and temperature in hot and cold carcasses and industrial weight cuts. For economy feasibility was calculated the cost of feed consumed, cost of pig kg, average cost index and economy efficiency rate. It was used regression analysis to evaluate the productive variables. No effects were found for performance data and carcass traits. For the biochemical variables, the effects were linear for urea and total protein, with animals in control group (0% of sorghum) showing higher rates. The bioeconomical performance showed that 50% sorghum had the lowest cost and the highest rate of economic efficiency. Thus, it was concluded that substitution of corn by sorghum at levels up to 50% of the diet represents an alternative to sustainability of regional swine production.
... As a result of the bacterial fiber fermentation in colon, short chain fatty acids (SCFA) are produced, which play an important role in maintaining colonic health by supplying energy to colonocytes and protecting them from gastrointestinal disorders (Hijova and Chmelarova, 2007;Cai and Dong, 2010). In addition, energy produced by microflora in the hindgut can satisfy up to 30% of the maintenance energy requirements of the pig (Adesehinwa, 2008). Moreover, it has been reported that the growth performance of pigs can vary depending on the types of fiber content in feeds (Song et al., 2003). ...
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Meat from black pigs (BP) is in high demand compared with that from modern white pig (WP) breeds such as Landrace pigs owing to its high quality. However, the growth rate of black pigs is slower than that of white pig breeds. We investigated differences in the fecal microbial composition between white and black pigs to explore whether these breeds differed in the composition of their gut microbial communities. The swine gut microbiota was investigated using Illumina’s MiSeq-based sequencing technology by targeting the V4 region of the 16S rRNA gene. Our results showed that the composition of the gut microbiota was significantly different between the two pig breeds. While the composition of the WP microbiota shifted according to the growth stage, fewer shifts in composition were observed for the BP gut microbiota. In addition, the WP gut microbiota showed a higher Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ratio compared with that of BP. A high ratio between these phyla was previously reported as an obesity-linked microbiota composition. Moreover, the WP microbiota contained a significantly higher abundance of cellulolytic bacteria, suggesting a possibility of higher fiber digestion efficiency in WP compared to BP. These findings may be important factors affecting growth performance and energy-harvesting capacities in pigs. Our findings of differences in the gut microbiota composition between the two breeds may provide new leads to understand growth rate variation across pig breeds.
... Higher ADG required more protein and digestible energy, resulting in higher proportions of omena and maize or millet in the diet (Table 4) and reduced fiber. Poor growth is often attributed to high-fiber diets composed mostly of free feeds which are not sufficiently supplemented with protein (Adesehinwa 2008). At the highest ADG of 180 g per day, the omena proportion of the diet was 21 %. ...
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The purpose of this research is to assess how season, ADG, opportunity costs of farm-grown feeds, pig weight, and butcher price variation impact the economic potential of semi-intensive pig rearing. We developed a unique algorithm that emulates least-cost pig feeding and used it to assess the impact of the aforementioned factors on farmers' maximum revenue and profit potential when pigs are sold to local butchers in western Kenya. When considered as independent factors influencing feed costs to grow a pig to a market weight of 30 kg, variation in ADG, opportunity cost of feed, and weaning season resulted in feed cost differences of up to 982, 947, and 379 Kenyan shillings (KES), respectively. The variation in revenues attributable to butcher or butcher negotiation and seasonal variance of butcher prices for a 30 kg pig was 744 and 225 KES, respectively. Feed items most commonly chosen for least-cost feed rations were small dried fish, cooked ground maize, whole maize, millet, cassava foliage, sweet potato vines, bone meal, avocado, and mango. Smallholder farmers who can feed pigs to reach higher ADG have lower opportunity costs of feeds and/or who effectively bargain with butchers can benefit from semi-intensive pig rearing. Farmers without access to at least some zero-cost feeds and farmers with opportunity costs of feeds exceeding 50 % of the market price will not earn positive returns from semi-intensive pig rearing.
... Most of SDF and partial of IDF are degraded by bacteria in either the small or large intestine [4][5][6]. Energy produced by microflora in the hindgut can satisfy up to 30% of the maintenance energy requirements of the pig [7]. In addition, IDF was found to decrease intestinal transit time, binds organic compounds and increases fecal bulk [8]. ...
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The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of total dietary fiber level on nutrient digestibility and the relationship between apparent total tract digestibility of total dietary fiber, and soluble dietary fiber, insoluble dietary fiber and available energy. Sugar beet pulp was as the only fiber source. The experiment was designed as a 6 x 6 Latin square with an adaptation period of 7 d followed by a 5-d total collection of feces and urine. Feed intake tended to decrease (P =0.10) as total dietary fiber level increased. The apparent total tract digestibility of dry matter, crude protein and gross energy decreased (P <0.01) when total dietary fiber increased but the digestibility of soluble dietary fiber and insoluble dietary fiber increased (P <0.01). The digestible energy and metabolizable energy content of diets decreased (P <0.01) as the total dietary fiber increased.
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This study was carried out to examine the haemato-biochemical and immune response of grower pigs fed enzyme supplemented dried cassava peel and maize cob composite meal (CPMCM). A total of 36 crossbreed male grower pigs (Large white) of about 16 weeks old were randomly distributed into four groups of nine animals per treatment. Each treatment was further divided into three replicates consisting of three pigs in a completely randomized design. Pigs in treatment 1 were fed 0% CPMCM while CPMCM was used to replace maize at 40% (T2), 50% (T3) and 60% in T4. Examination of phyto-constituents in CPMCM showed that it contains alkaloids, tannins, saponins, cyanide, phenols and flavonoids at 20.05 mg/kg-1, 9.06 mg/kg-1, 10.04 mg/kg-1, 15.03 mg/kg-1, 8.92 mg/kg-1 and 14.11 mg/kg-1 respectively. Haematological results revealed that red blood cell, pack cell volume, haemoglobin, mean corpuscular haemoglobin, mean corpuscular volume, mean corpuscular haemoglobin concentration, white blood cell, monocytes and lymphocytes were significantly (p < 0.05) influenced by the treatment except for basophils count (p > 0.05). Total protein, total bilirubin, glucose, creatinine, alkaline phosphatase, alanine transaminase and aspartate transaminase values were significantly different among the treatment (p < 0.05) except for cholesterol and urea levels. It was concluded that all the blood parameters evaluated were within the established range for healthy pigs and dietary replacement of cassava peel and maize cob composite meal (CPMCM) with maize up to 60% pose no deleterious effect on the health of the animals.
