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Local People and Protected Areas The Ban of NTFP collection for commercial use and effects on cash incomes and livelihoods of the Soligas in BR Hills, India.
... With agricultural income sufficing only for 4 to 5 months a year and 40% of the Soligas still being landless (Madegowda and Rao 2013), both NTFP and wage labor contributed significantly to household incomes. Before the ban, NTFPs contributed 85% of total household cash income, while wage labor contributed only 13% (Sandemose 2009 A c c e p t e d M a n u s c r i p t 11 have sole rights for harvesting NTFP from the forest but can only sell it to the tribal cooperative Large-Scale Adivasi Multi-Purpose Societies (LAMPS)--the intermediary between the Soligas and the outside buyers (Shankar et al 1996). The Soligas in both podus said that they had collected a wide variety of NTFPs in the past (both for sale and household use), walking 6 to 11 km into the forest. ...
... The farmers in both sites also perceived an improvement in their lives from the past, as now they were able to buy food and household goods from the market every year; this perceived improvement is a sign of changing aspirations. This shift to cash driven economy is driven by the growing penetration of the market economy and Soligas' changing aspirations influenced by exposure to the outside world (Sandemose 2009). Cash crops are also perceived as a more secure source of income, especially in the aftermath of the NTFP ban. ...
... Cash crops are also perceived as a more secure source of income, especially in the aftermath of the NTFP ban. The ban caused considerable economic hardship for the Soligas, and also meant that products once available freely from the forest had to be purchased from the market, increasing their need for cash (Sandemose 2009). While NTFP collection for subsistence was allowed during the ban, the Soligas faced some harassment from Forest Department staff (Kalpavriksh 2007) with the strained relations persisting after the ban was lifted. ...
This paper examines trends in farming and livelihood activities among forest-dwelling Adivasi farmers (Soligas) in a tiger reserve from 2008 to 2015. In-depth semi-structured interviews were conducted in two contrasting, but representative villages. Traditional mixed-crop farming was being replaced by cash crops such as coffee, maize and cotton. Access to state-subsidized food supply, increasing cash income through wage labor, coupled with increasing depredation of food crops by wild animals were some causes for the shift to cash crops. Declining supply of non-timber forest produce (NTFP) and the subsistence cash it provided has also impacted farmer livelihoods and indirectly contributed to this shift. The changing aspirations of younger Soligas and inadequate state support for mixed-crop farming also could be contributing factors. Soligas consistently maintained that increasing wildlife depredation of food crops, reduction in supplies of wild foods, and the decline in NTFP was because of poor forest health. The transition to cash crops improved cash flows but exposes the Soligas to market risks. While food security has also improved, the nutritional quality of diet declined. Soligas are adopting new farming practices, diets, and livelihood strategies, and importantly, leveraging rights historically denied to them, all a reflections of their social resilience.
... Amla fruits are heavily harvested from dry forests across the Indian subcontinent. They are key components in Indian herbal medicines, food, cosmetics and other products, and sales can make very important contributions to local livelihoods, especially in indigenous communities (Sandemose 2009). Amla are among hundreds of tropical tree species harvested for their fruit. ...
... The ban was an attempt to improve conservation but was not based on ecological studies. It had serious negative consequences for the livelihoods of indigenous harvesters (Sandemose 2009). ...
... Over the past 15–20 years, lantana has spread across the BRT forming dense understorey stands (Sundaram 2011). About 6000 indigenous Soliga reside in BRT, and between 10% and 85% of household income is derived from NTFP extraction (Sandemose 2009). When BRT was declared a wildlife sanctuary in 1974, Soliga traditional shifting agriculture and hunting practices were prohibited, and they were given usufruct rights to gather NTFP. ...
1. Tropical plant populations are often subject to multiple types of anthropogenic disturbance. Effective management requires disentangling the effects of these disturbances and prioritizing interventions for the driver(s) most responsible for population decline. However, the effects of multiple drivers on plant population dynamics are rarely examined.
2. We assessed the independent and combined effects of common anthropogenic disturbances on the transient and long-term population dynamics of two economically important, declining tree species in an Indian dry forest. Specifically, we drew on 10 years of demographic monitoring to assess the effects of non-timber forest product (NTFP) harvest and two invasive species (an understorey shrub Lantana camara and a mistletoe Taxillus tomentosus) on amla (Phyllanthus emblica and Phyllanthus indofischeri) populations.
3. Although fruit harvest has been blamed for declining amla populations, the current policy and management strategies implemented to restrict it have little effect on long-term stochastic growth rates (λs) of amla both with and without invasive species. In contrast, mistletoes significantly decreased λs of both species.
4. Lantana had both direct and indirect effects on P. emblica, causing a regeneration bottleneck. Lantana had a direct negative effect on seeding and sapling growth, whereas populations without lantana experienced higher levels of grazing by wild animals. Over 10 years, P. emblica populations dropped to 16% of their original size in areas with invasive species.
5. Synthesis and applications. Our results illustrate that mistletoe and lantana, not fruit harvest, are the main drivers of amla decline, and these species are likely to be driving the decline of other Indian dry forest tree species. Management directed only at limiting fruit harvest will be ineffective. Instead, control of both invasive species combined with temporary protection from grazing is urgently needed. The ban on fruit harvest in Indian protected areas is not an effective conservation policy for these species. Harvest is not necessarily the main cause of decline for NTFP species. Management plans for NTFP and other at-risk species must consider the relative effects of different drivers of decline, including direct and indirect effects of invasive species.
... After, the implementation FRA the collection of non-timber forest products by Soligas has reduced to 59% as against 97% earlier in BRT wildlife sanctuary (Madegowda & Rao, 2013). NTFPs have increased the cash income of Soligas (Sandemose, 2009). Forest Rights Act has created a number of problems among the tribal community, such as they are losing their livelihood especially their access to forest resource collection and due to this problem most of the families are losing their own cultural and traditional rights (Keya Acharya, 2007). ...
... play a major role in the food security of Soliga tribal families in BRT wildlife sanctuary. Previous studies have focused on the socio-economic condition of Soligas(Madegowda & Rao, 2017): collection of non-timber forest products(Madegowda & Rao (2013);Sandemose (2009);Shankar et al., (1998);Kothari et al. (2007). A recent study byNiphadkar et al. (2016) examined the non-native invasive species Lantana Camara dominating the wildlife sanctuary. ...
The main objective of the study is to analyze the linkages between ecosystem services and food security of the Soliga tribes in India. This study mainly focuses on four dimensions of ecosystem services, (i) production and providing of wild food and water resources, (availability); (ii) rural livelihood, employment opportunities, and income generation (accessibility); and (iii) utilization of ecosystem services, persons are capable of increasing energy and nutrition from food (utilization); (iv) adequate and enough food is accessible, reachable, and utilizable on a dependable, sustainable basis (stability). This study has used primary data for analyzing the linkages between ecosystem services and food security of (Soligas tribe in Karnataka) 210 households were interviewed in South India. The results of the study is found that forest provisioning ecosystem services major role in their everyday food and nutrition. The main policy implication of the study is integrating ecosystem services and food security for sustainable agricultural production of tribal communities.
... The Government of India has regulated extraction of NTFPs in Protected Areas since 2004. But such an act has serious implications on the livelihood patterns of the indigenous people who depend on it (Sandemose, 2009). To be sustainable, harvest levels need to be based on a sound knowledge of the reproductive biology, distribution and abundance of the NTFP species, their yields and production. ...
... This could even be determined by the availability of dispersers, or due to an environmental trigger that species allocate their resources to higher reproductive outputs (Sandemose, 2009). ...
Non-timber forest products are a significant source of income and an integral part of development. The contribution of NTFPs to economy is unknown and could be higher than that of timber products, still retaining the significant biodiversity and ecosystem services. However, there is limited data on the production, yield and harvest levels and techniques of NTFPs. To be sustainable, harvest levels need to be based on a sound knowledge of the reproductive biology, distribution and abundance of the NTFP species, their yields and production. Assessment of NTFP resources in the tropics is relatively new and has received little attention. In this study, we determine the productivity levels of 9 NTFP yielding species in the Western Ghats over a 13-year period and attempt to understand the supra annual yield patterns of species and their implications to management and conservation. This study demonstrates that species yield patterns differ over years and there are cyclic patterns of yield and fruiting pattern varies significantly among species. Therefore, while planning to procure or process the fruits of different NTFP yielding species, this knowledge is essential. NTFP yield and production data per tree and per hectare will assist in planning and designing processing and marketing facilities. Such information needs to be provided to FDAs to plan their resource harvest, processing and benefit sharing.
... However, fruit harvest was blamed for observed declines in the study species and state policy imposed a ban on fruit harvest in protected areas. Prohibiting the fruit harvest was ineffective and would not improve the status of these populations; instead, it resulted in negative economic repercussions for harvesters (Sandemose, 2009). Therefore, it is necessary to direct inclusive conservation policies to frame action plans to reduce the disturbance identified. ...
Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) are vital sources of livelihood for forest-dependent communities across the globe. This study examined the NTFPs species (Phyllanthus emblica, P. indofischeri, and Terminalia chebula) population change determined by the dependency, disturbances, and accessibility in the dry tropical forest of Malai Mahadeshwara (MM) Hills wildlife sanctuary. The long-term monitoring population data were analyzed across three time periods; 2000-01, 2010-11, and 2020-21. The participatory research methods were used to assess the dependency and accessibility which influence the population structure. The multi-factor linkage approach was used to identify the significant drivers of population decline. The results indicated that grazing, fire, hemi-parasite infection, and Lantana invasion influenced the tree population structure and regeneration of study species. This study has also indicated variations and changes in the interrelationship among factors that have a significant role in shaping NTFPs species population structure. Multiple factor analysis determined that grazing, fire, and lantana have significant impacts on population structures, regeneration, and fruit production of NTFPs species. The study recommended that forest managers should consider a site-specific adaptive approach and multiple factors models and inclusive management tools provisioned in recent policies like the Biological Diversity Act -2002 and Forest Rights Act-2006 would hold great potential for developing sustainable use and co-management practices.
... For example, although fruit harvest has been blamed for observed declines in our three species and federal policy implemented to restrict harvest in protected areas, our results suggest that prohibiting fruit harvest alone is likely ineffective conservation policy and will not improve the status of these populations. Ineffective conservation policy for NTFPs not only fails to protect species but also can have large negative economic repercussions for harvesters [12]. ...
The harvest of non-timber forest products (NTFPs), together with other sources of anthropogenic disturbance, impact plant populations greatly. Despite this, conservation research on NTFPs typically focuses on harvest alone, ignoring possible confounding effects of other anthropogenic and ecological factors. Disentangling anthropogenic disturbances is critical in regions such as India's Western Ghats, a biodiversity hotspot with high human density. Identifying strategies that permit both use and conservation of resources is essential to preserving biodiversity while meeting local needs. We assessed the effects of NTFP harvesting (fruit harvest from canopy and lopping of branches for fruit) in combination with other common anthropogenic disturbances (cattle grazing, fire frequency and distance from village), in order to identify which stressors have greater effects on recruitment of three tropical dry forest fruit tree species. Specifically, we assessed the structure of 54 populations of Phyllanthus emblica, P. indofischeri and Terminalia chebula spread across the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, Western Ghats to ask: (1) How are populations recruiting? and (2) What anthropogenic disturbance and environmental factors, specifically forest type and elevation, are the most important predictors of recruitment status? We combined participatory research with an information-theoretic model-averaging approach to determine which factors most affect population structure and recruitment status. Our models illustrate that for T. chebula, high fire frequency and high fruit harvest intensity decreased the proportion of saplings, while lopping branches or stems to obtain fruit increased it. For Phyllanthus spp, recruitment was significantly lower in plots with more frequent fire. Indices of recruitment of both species were significantly higher for plots in more open-canopy environments of savanna woodlands than in dry forests. Our research illustrates an approach for identifying which factors are most important in limiting recruitment of NTFP populations and other plant species that may be in decline, in order to design effective management strategies.
... Information related to NTFP collection was not mapped because in 2007 the State Forest Department banned NTFP collection in BRT for commercial purpose. However, NTFP is collected at minor scale only for domestic consumption, which contributes to approximately 3% of their total income [61]. ...
Most wildlife habitats and migratory routes are extremely threatened due to increasing demands on forestland and forest resources by burgeoning human population. Corridor landscape in Biligiri Rangaswamy Temple Tiger Reserve (BRT) is one among them, subjected to various anthropogenic pressures. Human habitation, intensive farming, coffee plantations, ill-planned infrastructure developments and rapid spreading of invasive plant species Lantana camara, pose a serious threat to wildlife habitat and their migration. Aim of this work is to create detailed NDVI based land change maps and to use them to identify time-series trends in greening and browning in forest corridors in the study area and to identify the drivers that are influencing the observed changes. Over the four decades in BRT, NDVI increased in the core area of the forest and reduced in the fringe areas. The change analysis between 1973 and 2014 shows significant changes; browning due to anthropogenic activities as well as natural processes and greening due to Lantana spread. This indicates that the change processes are complex, involving multiple driving factors, such as socio-economic changes, high population growth, historical forest management practices and policies. Our study suggests that the use of updated and accurate change detection maps will be useful in taking appropriate site specific action-oriented conservation decisions to restore and manage the degraded critical wildlife corridors in human-dominated landscape.