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Feeding-derived amarula cake to growing pigs can overcome a narrow range of ingredients challenges and improve productivity. The objective of the current study was to determine the response in nitrogen (N) balance in slow-growing pigs fed on incremental levels of amarula nut cake (ANC). Thirty clinically healthy male growing Windsnyer (30.7 kg ± 6.57) (mean ± standard deviation) were individually assigned to separate pens in a completely randomized design, with six pigs per dietary treatment. Iso-energetic experimental diets were formulated to contain 0, 50, 100, 150, and 200 g/kg dry matter (DM) of ANC using the summit and dilution technique. Pigs were given 10 days of dietary adaptation and a collection period of 5 consecutive days after 31 days of feeding. Nitrogen intake increased linearly with incremental levels of ANC (P < 0.01). As ANC inclusion increased, the nitrogen (N) absorption, apparent N digestibility, and N retention in pigs increased until it reached a maximum, then started to decrease (P < 0.05). Nitrogen utilization increased at the rate of 0.63 g for each 1 g increase in ANC (P < 0.01). There was a linear decrease (P < 0.01) in total nitrogen excretion through urine and faeces with ANC inclusion. Urinary pH levels decreased quadratically in response to graded levels of ANC (P < 0.01). The relationship between urinary pH and ANC inclusion was Y = 0.0115x 2 − 0.3491x + 4.872 (P < 0.01). The nitrogen balance responses were due to ANC inclusion in diets that were balanced for limiting amino acids. It can be concluded that ANC reduces N excretion, potentially minimizing ammonia volatilization, which makes it an alternative protein source for slow-growing pigs.
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Feeding-derived amarula cake to growing pigs can overcome a narrow range of ingredients challenges and improve productivity. The objective of the current study was to determine the response in nitrogen (N) balance in slow-growing pigs fed on incremental levels of amarula nut cake (ANC). Thirty clinically healthy male growing Windsnyer (30.7 kg ± 6.57) (mean ± standard deviation) were individually assigned to separate pens in a completely randomized design, with six pigs per dietary treatment. Iso-energetic experimental diets were formulated to contain 0, 50, 100, 150, and 200 g/kg dry matter (DM) of ANC using the summit and dilution technique. Pigs were given 10 days of dietary adaptation and a collection period of 5 consecutive days after 31 days of feeding. Nitrogen intake increased linearly with incremental levels of ANC (P < 0.01). As ANC inclusion increased, the nitrogen (N) absorption, apparent N digestibility, and N retention in pigs increased until it reached a maximum, then started to decrease (P < 0.05). Nitrogen utilization increased at the rate of 0.63 g for each 1 g increase in ANC (P < 0.01). There was a linear decrease (P < 0.01) in total nitrogen excretion through urine and faeces with ANC inclusion. Urinary pH levels decreased quadratically in response to graded levels of ANC (P < 0.01). The relationship between urinary pH and ANC inclusion was Y = 0.0115x2 − 0.3491x + 4.872 (P < 0.01). The nitrogen balance responses were due to ANC inclusion in diets that were balanced for limiting amino acids. It can be concluded that ANC reduces N excretion, potentially minimizing ammonia volatilization, which makes it an alternative protein source for slow-growing pigs.
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Thirty six (36) growing crossbred (Large White X Landrace) pigs (16.14 ± 0.67 kg) were used to determine the effect of replacing maize by palm kernel cake (PKC) supplemented with two levels of cassava flour waste (CFW) on the chemical composition of the diets, performance, economy of the production, serum metabolites and hematological values of the growing pigs. Two levels of CFW (20% PKC + 10% CFW and 20% PKC + 20% CFW) were included in the diets of growing pigs to replace 40% maize inclusion on a weight to weight basis in the 42-day feeding trial. The chemical composition of the diets revealed the increase of 74.4-77.6% in the crude fibre content over the control diet with a resultant decrease 10.9-11.7% in the energy concentrations in the test diets. The average daily weight gains, feed efficiency and protein utilization were comparable between the treatment groups. The cost of feed / kg live weight of pigs reduced (P < 0.05) significantly at the two levels of supplementation resulting in comparable economic gains at the two levels of replacement. The serum and hematological indices were similar between the groups, but groups differed for serum urea N and creatinine values. PKC supplemented with CFW can be efficiently utilized as energy source by growing pigs without depressing performance in an attempt to reduce the cost of feeding.
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Thirty two (32) crossbred (Large white llampshire) boars and gilts of average initial weight of 41.55 kg were fed diets containing graded levels of palm kernel mcal (PKM). Pigs were randomly assigned to pens based on initial weight and sex and there were 2 pigs per pen. Palm kernel meal was fed at (a), (b) 21). 55 (c) (d) 61,65% of the diet to replace maize offal and full-fat soya-bean in the 16% crude protein diet for treatments 1 to 4. At the end of the 64-day trial, sixteen pigs (8 boars and 8 gilts) were used for carcass evaluation. Final weight of pigs decreased linearly (P<0.05) as the level of PKM increased in the diet. A quadratic response (P<0.05) was obtained for total gain and average daily gain, Average daily feed intake was not significantly allected by level of PKM fed but feed: gain increased linearly (P<0.05) as the level of PKM increased in the diet. Feed cost per kilogramme gain decreased significantly (P<0.05) as level of PKM increased but feed costs for the control and 20.55% PKM diets were similar. The feeding of PKM had no significant effect on dressing %, percentages of lam, shoulder, loin, belly, loin-eye area and backfat thickness. Organ weights (empty stomach, lungs, heart, kidneys and spleen) were not affected by dietary treatment. However, Weight of the liver increased linearly (P<0.05) as level of PKM inclusion increased in the diet. Boars had better gain (P<0.05) and better feed: gain ratio (P<0.01) compared to gilts.