... Better understanding of ethnobotanical knowledge and WEP users is necessary to inform agricultural development, natural resource management, and food security policies that could facilitate more sustainable access to these resources and even increase their positive impact on community resilience (Termote et al. 2010, Mavengahama et al. 2013. Studies have shown that inappropriate regulation of WEPs can take several forms, from unmitigated open access, which can result in unsustainable harvest levels and degradation (Stewart 2003), to poorly targeted restrictions that exclude populations relying on WEPs as a major nutrition source (Falconer 1990) or push them to purchase alternative foods at the market using scarce cash resources (Sandemose 2009). To date, the relative exclusion of WEPs from agriculture-related scientific research, development, and policy has likely had a detrimental effect on rural household nutrition because WEP production, consumption, and diversity have declined (Dansi et al. 2008). ...
Wild edible plants (WEPs) are known to make important contributions to food baskets and livelihoods in the smallholder and subsistence farming communities of sub-Saharan Africa. As a result, protecting and promoting the sustainable use of WEPs in concert with more mainstream agricultural innovation efforts has the potential to build household resilience to food insecurity. There is, however, a need to better understand how WEPs contribute to rural livelihoods on a daily basis and act as emergency safety nets during periods of hunger. Focusing on two villages in rural eastern Kenya, we sought to determine which household conditions are correlated with household reliance on WEPs as a coping strategy during times of food insecurity, while also investigating the role of access restrictions on adaptive capacity and the ability to obtain these important food resources. Results reveal that reliance on WEPs is greater in households that report food insecurity, lack off-farm income, and have lower asset levels. Access to WEPs is also a major factor in consumption frequency, with smaller farm sizes and increased distance to harvest areas significantly correlated with lower levels of WEP use. By combining vulnerability and adaptive capacity measures for each household, we created a more complete accounting of the factors that influence WEP consumption frequency, with implications for policy. This study represents an important first step in taking a more holistic view of the subsistence value of WEPs and the myriad factors that influence households' reliance on, and ability to obtain, uncultivated natural resources.
... As the Soligas were highly dependent on NTFPs for domestic use, the ban has led to a significant increase in cash dependence, now that they have to spend money on purchasing commercially available equivalents, or if they have no money they have to manage without the products. Several respondents were complaining that they could not fulfill their basic needs without the NTFPs for domestic use (Pernille Sandemose, 2009). Earlier, the tribal people were largely dependent on the forest for their livelihood. ...
The livelihood of tribals depends on forest resources and they have been living in the forest from time immemorial. The
major sources of income for the Soligas are from Non –Timber Forest Products, subsistence agriculture, and labour. The Non –
Timber Forest Products collection was banned in 2006 under the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 in the Biligiri Rangaswamy
Temple Wildlife Sanctuary and it affected the livelihood of the Soligas as they did not have any alternative employment. 32.5% of
the Soligas migrated to different places of Kodagu, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala, as well as to nearby coffee estates and villages for
employment. Soliga families migrate from 10 to 300 days in a year which has affected the children’s education, culture, health etc.
The migration continues due to the influences of outside culture and lack of employment opportunities in their areas. The study will
focus on the problems faced after the ban of the NTFPs, places of migration, reasons for migration, number of days of migration,
wage rates, size of male and female migrants, types of work, and income produced from the migration.
... 13 9. Forest regeneration increases the standing biomass and therefore carbon sequestered, benefitting the global community. b) The 'surprise' trajectory (WLS_2):Setty et al., 2008), dramatically affecting Soliga livelihoods (Sandemose, 2009). In WLS_2, although NTFP species continue to grow and even flourish in the forest, they do not provide any direct use benefit to any stakeholder in society after 2006. ...
Economic valuation of ecosystem benefits and their aggregation in a benefit–cost analysis (BCA) framework is the norm in mainstream environmental economics. But valuation and BCA have also attracted criticisms. ‘Internal’ criticisms point to the absence of alternative scenarios in valuation, overlooking of ecological trade-offs and dis-services, and inattention to context. Others criticize aggregation across diverse stakeholders and the problem of non-monetizable benefits, and dismiss BCA as fatally flawed. They suggest approaches such as deliberative decision-making and multi-criteria analysis. We propose a middle path that uses the strengths of economic analysis for decision support while avoiding the pitfalls. We disaggregate economic impacts by stakeholder groups, link ecosystem changes to benefits as well as dis-benefits, and examine how socio-technological context shapes the magnitude of economic impact. We illustrate this approach by studying the impact of creating the Biligiri Rangaswamy Temple wildlife sanctuary in the Western Ghats forests of southern India. Our analysis shows that while some stakeholders are net beneficiaries, others are net losers. Changes in forest rights, irrigation technologies, and ecosystem dynamics influence the magnitude of benefits and sometimes convert gainers into losers. Such disaggregated analysis can provide useful information for deliberative decision-making and important academic insights on how economic value is generated.
... These events changed the relationship between stakeholders and the forest ecosystem. (Setty et al., 2008), dramatically affecting Soliga livelihoods (Sandemose, 2009). In WLS_2, although NTFP species continue to grow and even flourish in the forest, they do not provide any direct use benefit to any stakeholder in society after 2006. ...
Indigenous peoples and local communities (IPLC) often use natural resources as both a reason and mechanism for environmental management, yet a number of environmental, social, and economic drivers disrupt this relationship. Here, we argue that these drivers can also trigger a set of feedback mechanisms that further diminish the efficacy of local management. We call this process biocultural hysteresis. These feedbacks, which include knowledge loss and a breakdown of social hierarchies, prevent IPLC from adapting their management to change. Biocultural hysteresis worsens as IPLC spend an increasing amount of time outside their social–ecological context. Therefore, we argue for adaptive policies and processes that favour protecting and enabling IPLC engagement with their environment.
In their Perspective “Do not publish” (26 May, p. 800), D. Lindenmayer and B. Scheele warn that publishing location data for rare, endangered, or newly described species could promote wildlife poaching, strain landholder relations, and accelerate habitat destruction. To prevent these outcomes, they recommend that researchers withhold such location data. We recognize the need for security around localities of highly collectable species and support care in publishing precise site locations. However, sensitive data management approaches have sufficiently matured to minimize misuse.
Implementation of sensitive data policies varies, with some repositories partnering with data authors and managers to identify sensitive information and data before submission. Metadata records can be published and associated data are either masked (taxonomy or location), made available privately with the approval of the data custodian, or embargoed by authors. Data authors, reviewers, and managers further check for overlooked data sensitivities before publication. These policies, some of which have been in place for almost a decade, have kept the locations of hundreds of endangered species secure.
Lindenmayer and Scheele also promote a new set of publication guidelines, but such guidance already exists. Open-access science journals work closely with opendata repositories to ensure that sensitive species are securely published. Conservation biologists can publish sensitive data and ensure data are available through secure sources for approved purposes. Publishing such data provides many benefits to biodiversity science, its management, and national productivity. Not depositing these valuable data risks loss of knowledge that is desperately needed to protect our most endangered species.