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PELLETING feeds is usually advantageous for several reasons. Where improved growth has been shown, however, workers do not agree on the factor(s) responsible for the improvement. The relative value of pellets versus mash and grain in poultry nutrition has been the subject of a review by Calet (1965) where current speculations to account for the observed differences have been listed. It appears certain that chemical and/or physical changes must have occurred during the pelleting process to account for the large differences found. Recently Cave et al. (1965a, b) found that wheat milling fractions gave relatively low metabolizable energy values and poor protein utilization when they constituted an important part of chick diets. By steam-pelleting wheat bran, the metabolizable energy in chick diets was increased as much as 30% over unpelleted mash. An increase of 17% was found for steam-pelleted wheat shorts over unpelleted material. The present paper reports findings which…
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The chemical composition of some tropical feedstuffs and digestion coefficients obtained using pigs are given. Considerable variation was found in both chemical composition and content of metabolizable energy (ME) within some by-products, i.e. maize hominy feed, wheat bran, sun-flower cake, cottonseed cake. On average for all feedstuffs a 2.2% decrease in digestibility of energy for each 1% increase in crude fibre was found (R2 = 0.73). Dry matter digestibility (DMD) is highly correlated with ME (or digestible energy) content and hence where DMD can be determined, the ME content can be predicted with reasonable accuracy for practical purposes (R2 = 0.83). Use of table values for the gross energy content of the feedstuff and DMD showed a promising equation with a R2 = 0.94 and residual standard deviation of 0.60 MJ or 4.1% of the average value. Inclusion of up to four chemical components (crude protein, crude fat, crude fibre and soluble carbohydrate) did not result in a better prediction equation than that obtained by using DMD or using table values.
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A number of correlation and regression analyses were performed on data from digestibility and N-balance experiments with growing pigs (carried out during the years 1966-1982), in order to investigate whether the metabolizable energy content of pig feeds could be estimated with a reasonable degree of accuracy on the basis of their crude nutrient content (chemical analysis). The data comprise 321 diets varying widely in chemical composition and 331 feedstuff samples including 92 different feedstuff sources. Three or more proximate analyses and usually five or more digestibility and N-balance experiments were conducted with each feed sample. The statistical analyses were performed on average values of proximate analyses and average metabolizable energy values from the repeated digestibility and N-balance experiments. Crude fibre accounted for 74 and 62% of the variation in the digestability of gross energy in diets and feedstuffs, respectively. Stepwise regression analyses showed that metabolizable energy in the diets could be estimated on basis of crude fibre and gross energy with R2 = 0.75 and CV = 5.2. The best prediction (R2 = 0.77 CV = 5.0) was obtained including crude protein, crude fibre, NFE substances and organic matter. A common regression analysis with the intercept fixed at zero showed that metabolizable energy could be estimated on the basis of crude protein, crude fat, crude fibre and NFE substances with R2 = 0.77 and CV = 5.0. Estimation of metabolizable energy in the individual feedstuffs on basis of crude fibre and organic matter was much poorer (R2 = 0.73, CV = 10.5). The best prediction (R2 = 0.87, CV = 7.2) was obtained by including crude protein, crude fibre, NFE substances, NDF, gross energy and organic matter. Deleting 31 feedstuff samples of animal origin improved the accuracy of the prediction equation (R2 = 0.86, CV = 6.6).
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The large intestine is comparable to the rumen fermentation in many aspects; however, it is understood less well. Fiber in the form of cellulose and hemicellulose is one of the major substrates fermented in the large intestine. Various studies suggest that the pig can utilize fiber for growth, and up to 30% of its maintenance energy may be derived from volatile fatty acids produced in the large intestine. The total number of microorganisms in the pig large intestine do not change when a high fiber diet such as 50 or 80% alfalfa meal is fed. However, the fiber-degrading organisms increase and obviously replace others. The increase in fibrolytic bacteria normally coincides with an increase in enzyme activity (cellulase and xylanase), indicating that diet can be used to enhance fibrolytic activity. This is true for growing pigs and adult animals. The cellulolytic organisms in the pig, Bacteroides succinogenes and Ruminococcus flavefaciens, are similar to those in the rumen and are present at comparable numbers. This partly explains why adult pigs can maintain themselves by merely grazing on forage in pastures. Assuming other conditions are met, there is a significant potential for fiber degradation in the pig large intestine. Whether various genotypes such as the genetically selected obese and lean pigs have different abilities to degrade fiber is unknown. More work is required to understand the interaction of the fibrolytic organisms with the other organisms present in the large intestine, similar to that which has been done in the rumen, as well as the microbe-host interaction.
Article
The effect of increasing the dietary crude protein (CP) level on the growth performance and carcass characteristics of Large White pigs reared in Guadeloupe under tropical climatic conditions was determined. Test animals included 32 females and 32 barrows, each weighing about 24 kg initially. They were individually fed one of four test diets based on corn and soybean-oil meal containing 12, 16, 20, and 24% CP, respectively. The 12 and 16% CP diets were supplemented with synthetic L-lysine hydrochloride. The animals were slaughtered at 95 kg liveweight. On the basis of maximum daily gain and minimum feed conversion ratio, the best level of CP among the various levels compared was 16% for the growing pigs (from 24 to 60 kg liveweight) and 12% for the finishing pigs (from 60 kg to 95 kg liveweight). There was no significant effect of sex on growth performance, but the feed conversion ratio of the finishing females was 8% better than that of the barrows. As the dietary CP level increased, dressing percentage and backfat thickness decreased linearly (P < 0.05). Females were significantly leaner (P < 0.05) than barrows. Further work is needed to determine the optimum level of CP for finishing pigs.