Exploitation of certain resources within a protected area on a sustainable basis could contribute to higher living standards of rural people, particularly those in poor countries, and decrease conflicts between these populations and park authorities. This article presents data from a case study of Kopaonik National Park (NP), Serbia, which is a park with natural resources, most notably bilberries, which have always been relied on by local people. Vaccinium myrtillus traditionally has been collected for decades in Kopaonik NP and used by local people. However, little is known about the socioeconomic and ecological relations that affect the collection and use of this species. The aim of the present study was to understand how local people collect bilberries in Kopaonik NP and what their attitudes toward the park are. Household questionnaire data were used to examine how local people collect bilberries and how to improve the relations between local people and NP authorities. The survey questionnaire included 52 households from 7 local communities, and we applied a purposive sampling strategy. In addition, expert interviews were conducted, and from these data we obtained a broader understanding of the relation between local people and NP authorities. The results indicate that in Kopaonik NP, there is a conflict between pickers and NP authorities. Sustainable management should be directed toward the protection of bilberries. Education of local people is a key element in the sustainable collection and protection of natural resources.
This paper argues that the present style of conservation has neglected the needs and aspirations of local people, their indigenous knowledge and management systems, their institutions and social organizations, and the value to them of wildlife resources. It asserts that conservation itself needs rethinking. The dominant "positivist-rationalist' paradigm fails to take into account the growing body of empirical evidence indicating that local people have long influenced natural systems in ways that both provide their livelihoods and improve biodiversity. In the past, many "primary' forests or habitats supported large numbers of people, who significantly influenced current ecosystems. The paper asserts that it is necessary to find ways of ensuring local communities' full participation in conservation programmes and policy. Alternative systems of learning and interaction have the potential to contribute to more sustainable management of protected areas. The paper concludes that, for this vision to succeed, a "new professionalism' is required, as well as supportive national and international policies. This Discussion Paper was published in collaboration with the International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED) and the World Wide Fund for Nature. -from Authors
with inputs from Marco Bassi, Peter Bille Larsen, Maurizio Farhan Ferrari, Diane Pansky and Neema Pathak
This paper traces the history of conservation practices in India, both official and non-official, and their direct and indirect impact on the status of biodiversity today. The authors then analyse the costs and benefits of official efforts at conservation, specifically focusing on who gains and who loses. The implications of the above for policy and legal frameworks, including the existing and proposed laws dealing with wildlife and biodiversity, are then discussed.
"Anthropogenic fires in Indian forests probably date back to the arrival of the first hominids on the Indian subcontinent. However, with our continuing dependence on forests for a variety of resources, but with shrinking forested areas, forests are being subjected to more intensive use than before. As a result, fires are occurring more frequently today than at any time in the past. This altered fire regime is probably qualitatively different from historical fire regimes in its impact on forests at multiple spatial scales. Present-day fires have possibly led to forest degradation, increasing susceptibility to invasion by alien species such as lantana (Lantana camara). We hypothesise that there may be a positive feedback between present-day fires and invasion by lantana, leading to a fire-lantana cycle that can have deleterious compositional and functional consequences for forest ecosystems and the commodities and services that society derives from them. Despite the widespread nature of the problem, we lack good empirical information on the effects of varying fire frequency and severity in Indian dry forests. So also, we lack a sound understanding of the mechanistic underpinnings of lantana's success and barriers to its control in Indian forests. Without such information we have little hope of a way out of the fire-lantana cycle."
Designating national parks and sanctuaries as "protected areas" involves the elaborate relocation and resettlement of communities once resident within these areas. However, as an instance of community relocation from the Kuno sanctuary bears out, resettlement has not led to improved living standards for the affected community; neither has it afforded a measure of protection for the threatened animals.
Traditional systems of forest management have often been ignored or summarily dismissed as forest departments in most states are keen to implement more recent joint forest management (JFM) schemes. This study of two districts located in the Western Ghats in Karnataka reveals that JFM schemes seeking to place degraded lands under plantations have neglected the dependence of the local people on 'kans' - sacred groves - present in both districts. Local people till recently retained management rights over these evergreen tracts. In the interests of conservation and to obtain a sustained revenue from NTFP products, it is necessary for the government to involve the local people in the management of the kans.
While the Wildlife Act was always meant to recognise and settle the rights of forest dwellers, in practice, it has been used largely as a blunt instrument to bludgeon them with. It is entirely possible that the tribal bill could tomorrow become a similar blunt instrument with which to bludgeon wildlife.
Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) constitute the single largest determinant of livelihoods for scores of forest fringe communities and poor people in the tropics. In India over 50 million people are believed to be directly dependent upon NTFPs for their subsistence. However, such human dependence on NTFPs for livelihood gains (win) has most frequently been at a certain ecological cost (lose). If livelihoods are to be maintained, the existing ‘win-lose’ settings have to be steered to a ‘win-win’ mode, otherwise, there could be severe erosion of the biological resources and loss of livelihoods (‘lose-lose’). Examining the dependence of forest fringe communities on NTFPs at three sites in south India with contrasting human and ecological settings, three key factors (extent of dependence on NTFPs, indigenous ecological knowledge and market organization) are likely to constrain reaching the win-win situation. How these factors shape the ecological cost of harvesting NTFPs at the three sites is examined. Within the parameter space of these factors, it is possible to predict outcomes and associations that will conform to win-win or win-lose situations. Empirical data derived from the three study sites demonstrate the causality of the observed associations. The key for long-term livelihood gains lies in reducing the ecological cost. Certain interventions and recommendations that could optimize the balance between livelihood gains and ecological cost are proposed.
Modernity has helped to popularize, and at the same time threaten, indigeneity. Anthropologists question both the validity of the con-cept of indigeneity and the wisdom of employing it as a political tool, but they are reluctant to deny it to local communities, whose use of the concept has become subject to study. The concept of indige-nous knowledge is similarly faulted in favor of the hybrid products of modernity, and the idea of indigenous environmental knowledge and conservation is heatedly contested. Possibilities for alternate envi-ronmentalisms, and the combining of conservation and development goals, are being debated and tested in integrated conservation and development projects and extractive reserves. Anthropological un-derstanding of both state and community agency is being rethought, and new approaches to the study of collaboration, indigenous rights movements, and violence are being developed. These and other cur-rent topics of interest involving indigenous peoples challenge an-thropological theory as well as ethics and suggest the importance of analyzing the contradictions inherent in the coevolution of science, society, and environment.
Key Words national parks, conservation and development, deforestation, tropics ■ Abstract The world's system of protected areas has grown exponentially over the past 25 years, particularly in developing countries where biodiversity is greatest. Con-currently, the mission of protected areas has expanded from biodiversity conservation to improving human welfare. The result is a shift in favor of protected areas allowing local resource use. Given the multiple purposes of many protected areas, measuring effectiveness is difficult. Our review of 49 tropical protected areas shows that parks are generally effective at curtailing deforestation within their boundaries. But defor-estation in surrounding areas is isolating protected areas. Many initiatives now aim to link protected areas to local socioeconomic development. Some of these initiatives have been successful, but in general expectations need to be tempered regarding the capacity of protected areas to alleviate poverty. Greater attention must also be paid to the broader policy context of biodiversity loss, poverty, and unsustainable land use in developing countries.
Although conservation and management of tropical ecosystems requires that we understand the threats to these areas, there are no standardized methods to quantify threats to ecosystems. We used a geographic information system-based protocol with several physical and socioeconomic attributes to assess the threats to a protected area, a wildlife sanctuary in southern India. Physical attributes included threats from major and minor roads and the accessibility of an area (given as inverse of the slope of the area), and socioeconomic attributes included the number of human settlements and human, cattle, and sheep populations. We divided the sanctuary into 30-ha grids, and for each grid we computed three threat categories: (1) settlement-associated threat from humans, cattle, and sheep; (2) development-associated threat resulting from major and minor roads; and (3) accessibility-related threat caused by the steepness of the terrain. Combining all three threats, we derived a composite threat index for each grid and mapped five levels of threats in the sanctuary. We collected data on human activities, tree species richness, and diversity in the transects laid in areas corresponding to these five threat levels. Although the threat levels of the transects were strongly correlated with the human-related disturbance activities, the composite threat indices of the transects were negatively correlated with tree species richness, indicating that the threat values we derived served as a good surrogate of the actual threat experienced by the sanctuary. With appropriate modifications, the protocol developed here can be applied to other ecosystems as well.
Sustainable use of nontimber forest products (NTFPs) can be affected by levels of extractions as well as by other anthropogenic
influences such as fire and grazing. We examined the effects of fire on the demography of Phyllanthus emblica, an important NTFP in the forests of Biligiri Rangan Hills, India. We then assessed demographic responses to the combined
effects of fire and current fruit harvesting patterns. Fruits of Phyllanthus are commercially harvested by an indigenous forest dwelling people. Using matrix population models, we compared demographic
indices across a chronosequence of time since last fire. Population growth rates (λ) ranged from 0.7692 to 1.1443 across the
five times since last fire. λ was the lowest at times since last fire of 2 and 3yr. Frequent fires increased time to maturity
by altering growth and survival rates, thereby causing a demographic shift from growth to regressions or negative growth.
Elasticity analysis revealed that stasis of adults makes the biggest contribution to λ. Simulations of periodic and stochastic
fire regimes suggest that higher λ and population persistence can be achieved at fire-return intervals of ≥7 and ≥9yr, respectively.
These fire-return intervals became longer when the simulations included harvesting and fire. Extinction probabilities under
the current fire regimes (every 2–3yr) suggest that populations will decline to lower densities. Our findings provide critical
information for developing guidelines for sustainable use and management of NTFPs in Biligiri Rangan Hills, and demonstrate
the need to incorporate various human-generated physical regimes in assessing sustainability of NTFPs.
Sustainable extraction of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) depends upon harvesting a small fraction of the total productivity. Over-exploitation can lead to a loss of biodiversity, but a low level of extraction, without value addition at the point of origin, is usually not economically feasible for extractors. Extraction and productivity levels per unit area for most non-timber forest products are unknown, nor do we have much information about value addition at various points in the marketing channels. Here we determine extraction and productivity levels for Amla trees (Phyllanthus emblica), which yield fruits that are used for a wide variety of purposes in preparation of various foods, beverages and medicines. We also present preliminary data on the price appreciation of the fruit for one of the processed products. We have determined that the current level of extraction, 60-80% of all fruits at the population level, may have a negative effect on new recruitment. We present a model for value addition that has the potential to enhance income and reduce the level of extraction. This model is currently being implemented by the Soliga community with the assistance of a non-governmental organization.
A survey on attitudes toward large carnivores was conducted in a representative sample of the Norwegian population (n = 3134). People were asked about the acceptability of carnivores living in remote wilderness, close to where people live, killing livestock, killing pets, or threatening humans. Large differences in acceptability appeared across the five situations. Wolves and bears were less acceptable than lynx and wolverines when observed close to where people live. Negative associations were found between acceptability and lack of personal control, economic loss, and respondents' age. Acceptability was higher among males than among females, and higher among urban than among rural residents. The results showed that general measures of attitudes alone toward large carnivores were of limited value in wildlife management. The situational and social specificity of these attitudes should be given more attention.
We examined the response of forest tree species with different dispersal modes to anthropogenic pressure in a dry deciduous
forest of South India. The species and their populations were sampled in two forest stands, one in proximity to a Soliga settlement
(greater disturbance) and the other distant to the settlement (lower disturbance). Our results suggest that the populations
of animal dispersed species than those of wind or passively dispersed species are more vulnerable to human disturbance. In
fact wind dispersed species seem to be facilitated by human disturbances. The proximal site had a higher representation of
understory plants and seedling belonging to wind dispersed species than that of animal dispersed species. We discuss the results
in the context of the role of dispersal mode in shaping species response, and vegetation composition of forest to anthropogenic
pressures.
Sustainable extraction of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) has recently gained considerable attention as a means to enhance rural incomes and conserve tropical forests. However, there is little information on the amounts of products collected per unit area and the impact of extraction on forest structure and composition. In this paper we estimate the quantities of selected products gathered by the Soligas, the indigenous people in the Biligiri Rangaswamy Temple (BRT) sanctuary in Karnataka, India, and examine the effect of extraction on forest structure and composition. Two sites, distant (DS) and proximal (PS), were identified based on the proximity to a Soliga settlement. The frequency of different size classes indicates that regeneration overall is poor in the area. The two sites show differences in species richness, basal area, and tree mortality. Furthermore, non-timber forest product species show a greater deficit of small size classes than the timber forest species, suggesting that regeneration is affected by collection of seeds and fruits from non-timber forest product species. Regeneration, however, may also be affected by other anthropogenic pressures such as fire, grazing and competition with weeds.
It is generally assumed that the sustained extraction and processing of non-timber forest products by local people can enhance their cash income and provide an alternative to tropical deforestation. However, the degree to which such products actually or may potentially contribute to rural incomes is poorly documented. We present the results of a study that seeks to evaluate the reliance of an indigenous group on non-timber forest products for cash income. Furthermore, we examine the effect of household variables on the cash income derived from collection and the price appreciation of non-timber forest prod nets. These products account for nearly half of the gross annual income earned by the Soliga households in the Biligiri Rangan Hills of the Karnataka State in South India. Econometric models indicate that although income derived from the extraction of non-timber forest products is high in proportion to the time devoted to the collection, the extraction is not a preferred vocation. Furthermore, price appreciation for non-timber forest products varies for different products and, overall, the Soligas obtain essentially minimal wages for their extractive efforts. We discuss possible mechanisms for enhancement of Soligas' income and the involvement of Soligas in conservation efforts.