Article
Thirty-six diets were formulated from a pool of 33 ingredients (plus a mineral and vitamin supplement) to give the following composition: crude protein 140 or 200 g kg−1; oil 20, 40 or 80 g kg−1; crude fibre 25, 50 or 100 g kg−1. The digestible energy (DE) and metabolisable energy (ME) contents of the diets were determined with 4 pigs (approx. 50 kg liveweight) per diet. The diets were analysed in several laboratories for a wide range of chemical components (3–5 laboratories per component).The DE of the diets measured in vivo agreed well with the DE calculated from assumed values for the ingredients (DE calculated − DE in vivo = −0.22 MJ; standard deviation = 0.461 MJ).Neutral detergent fibre (NDF) had the highest correlation coefficient with DE (−0.907), and in 2- or 3-factor equations derived to predict DE from chemical composition NDF and gross energy (GE) were particularly effective. The best measure of the effect of fibre content of the diets on energy value was always NDF.The most effective 4-factor linear equation was DE(MJkg−1DM) +17.49−14.9 NDF+15.7 OIL(PT)+7.8 CP−32.5 ASHand the best equation with interaction terms was DE (MJ) kg−1DM)=17.05−11.9 NDF+123 OPTsqu+28CP.NDF−116 ASH.NDFwhere OIL (PT) = petroleum ether extract; OPT squ = petroleum ether extract squared; CP = crude protein, and components are in kg kg−1 DM.After allowing for laboratory and animal variation, the linear equation would be expected to give 79% of predictions within ±0.5 MJ kg−1 DM of the true value. Replacing NDF with crude fibre reduced this to 60%.
Article
An attempt has been made to assess some quantitative aspects of the influence of fibre content in feedstuffs and diets on the digestibility and absorption of nutrients in pigs. The study is based on selected published literature and data from Danish experiments. The digestibility of nutrients consistently decreases with increasing fibre content in the diet, regardless of the analytical method used. However, the magnitude of this negative influence depends on the type and origin of the fibre source, technical treatment, feeding level, age and live weight of the pigs, etc. Increasing the content of crude fibre in diets is related to increasing the content of less digestible carbohydrate (hemicellulose) and a concurrent decrease in the content of easily digestible substances. It is shown that for each 1% increase in the crude fibre content, the content of starch + sugars in the NFE-fraction is decreased by 2.1-2.7%. This results in a reduced ileal digestibility, enhanced fermentation in the hindgut and an overall reduction of the digestibility of gross energy. Experimental data from this institute comprising 246 diets and 257 single feedstuffs were used to generate equations for prediction of the digestibility of gross energy. A single carbohydrate fraction (NDF or crude fibre) alone accounted for about 70% of the variation in digestibility in diets and 85% of the variation in digestibility of single feedstuffs. Fibre determination values based on either detergent methods (NDF) or crude fibre analysis supplemented with enzymic determination of starch + sugars were equally good as predictors of the digestibility of gross energy.
Article
The influence of dietary crude fiber (CF), and the methods used in formulating high-fiber diets, on digestibility coefficients were investigated. Following a 10-wk adaptation period to the four dietary treatments, two barrows and two gilts per treatment, of an average initial weight of 67 kg, were transferred to metabolism crates. Diet 1 contained 14.1 MJ digestible energy (DE) per kg, 17.1% crude protein (CP) and 4.1% crude fiber (CF). Diets 2, 3 and 4 each contained 22% oat hulls, which were added to the diets isonitrogenously (diet 2), by simple dilution (diet 3), or isonitrogenously and isoenergetically (diet 4). The three diets contained, respectively, 9.8, 9.6 and 10.2% CF, 12.2, 12.5 and 14.8 MJ DE/kg and 17.0, 14.4 and 17.3% CP. Pigs fed diet 1 had significantly higher dry matter (DM) digestibility than those fed the higher fiber diets. Dry matter digestibility was also significantly influenced by the method of addition of CF with coefficients of 70.2, 72.8 and 65.0% for diets 2, 3 and 4, respecti...
Article
Digestible energy (DE), metabolizable energy (ME) and metabolizable energy corrected to nitrogen equilibrium (MEn) were determined for eight feeds. Effects of protein level in the basal ration and of level of feeding certain test feeds were also studied. Protein level of the test ration was found to be inversely correlated with the ratio ME/DE (r = −0.956; P < 0.01). It was postulated that conventional methods for estimating ME and MEn underestimate high protein feeds and that, based on a regression equation, the ME values for swine feeds can be determined most effectively by multiplying DE × 0.98). This provides a metabolizable energy value applicable within the protein levels used in practical swine production. ME values thus derived were: soybean meal 3620, rapeseed meal 3280, herring fishmeal 4550, wheat 3965, barley 3175, oats 2900 and wheat shorts 3040 kcal/kg dry matter.
Article
Twenty-four Swedish Landrace × Large White sows were individually fed one of four diets throughout gestation and lactation under confinement conditions at the Sombor Kombinat, Yugoslavia. The 80% yellow corn in the control diet was replaced by 80% corn and cob meal, 50% corn and cob meal and 30% dried beet pulp, or 50% corn and cob meal and 30% wheat middlings in the other higher fiber diets. A standard protein supplement of 10% soybean meal, 4% sunflower meal and 3.5% fishmeal was included in the diets.Observed total digestible nutrients (TDN) and digestible energy (DE) were higher than calculated for the diets containing the higher fiber ingredients, suggesting that mature sows can digest some of these ingredients to a greater extent than can younger pigs on which analysis tables are based. The calculated DE in kcal/kg of corn and cob meal was 3428, dried beet pulp 3520, and wheat middlings 3155, assuming corn to be 3610 kcal/kg. The values used in formulation were 3080, 2860 and 3210 kcal/kg for the first three ingredients. Sows were most efficient in digesting organic nutrients on the 90th day of gestation, poorest on the 10th day of lactation and intermediate on the 30th day of gestation.Average number of pigs born alive was 9.9 and weaned was 8.8, with average pig weights at birth averaging 1.44 kg and at 5-week weaning, 14.1 kg. There were no significant differences between lots in litter performance, except that TDN required per kg gain adjusted for sow weight loss during lactation was greater for sows receiving 30% dried beet pulp. Sow gain during gestation was lower for this lot. Despite an overall DE intake for the complete reproductive cycle that was 23% in excess of present U.S. NRC nutrient requirements, the mature sows averaged only 3.6 kg heavier when they weaned their litters than when they were bred.
Article
A total of 88 metabolism trials were conducted with eight 65-kilogram pigs. Four pigs received a control ration and four received the same amount of control ration plus 40 per cent wood cellulose (solka-floc). A 4-week early growing, a 6-week maintenance and a 3-week late growing period were followed by a 2-week changeover period in which all pigs received solka-floc. The reduction of feed intake to a maintenance level caused an increase in the apparent digestibility of crude fiber and crude protein in both groups. This resulted in a higher digestible energy intake, carbon retention and body weight gain in the solka-floc group. The digestibility of crude fiber and crude protein of the solka-floc ration decreased in the late growing period but still remained higher than in the early growing period. The data indicated that digestibility was influenced more by the level of feeding and changes in body weight than by age. Pigs fed solka-floc for 15 weeks were no better adapted to digest it than those which rec...
Article
Summary Twenty mature Yorkshire pigs were fed diets containing coarse bran, fine bran, alfalfa or cellulose (Solka floe) and the effects of these sources of fiber on large intestinal microflora, digestibility and rate of passage were investi- gated. An in vitro batch microbial culture system was used with fecal, cecal, upper large intestinal and lower large intestinal inocula to measure cell wall indigestibility and VFA production with the same (above) sources of fiber. In this system, composition of fiber that the pigs were consuming had a significant effect on cell wall indigestibility and VFA production. The quantities of VFA produced in vitro were significantly affected by composition of the substrates. The VFA concentrations in fresh feces were significantly affected by the dietary fiber consumed. The VFA concentrations were lower (P
Article
The ultimate measure of the energy value of a pig feed is its net energy content, but this is not a function of the feed alone and depends on the pig and the use to which the energy is put. Metabolisable energy allows comparison with other species, but is also influenced by the growth characteristics of the animal and the level and source of protein in the diet. Digestible energy is considered more exact for the description of pig feeds, since it is largely free from animal effects. It is not sensible to determine in vivo the digestible energy content of all batches of compounded diets produced, but prediction might be possible from a knowledge of the nutrient composition of the ingredients and the ingredient composition of the feed. More practically, a laboratory method for the prediction of digestible energy content is required. Fibre has large effects on the digestibility of the diet and this fraction of the feed lacks sufficiently close definition. Further, the source and content of nitrogen-free extractive and lipids are significant elements in energy evaluation. Several equations have been produced to predict digestible energy content of feed from chemical composition and multiple regression equations have given best results, but those so far published tend to lose their accuracy when transferred to data from a wide range of feeds or to data from different centres. Nevertheless, despite it being impossible at present to choose a preferred equation to predict nutritive value, this approach is deserving of more detailed pursuit as being the only likely practical way for routine determination of the energy value of a large number of mixed diets.
Article
1. Six pigs, four with caecal cannulae, were given diets containing 8% or 26% cellulose. Cannulation did not affect the digestibility of dry matter or cellulose. 2. Digestibility of cellulose, though variable, was higher for the 8%-cellulose diet. 3. Pigs on the 26%-cellulose diet had larger amounts of digesta in the caecum, and lower caecal retention times, than pigs on the 8%-cellulose diet. 4. Measurements of production rates of volatile fatty acids in the caecum indicated that only 2·7% and 1·9% of the apparent digestible energy of the 26%- and 8%-cellulose diets respectively came from the acids, and it was concluded that the caecum played only a small role in the breakdown of feed substances.
Article
Eighteen individual feedstuffs and 19 mixed diets were used in a study attempted to relate determined energy values to various chemically determined measures. For cereals the level of fibre could be used to predict digestible and metabolizable energy (DE and ME). In the case of DE the relationships with crude fibre and modified acid detergent fibre (MADF) based on 14 feeds were: DE (kcal/kg D.M.) = 4179–86 MADF (%): r =–0·96; P < 0·01, DE (kcal/kg D.M.) = 4228–140 x crude fibre (%): r =–0·97; P < 0·01. For all feeds the following equations gave the best prediction of energy values from dietary analysis (on the basis of correlation coefficients and residual standard deviations): DE (kcal/kg D.M.) = 109·9 x crude protein (%) + 149·3 x acid ether extract (%) + 90·1 x nitrogen-free extract (%)–5030: R = 0·95; P < 0.01. ME (kcal/kg D.M.) = 99·5 x crude protein (%) + 144·7 x acid ether extract (%) + 87·8 x nitrogen-free extract (%)–4795: R = 0·94; P < 0·01. Digestible nutrients were closely related to DE and ME, e.g. DE (kcal/kg D.M.) = 52·9 x digestible crude protein (%) + 108·3 x digestible ether extract (%) + 39·4 x digestible crude fibre (%) + 39·9 x digestible nitrogen-free extract (%) + 183·7: R = 0·99; P < 0·01.