Fuelwood is a predominant source of domestic energy for the Soliga, an aboriginal tribe, and non-Soliga people inhabiting
the core and the fringe of the Biligiri Rangaswamy Temple (BRT) wildlife sanctuary in Karnataka, India. Approximately 7000
Soliga and 66000 non-Soliga people depend on the 540 km2 sanctuary for fuelwood. The demand for fuelwood is estimated to be 134.7 t d-1 or 49165 t y-1 against production of 66024 t y-1 for the entire sanctuary. Consumption patterns vary with the season and the altitude. The pressure for fuelwood is far greater
on the fringe (85.8%) than in the core (14.2%). The fuelwood supply emanates from an activity zone of 20.1% of the total forest
area which produces only 27% of the total demand. Furthermore, only selected species are preferred for fuel use, indicating
that only a certain percentage of total productivity is available for extraction. Thus, the demandsupply gap is far greater
than it actually appears. A wide gap between demand and supply demonstrates that the BRT forests cannot cater to the fuelwood
needs sustainably with the prevailing patterns of extraction. Probable consequences of fuelwood extraction on biodiversity
are discussed, and management options to meet energy requirement and to conserve biodiversity are explored.
There are few observations on the role of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) in shifting from subsistence to commercial plantation-dominated systems with long-term monitoring, despite interests in NTFPs for sustainable development and livelihood dependence. During 1998–2004, we conducted an annual survey of households in the two villages, Baka and Daka, which represent different stages in the shift from a subsistence agroecosystem to a rubber plantation-dominated system in Xishuangbanna, southwestern China. Significant negative correlations were observed between gross income and dependence on NTFPs-generated income in both Baka and Daka villages (P = 0.029 in Baka and P = 0.028 in Daka), which is supporting evidence that poorer households derive greater benefits from NTFPs than do wealthy households. When the rubber price dropped during 1998–2001, the NTFPs income of Baka increased greatly from US145 per household, or from 6.4% to 26.6% of household gross income. In contrast, in Daka village, NTFPs income increased by insignificant amounts of US23.8 in 2001, but this was compensated by an increase in income from off-farm work of US147 (an increase from 1.8% to 16.2% of gross income per household) from 1998 to 2001 in Daka. NTFPs retained important roles both in alleviating risk associated with monoculture price fluctuations and in generating income for relatively poor people.
This paper examines attitudes of a rural community towards conservation and the Umfolozi/Hluhluwe/Corridor Complex Game Reserve, the local Conservation Area. The data presented were derived from a study of the viability of rural industries based on wildlife resources from this area.A questionnaire survey was carried out amongst households close to the Conservation Area. Respondents from 182 households were interviewed. A high proportion (65%) were found to be positive towards the concept of conservation though fewer were positive towards the Conservation Area and its managers.The distribution of attitudes in the community was cross-tabulated against 14 demographic variables. It was found that positive attitudes tended to increase with increasing household affluence and with the respondent's level of education. The most and the least westernised households tended to be positive towards conservation, suggesting the influence of a traditional concept of conservation. That households which had experienced direct benefits from the Conservation Area were more positive than those which had not indicates the importance of allowing local people access to wildlife resources and of encouraging structures to integrate conservation areas within local economies.
This paper examines forest income among rural dwellers in one of Malawi's most densely populated districts, Chiradzulu. 160 households were interviewed in two sites, only 20 km apart, purposely selected on the basis of access to a forest reserve. People are extremely poor, with 97% having incomes of less than 1 USD/day. Forest income constitutes around 15% of total income; only non-farm income (47%) and agriculture (28%) rank higher. The poorest segment depends more on forest income than the least poor group, but the medium income group exhibits the highest dependence. Fuelwood constitutes the major source of such income followed by fodder. The incomes mainly support current consumption. People with better access to the forest reserve have higher total income, forest income, and relative forest income. As revealed through a Gini-coefficient analysis, forest resources have an important income equalizing effect across rural households. A particular group of resource poor farmers (8.1% of sample), with little access to agricultural land and a high representation of female heads, derives an average of 65% of their income from the forest. An important policy lesson is that restricting people's access to forest resources can have substantial effects on household livelihoods and welfare, and would serve to increase income inequalities in the area. Livelihood researchers should now recognize the substantial income from forest resources.
Forest-agricultural ecotones are defined as areas that adjoin forests and other natural habitats and that lie between forests and zones of intensive agriculture. These ecotones are critical for conservation of biodiversity and for the maintenance of livelihoods of people that inhabit these areas. Here we focus on three questions: (1) How can we make land use sustainable in forest-agriculture ecotones? (2) How can forest-agriculture ecotones contribute to conservation of biodiversity? (3) How can we improve the institutions that foster sustainability and conservation of biodiversity in forest-agriculture ecotones? We address these questions in the context of interventions to foster biodiversity and rural livelihoods made by the Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology and the Environment (ATREE), Bangalore, in the Western Ghats and the Eastern Himalayas, 2 of the 34 global hotspots of biodiversity in India. At several sites, ATREE's interventions have improved the livelihoods of several rural communities by providing increased income from non-timber forest products (NTFPs), diversification of livelihoods and enhanced agricultural production. These interventions have improved the prospects for sustainable land use in the forest-agriculture ecotones. Simultaneously, ATREE's interventions have strengthened a range of village level and regional institutions that play a critical role in the rural economy and in conservation of biodiversity. We believe that the path to sustainability in agriculture as well as maintenance of biodiversity passes through adaptive, strong and relevant institutions. The development of institutions however is severely constrained by low social and human capital and the neglect of forest-agriculture ecotones by the governmental agencies and international organizations. We argue that forest-agriculture ecotones offer a means to conserve biodiversity through alleviation of poverty and development of community-based institutions.
People of rural India especially forest dwellers extract non-timber forest produces (NTFPs) from forest for both commercial as well as consumption purposes. Various studies showed that poorest forest dwellers are highly dependent on NTFPs to sustain daily requirements of family needs. In protected areas, people’s access to collect NTFPs has been either prohibited or restricted as per Wildlife Protection Act. The present study is an attempt to assess the extent of dependency on NTFPs after declaration of Buxa as protected area, dynamics of collection of NTFPs , people’s perception about NTFPs collection etc. The study reveals that more than half of total families are dependent on NTFPs to supplement their daily requirements. Moreover, tribal populations are most dependent on NTFPs at BTR among all the social categories. It is observed that number of species as well as quantity of NTFP collection for sale increased considerably over the years. This might be due to the fact that villagers are increasingly dependent on NTFPs as potential income source as employment opportunity reduced drastically due to ban on clear felling coupes and artificial regeneration of plantations with the creation of Tiger Reserve. It is revealed that primary collectors i.e. local villagers are not getting remunerative price though secondary and tertiary collectors, in particular, are making maximum profits from NTFPs. Forest villagers of BTR regard NTFPs as more consistent and stable source of income with declining forest departmental works and crop depredation by wild animals.