Article
Nineteen feedstuffs were evaluated for total digestible nutrients (TDN), digestible energy (DE) and metabolizable energy (ME) using growing pigs. DE values, on a drymatter basis, ranged from 1570 kcal/kg D.M. (grassmeal) to 4890 kcal/kg D.M. (BP Grangemouth protein). ME averaged 97·4% of DE for cereal feeds and 81·9% of DE for protein feeds, the ratio of DE to ME being significantly affected by the crudeprotein content of the feedstuff: ME/DE × 100 = 99·7–0·18 × crude protein (%): r = –0·94; P < 0·01. TDN was more closely related to ME than DE: DE (kcal/kg D.M.) = 45 TDN + 156: r = 0·92; P < 0·01, ME (kcal/kg D.M.) = 43 TDN + 71: r = 0·98; P < 0·01. ME values were corrected to both 30% and 0% nitrogen retention. Correction to 30% retention caused a maximum change of 3% in ME value while correction to 0% retention had a variable effect related to protein content of the feedstuff: (ME( N 0 )/ME) × 100 = 98·3–0·113 × crude protein (%): r = –0·80; P < 0·01.
Article
Forty Large White × Wessex pigs were fed from 7 to 27 kg live weight, on diets containing either 28 or 14% crude protein. From 27 to 113 kg live weight the pigs were fed a common diet ad libitum . Pigs from each treatment were killed at 27, 54, 82 and 113 kg live weight and the chemical composition was determined. From 7 to 27 kg and from 27 to 113 kg live weight, daily gain, food intake and food conversion efficiency were similar for the two treatments. At 27 kg, pigs on the lower protein diet were fatter and contained less lean tissue. Between 27 and 54 kg live weight the pigs previously on the higher protein diet deposited a much greater amount of fat than the pigs on the lower protein diet, so that by 54 kg the pigs initially on the lower protein contained less fat. At 82 and 113 kg live weight the pigs given the lower protein diet initially also tended to contain less fat. These findings are discussed with particular reference to the voluntary energy intake of growing pigs.
Article
Digestible energy (DE) values were determined for 15 pig diets with pigs 8 to 18 weeks old by standard digestibility procedures. The 15 diets contained 4360 to 4920 kcal gross energy (GE)/kg dry matter (DM), 2750 to 4070 kcal DE/kg DM, 2·8 to 15·8% crude fibre (CF), 2·4 to 21·1% acid-detergent fibre (ADF), and 7·3 to 33·8% neutraldetergent fibre (NDF). The prediction equations obtained were all highly significant. DE was most accurately predicted when the fibre value used was NDF, the regression equation being: DE = 4314·37·22 NDF (residual SD + 265). The inclusion of GE in the regression equation considerably improved its accuracy: DE = 1·510 GE-2579·39·37 NDF (residual SD ±127). However, the greater digestibility by pigs of NDF in diets containing sweet lupin seed meal (SLSM) resulted in these diets being more efficiently digested than diets containing other common protein supplements. Omitting the four diets containing SLSM from the regression analysis resulted in an even more accurate prediction equation: DE = 1·177 GE-1085·40·22 NDF (residual SD±107). It is suggested that this equation may be used to predict DE of pig diets compounded from commonly used constituents.
Article
1. Concentrations of the amino acids in the plasma of blood from the portal vein and hepatic vein and in the liver of fed rats and rats starved for 1 d or 3 d were measured. The 1 d values were compared with the equilibrium concentrations of the amino acids found in the perfusion medium during perfusion of livers from rats starved for 1 d. 2. The measurements of portal–venous differences in amino acid concentrations confirmed the idea that postprandially and during starvation most of the amino acids flow from extrahepatic tissues to the liver but also showed that during starvation tryptophan, cystine, ornithine, valine, leucinc and isoleucine flow in the opposite direction, from liver to extrahepatic tissues. 3. The blood levels of the non-essential amino acids fell markedly during starvation while those of the essential ones tended to be maintained. This contrasts with the pattern of changes known to take place in rats and man given low-protein diets. In the liver, changes in amino acid concentrations were generally related to those in the blood but not strictly parallel. The relative changes in amino acid concentrations in blood and liver indicate that as starvation progresses the concentrative ability of the liver is enhanced for most of the amino acids which are taken up and that the increased output of those which are released is also due to changed membrane transport. 4. The changes in plasma amino acid concentrations in the blood passing through livers of rats starved for 1 d were, except for tryptophan and perhaps cystine, consistent with the extracellular changes found during perfusion of livers form rats straved for 1 d, indicating that the perfused liver influences concentrations of extracellular amino acids substantially as it does in vivo. 5. The results suggest of mechanism wherby the liver may control the maintenance of the essential amino acids during starvation.
Article
Sixty gilts by Landrace sires out of Large White × Landrace females were allocated on the basis of litter relationship and initial weight to six treatments involving the individual feeding of six dietary protein levels, 15·5%, 17·4%, 20·2%, 22·3%, 25·3% and 27·3% crude protein (CP), at a common energy level of approximately 3500 kcal/kg DE, from 23 to 59 kg live weight. Amino acid balance was maintained relatively constant with synthetic lysine, methionine and tryptophan. There were significant increases in growth rate and efficiency of feed conversion from the 15·5% to the 17·4% CP diets and significant reductions in both from the 25·3 % to the 27·3 % CP diets. Carcass lean by dissection increased linearly (r = 0·976) and fat decreased linearly (r = −0·992) with dietary protein increment over the full range studied. As best growth performance and maximum lean content were attained at different dietary CP levels, a combined measure of daily lean deposition was calculated; this indicated that maximum rate of lean growth and efficiency of feed conversion to lean were reached on the 22·3% CP level. In terms of efficiency of utilization of nutrients, maximum retentions of both DE and DCP in the edible part of the carcass appeared to be attained on the two lowest dietary protein levels.
Article
1. The effect of including lupin ( Lupinus sp.) hulls, maize cobs, wheat bran and lucerne ( Medicago sutiva ) stems in a basal fibre-free diet on the concentrations and the relative proportions of volatile fatty acids (VFA) in the proximal colon of pigs, 17–18 h after feeding, was studied. 2. Concentrations of total VFA in the proximal colon increased with increasing levels of neutral-detergent fibre (NDF) intake, and this increase was highly dependent on the source of NDF in the diet. 3. Molar proportions of the VFA were significantly affected by the level of NDF intake only in the cases of acetic and butyric acids, whereas the source of dietary NDF had a marked influence on the molar proportions of all acids. 4. The results indicate that the extent of fermentative breakdown of fibre in the pig intestine can be influenced substantially by the type and the level of fibre in the diet.