A study was carried out to assess the extent of tribal involvement in the collection and marketing of minor forest products (MFPs) by the largest cooperative society operating in the province of Tamil Nadu, viz. the Sathyamangalam Hill Tribes LAMP Cooperative Society. Around 83% of the members were tribals who were actively involved in MFP collection. Non-tribals and Adi Dravidars comprised the remaining members. On an average, the tribals spent eight to ten hours a day for collection of MFPs. During the farming season, 20% of the tribal households also worked as agricultural labourers. Through MFP collection, the tribals earned on an average Rs. 11 180 per annum per household of three earning members. Among the MFPs, amla topped the list yielding a revenue of Rs. 24.57 lakhs in an year followed by broom grasses, and stone and tree moss. In terms of quantity, broom grasses were the most followed by amla, and stone and tree moss. Two marketing channels were operating for the MFP trade, of which Channel I fetched higher producers' share. The existence of a monopsony in marketing of MFPs in tribal areas leads to inefficiency in their marketing. Remedial measures are discussed.
Some considerations of the needs and risks associated with increased development and use of non-timber forest products.
Particularly since India's Independence, concern about forest decline and opposition by forest-dependent populations to a perceived neglect and exploitation of local forests by the Forest Department has resulted, in certain areas, in the establishment of community-based forest protection committees. In Bihar, attempts to overcome the antagonistic Forest Department relations that prevailed during much of the 1980s, plus a recognition of the need to involve local people more in forest management and protection, have resulted in the establishment of the Bihar joint forest management programme. This aims to follow the example set by autonomous forest protection committees by setting up 'village protection and management committees' in degraded Protected forest areas. This paper, which stems from my doctoral fieldwork in the Jharkhand region of Bihar, will examine the issue of forest protection in light of three main issues. A first issue concerns the extent to which a strong historical sense of place and (particularly tribal) identity can be effective in mobilising an interest in and concern for local resource management and protection. A second issue concerns the degree to which traditional, charismatic village leaders are important in overcoming intra-village tensions over resource use and promoting successful forms of community action. A third issue concerns the extent to which the above two factors are likely to be important in the success of 'official' forest protection and management committees.
If you are to suffer, you should suffer in the interest of the country." -Jawaharlal Nehru, speaking to villagers who were to be displaced by the Hirakud Dam, 1948. I stood on a hill and laughed out loud. I had crossed the Narmada by boat from Jalsindhi and climbed the headland on the opposite bank from where I could see, ranged across the crowns of low, bald hills, the tribal hamlets of Sikka, Surung, Neemgavan and Domkhedi. I could see their airy, fragile, homes. I could see their fields and the forests behind them. I could see little children with littler goats scuttling across the landscape like motorised peanuts. I knew I was looking at a civilisation older than Hinduism, slated -sanctioned (by the highest court in the land) -to be drowned this monsoon when the waters of the Sardar Sarovar reservoir will rise to submerge it. Why did I laugh? Because I suddenly remembered the tender concern with which the Supreme Court judges in Delhi (before vacating the legal stay on further construction of the Sardar Sarovar Dam) had enquired whether tribal children in the resettlement colonies would have children's parks to play in. The lawyers representing the Government had hastened to assure them that indeed they would, and, what's more, that there were seesaws and slides and swings in every park. I looked up at the endless sky and down at the river rushing past and for a brief, brief moment the absurdity of it all reversed my rage and I laughed. I meant no disrespect. Let me say at the outset that I'm not a city-basher. I've done my time in a village. I've had first-hand experience of the isolation, the inequity and the potential savagery of it. I'm not an anti-development junkie, nor a proselytiser for the eternal upholding of custom and tradition. What I am, however, is curious. Curiosity took me to the Narmada Valley. Instinct told me that this was the big one. The one in which the battle-lines were clearly drawn, the warring armies massed along them. The one in which it would be possible to wade through the congealed morass of hope, anger, information, disinformation, political artifice, engineering ambition, disingenuous socialism, radical activism, bureaucratic subterfuge, misinformed emotionalism and, of course, the pervasive, invariably dubious, politics of International Aid.
The work in the B R Hills of Karnataka by H Sudarshan, a medical doctor, on the primary healthcare of the Soliga tribes is a rare example of the role of equity, social justice, maximum community participation and empowerment of the people, in addition to the encouragement of indigenous and traditional systems of medicine, in a successful community health programme.
The Soliga tribe in the Biligiri Rangaswamy Temple Hills of Chamarajanagar district of Karnataka has maintained a continuous and intimate interaction with the forest, deriving most of its basic requirements from the forests. The Soligas used to engage in shifting cultivation and collection of non-timber forest produce which was harvested in an indigenous and sustainable method until the BRT area was declared a wildlife sanctuary. This paper studies the indigenous traditional knowledge of the Soliga tribe about ecology forest conservation and resource management systems. It also describes tribal clan structures, practices of harvesting and conservation and the scope for developing a conservation regime that incorporates these aspects in forest management.
In the dry deciduous forests of central India, NTFPs are the major source of livelihood and income generation to local people. In the study area, due to the extremely dry climate and the erratic nature of rainfall, only about 20% of people undertake rainfed agriculture with the result that forests are under tremendous pressure from cattle grazing and fire. Unsustainable harvesting and collection of NTFPs has reduced their availability in the natural forest, which is threatening the livelihood of the tribal collectors. This paper is an outcome of three years of action research implemented with the local community at Sheopur District of Madhya Pradesh. Community awareness generation, science and technology application for NTFP processing and value addition and capacity building were the key approaches for rural livelihood and income generation. The case study emphasises the activities required for sustainable NTFP management.
This paper examines how and for what reasons rural residents come to care about the environment. Focusing on Kumaon, India, it explores the deep and durable relationship between government and subjectivity and shows how regulatory strategies associated with and resulting from community decision making help transform those who participate in government. Using evidence drawn from the archival record and fieldwork conducted over two time periods, it analyzes the extent to which varying levels of involvement in institutional regimes of environmental regulation facilitate new ways of understanding the environment. On the basis of this analysis, it outlines a framework of understanding that permits the joint consideration of the technologies of power and self that are responsible for the emergence of new political subjects.
India's immense biological diversity encompasses ecosystems, populations, species and their genetic make up. India is one of the 12 mega-diversity centers in the world, with its plant and animal wealth representing 7 percent of the world's flora and about 6.4 percent of world's fauna. The ethos of conservation is ingrained in India's cultural heritage. Over centuries, the people of India have had close linkages with nature. The subsistence lifestyles of different groups of people were shaped by their natural surroundings, in different ways for sustainable use of natural resources and have evolved appropriate conservation and management approaches, based on their culture and ethics. Even today, many indigenous communities are found distributed in a variety of ecosystems. With dwindling resources and depleting natural habitats, the very existences of these communities are now threatened. It is necessary for these communities to realize the importance of natural resources, for their livelihood even today and in the future. In this context, in India various organizations are working at the grassroot level to conserve the resources and improve the life of such people. In Biligirirangan Hills (BR Hills, Mysore district, Karnataka), the Vivekananda Girijana Kalyana Kendra (VGKK), a local NGO group and The Energy Resources Institute's (TERIs) Biodiversity wing, are helping to create awareness among the Soliga tribals (indigenous community residing in this ecosystem) on various aspects of their life, including the upliftment of their socio-economic conditions. As a part of this activity VGKK runs a residential school, especially for soliga children. A discussion was held between Dr. Sudarshan H., Director, VGKK# BR Hills and professionals from CEE* Bangalore to decide the strategy for biodiversity education for Soliga children. The need of locale specific biodiversity education materials stressing the importance of biological resources was felt important for the Soliga community as their livelihood depends on the natural resources available in the surrounding forests. The strategy included a five day workshop for teachers working closely with the community - Soliga children in particular and preparation of biodiversity education materials for three levels ( primary, higher primary and secondary) and implementation of biodiversity education in BR Hills school for Soliga Children. It was also decided that materials developed should help students to understand the importance of natural resources, develop values, scientific skills such as inventorying and monitoring the bio-resources of the BR Hills region. The booklets developed during the programme cover a wide range of background and locale specific information on biological diversity.