Article
Digestibility of the major chemical components in diets high in plant cell-wall constituents was determined with four pigs. Two were given a commercial pig meal and two were given, in addition, alkali-treated straw (25% of the diet). Dry-matter digestibility of the straw was 32%, and protein excretion in faeces was increased by the addition of straw to the basal diet. Calculations based on microbial protein synthesis per gram of organic matter fermented showed that the additional nitrogen in the faeces may have been almost entirely microbial in origin. In a second experiment, ground lucerne was progressively introduced into the diet in substitution for commercial pig meal. There was no obvious associative effect on the digestibility of the chemical components examined. Apparent digestibility of dry matter of the all-lucerne diet was 53%.
Article
The optimum protein levels were determined for growing and finishing pigs in a tropical environment. There were statistically significant differences in daily live-weight gain and feed conversion efficiency between pigs fed a diet containing 16 per cent crude protein and those receiving 18 per cent crude protein. No differences in response were found to diets containing 12 and 13 per cent crude protein. Feed conversion efficiency improved with increased dietary levels of crude protein. Castrate male pigs grew significantly faster than female pigs.
Article
Feed conversion ratio (FCR), which defines the feed requirement in kg per kg body weight gain, is an important measure for judging the economic and breeding performance of a fattening pig. It is dependent on many different factors which include (1) the level of feeding, which affects the maintenance requirements, (2) the energy value of the ration and (3) the energy concentration of the body weight gains (cg). The influence of these factors on FCR and, in general, on growth performance, is discussed using results from growth and balance experiments. Some inter-relationships between the factors are described and integrated into a model which predicts FCR.
Article
An experiment was performed with 36 growing pigs of Danish Landrace to study the influence of crude fibre from cereals on the digestibility and the efficiency of utilization of metabolizable energy. The pigs (3 litters of females and 3 litters of male castrates) were fed on six dietary treatments on a within-litter basis taking the live weight of the pigs into account. The daily intake of the different diets was regulated in such a way that the daily gain in the different treatment groups was almost identical during the entire experimental period from 20-90 kg. Three digestibility and balance experiments were performed on each pig, and at approximately 90-kg live weight, the pigs were killed, dissected, ground mixed and chemically analysed. An increase in dietary fibre by 1% depressed the digestbility of gross energy by approximately 3.5% and depressed the efficiency of the utilization of metabolizable energy by 0.7%. Energy concentration accounted for 98% of the variation in the net energy value of the metabolizable energy. Digestibility experiments with ileo-caecal cannulated pigs showed that the proportion of digested energy disappearing in the caecum-colon increased with increasing content of dietary crude fibre, partly explains the negative influence of crude fibre on the efficiency of the utilization of metabolizable energy.
Article
Two trials with 16 gilts of 35 kg and 16 gilts of 64 kg were made. Rations were prepared by mixing two basal feeds in different ratios. Four different energy levels were used in which energy was expressed as multiples of maintenance (M) requirement (treatments: 1 = 2.8 to 3.0 M; 2 = 2.4 to 2.6 M; 3 = 2.1 to 2.2 M; 4 = 1.8 to 1.9 M). Digestibility of energy was not influenced by treatment (mean 83.5%). Feed components (except protein) were better digested in pigs at a larger weight (e.g., energy 3.2 and crude fibre 5.7 percentage units). Rations of weight class 2 were based on a different ratio of the basal feeds than the rations of weight class 1. Metabolizable energy content of the ration was similar for the four diets (mean 12.4 kJ/g). After correcting for differences in feed composition the metabolizability tended to be slightly depressed at the high levels of energy intake. Protein gain was determined for each gilt. Protein and fat gains were calculated from the rate of gain and daily energy intake at the same amount of digestible protein intake. Protein gain was reduced at a level of energy intake below 2.5 M. Fat gain was influenced more by feeding level than protein gain. Fat gain was diminished when energy intake was reduced. (Abstract retrieved from CAB Abstracts by CABI’s permission)
Article
The aim of the study was to determine the relative effects of feeding growing pigs with graded amounts of neutral-detergent fibre (NDF) from various sources on the empty wet weight of segments of the pig gastrointestinal tract, on the weight and moisture content of their digesta, and on the pattern of digesta movement in them. Increased NDF intakes were associated with significantly higher wet weights of all gastrointestinal segments and increased lengths of the caecum. The lengths of both the small and the large intestines were unaffected by the ingestion by the pigs of different amounts of NDF from various sources. However, the caecum responded to these increased intakes of NDF by significant increases in length. The source of NDF in the diet was a factor that markedly influenced both the length and the weight of the distal colon. The nature of these increases in weight and length morphologically and their biological significance have not been determined. Despite some significant differences, neither the type nor the level of dietary NDF had any appreciable effect on the dry weight and on the proportion of dry matter (DM) of the contents in the contents in the stomach. As the level of NDF intake was increased, more undigested dietary material was found in all segments of the digestive tract of the pigs. The proportion of DM in the residues decreased progressively from the caecal contents to the contents of the distal colon. In most cases the degree to which the level of NDF intake affected the weight of the contents and the proportion of DM in them was highly dependent on the source of NDF in the diet. The distribution of the feed consumed in the morning and in the evening, as measured with stained feed particles and polyethylene beads, was extremely variable. It is concluded that prolonged intakes by pigs of diets containing high levels of fibre may lead to a hypertrophy and hence increased weight of segments of the gastrointestinal tract.
Article
The effects of the amount and the type of dietary fibre on the apparent digestibility (AD) by growing pigs of neutral-detergent fibre (NDF) and NDF components, on nitrogen balance and on the rate of passage of digesta were studied using a semi-purified basal diet and fibre in the forms of soya-bean hulls, lupin (Lupinus sp.) hulls, pea (Pisum sativum) hulls, wheat bran, maize hulls, maize cobs, oat hulls and lucerne (Medicago sativa) stems. Both the amount and the type of dietary fibre significantly influenced the AD of dietary dry matter, N and energy. The AD of NDF and of NDF components was markedly affected by the type and the amount of fibre in the diet. The proportion of NDF digested ranged from 0.016 to 0.905, of cellulose from 0.026 to 0.931 and of hemicellulose from 0.010 to 0.999. N retention by the pigs ranged from 12.9 to 25.8 g/d and with some fibres there was a tendency towards increased N retention with increasing intakes of NDF. Rate of passage of digesta, expressed as the 50 and 95% excretion times of stained feed particles, ranged from 22.2 to 85.1 h and 40.0 to 117.1 h respectively. Large individual variations in rate of passage occurred but, in general, the rate of passage tended to increase with increasing intakes of NDF. No strong associations between the rate of passage of digesta and apparent digestibility of NDF components were observed. The results suggest that the extent of fibre digestibility depends predominantly on the origin of the fibre and to a lesser extent on the amount of fibre in the diet.
Article
Five trials involving 112 individually-penned animals were conducted to determine the effects of dietary fiber additions (0 or 10% dehydrated alfalfa meal) on the rate and efficiency of growth and carcass characteristics of growing pigs housed in a cold (10 C), thermoneutral (22.5 C) or hot (35 C) thermal environment. Cold exposure (10 C) depressed efficiency of feed and energy utilization, carcass length, backfat, cold carcass dressing percentage and percentage lean cuts. Exposure to the hot environment resulted in depressed live weight gains but did not alter the efficiency of feed utilization. Dietary additions of alfalfa meal depressed daily gains by 1, 3 and 5% in pigs housed in the cold, warm and hot environments, respectively, and gain:feed ratios by 1, 7 and 10%. Ingestion of the fibrous alfalfa meal depressed cold carcass dressing percentage in the 10 and 22 C environments as compared with the basal diet. Based on these data, the nutritional value of fibrous feedstuffs (15% total dietary neutral detergent fiber or less) for growing pigs allowed to consume feed ad libitum is greater in animals housed in a moderately cold vs a warm or hot thermal environment.
Article
There is continued incentive for the development of alternative feed resources for use in swine production. The availability of distillery by-products may be expected to increase as the use of corn and cereal grains for ethanol production expands. The acceptability of distillery by-products, milling by-products, forages and other fibrous feeds as energy sources for swine depends on such factors as cell wall content of the plant, degree of microbial fermentation in the large intestine, and extent of absorption and utilization of the volatile fatty acids produced. Physiological effects of dietary fiber, including effects on gastric emptying, rate of transit of digesta, gut motility, digestive secretions, and absorption and utilization of breakdown products need quantification. Limited evidence suggests that there are genetic differences in the response of pigs to dietary fiber and in their ability to utilize it as an energy source. Recombinant DNA technology offers the possibility of cloning cellulase genes from microorganisms for application in swine feeding programs. The extent to which biotechnology will be applied in swine feeding will depend ultimately on the economic incentive for developmental effort and on unknown biological limitations of the pig and its gastrointestinal microbial ecosystem.
Article
Five Large White pigs of 62.2 +/- 1.4 kg mean body weight were fitted with permanent catheters in the portal vein and carotid artery and with an electromagnetic flow probe around the portal vein to study the absorption of volatile fatty acids (VFA) by measuring the concentration of these metabolites in hourly blood samples, and by determining the portal blood flow rate for a period of 12 h after intake of a single 800-g meal (6% crude fiber) preceded by 12 or 24 h of fasting. The portal concentration of VFA mixture always highly exceeded the arterial concentration. The arterial concentrations of propionic, butyric, valeric and isovaleric acids were nearly null, accounting for an almost complete uptake of these VFA by the liver. Acetic acid also was taken up, but to a lesser extent. Total VFA absorption during 12 h was 64% higher (P less than .05) after 12 h (1,160 +/- 100 mmol/12 h) than after 24 h of preprandial fasting (740 +/- 83 mmol/12 h). It increased after the meal (P less than .05) from 82.3 +/- 7.8 mmol/h between the first and fourth hour to 107.8 +/- 7.5 mmol/h between the fifth and tenth hour when the preprandial fasting lasted 12 h; a nonsignificant increase also was found when fasting prior to the meal lasted 24 h. The composition of the VFA mixture was not modified by the length of preprandial fasting. With this type of diet there was a large predominance of acetic acid (52%) followed by propionic and butyric acids (36 and 8.5%, respectively).(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)
Article
1. Twelve castrated male pigs were kept at each of three temperatures and given food at one of three levels of intake. The temperatures and daily food intakes (expressed as g/kg 0.73 ) were 23° (80, 100, 120), 13° (100, 120, 140), 3–5° (120, 140, 160). Growth and nitrogen metabolism were measured during growth from 20 kglive weight until slaughter at gokg live weight, when the body contents of N and fat were estimated. 2. Growth rate increased with each unit of daily food intake (I g/kg 0.73 live weight) by 7.73 ± 0.74 g/d. This value did not vary significantly with temperature. Daily growth rate was depressed by 17.8 ± 2.3 g for each I° fall of temperature. 3. Daily N retention estimated by the balance method exceeded by 2.59 g/d that estimated by the comparative slaughter technique. Both results led to the same conclusion, which echoed that found with growth rate, that there was no significant effect of temperature on the response of N retention to increasing food intake. Taking the mean of the two estimates, N retention at a constant food intake fell by 0.38±0.055 g/d for each I° fall of temperature. 4. The N content of the ingesta-free carcass at slaughter fell with each increase in daily food intake by 0.007±0.002%, and the fat content rose correspondingly by 0.116±0.027%. These regressions did not vary significantly with temperature. When considered at a constant food intake, body composition did not alter significantly with temperature.