An important part of our approach to forest policy is the examination of ‘policy narratives’ or stories told by different protagonists. These are not ‘just talk’ or inventions for others’ amusement, but persuasive constructions with a beginning (assumptions, problem framing, choice of issues, etc), a development (argumentation, supporting evidence, justifications, troublesome side issues and other relevant circumstances) and a conclusion (what should be done and policy recommendations). They use some facts, are ignorant of or deselect others and interpret information in a particular manner so as to tell a persuasive and consistent story. They frame issues and problems in certain ways to focus on some issues and to exclude others. This may be done either consciously, as a strategy, or unconsciously, where the author has a particular set of facts and values which are not critically reflected upon. Narratives are used in policy-making as much as in everyday life. They are a way of making sense of an uncertain, complex, and contested world. In a more strategic sense, narratives may also be a means of persuading others. In no way is the labelling of an account as a ‘narrative’ meant to be derogatory or to imply falsehood or fantasy. On the other hand, however, we cannot assume that we know the actors’ intention from our interpretation of what they say. As Chapter 3 has illustrated, forest policy is complex, with many competing political representations and political ecologies at different scales, and narratives fulfil important objectives for the actors involved. Narratives serve to stabilize their expectations and provide secure moorings in a shifting and sometimes threatening world, but they also perform representative and political purposes in the exercise of power by persuasion. Narrative analysis is therefore well suited for the treatment of policy (see Roe 1994, Hajer 1995, Apthorpe and Gaspar 1996, Forsyth 2003).
The governance of natural resources used by many individuals in common is an issue of increasing concern to policy analysts. Both state control and privatization of resources have been advocated, but neither the state nor the market have been uniformly successful in solving common pool resource problems. After critiquing the foundations of policy analysis as applied to natural resources, Elinor Ostrom here provides a unique body of empirical data to explore conditions under which common pool resource problems have been satisfactorily or unsatisfactorily solved. Dr Ostrom uses institutional analysis to explore different ways - both successful and unsuccessful - of governing the commons. In contrast to the proposition of the 'tragedy of the commons' argument, common pool problems sometimes are solved by voluntary organizations rather than by a coercive state. Among the cases considered are communal tenure in meadows and forests, irrigation communities and other water rights, and fisheries.
The dominant approach to conservation in the 20th century was the establishment of protected areas from which people were excluded. However, in the 1980s, decentralised, community-based approaches to biodiversity conservation and natural resource management began to spread rapidly, especially in southern Africa. From the early 1990s, there has been a growing divide between proponents of community-based approaches to conservation (particularly community-based natural resource management, CBNRM) and those advocating a return to more traditional preservationist approaches to biodiversity conservation. Here we examine the growth of the community narrative and the subsequent revival of what we call the 'back to the barriers'movement. We discuss the importance of various actors and sets of policy ideas to this revival in Africa. Changes in narratives have had profound impacts upon conservation and natural resource management, livelihood strategies and political processes. We suggest that policy debate needs to become less formulaic if outcomes are to be positive.
This paper analyses how macro-economic and agricultural policies, market
fluctuations and demographic changes affected forests in the Humid Forest
Zone of Cameroon in four periods between 1967 and 1997. For each period
it examines how these variables influenced cocoa, coffee, food, and agroindustrial
crop production and area, and logging. It concludes that government
policies, market fluctuations and demographic changes all had a
strong impact on forests. Pressure on forests increased after structural adjustment
policies were initiated in the mid-1980s. Malthusian reasoning alone
cannot explain the level of deforestation and forest degradation in Cameroon.
Both livelihoods and diversity have become popular topics in development studies. The livelihood concept offers a more complete picture of the complexities of making a living in rural areas of low income countries than terms formerly considered adequate, such as subsistence, incomes, or employment. Diversity recognizes that people manage by doing many different things rather than just one or a few things. This book sets out the rural livelihoods approach within the larger context of past and current themes in rural development. It adopts diversity as its principal theme and explores the implications of diverse rural livelihoods for ideas about poverty, agriculture, environment, gender, and macroeconomic policy. It also considers appropriate methods for gaining quick and effective knowledge about the livelihoods of the rural poor for project and policy purposes.
In the first part of the book, the authors present a general theory of ecological history which attempts a paradigm shift from Weberian and Marxian theories of human society. Here they ask under what conditions humans exercise prudence in their use of natural resources; they examine infrastructures, property systems, political ideologies, religions, social idioms and the belief structures that characterize human interactions with resource bases; they analyse the varieties of social conflict that appear over the exploitation of natural resources; and, finally, they explore the impact of changing patterns of resource use upon human societies. In the second part the authors provide a fresh interpretive history of pre-modern India. They also provide, in this section, an ecological interpretation of the caste system which adds a significant dimension to existing ideas on caste. In the third part the authors draw on a huge wealth of source material to offer a socioecological analysis of the modes of resources use which were introduced by the British, and which continued, with modifications, after Independence in 1947. (This is a paperback edition of the HB issued in 1992.)
This paper examines the attitudes of local people living in and around the forest corridor linking the Rajaji and Corbett National Parks, northern India. Door to door surveys were carried out, and using fixed response questionnaires people were interviewed to examine their views towards conservation and proposed alternatives to the forest resources for reducing biomass demand from the forest. The study revealed that in the area the concept of conservation of forests is well supported. Nevertheless, people are extracting biomass from the corridor forest for their sustenance. The dependence of the people on the forest is due to lack of alternatives to the forest resources, inability of the people to produce alternatives from market, and in some cases it is habitual or traditional. In a situation where forest resources will not be available, people without any alternatives to forest resources are ready to agitate against such rules. People who oppose such decisions are not always dependent on the corridor forest but are antagonistic towards the forest department and want to use this opportunity to retaliate by stealing from the forest. The former category of people are the ones for whom income generating activities would be important while the later category should be the targets of extension programs designed to establish permanent lines of dialogue with the forest department. To some extent human-animal conflict and apathetic attitude of the forest department are also responsible for antagonism of people.
There are very few actual field experiences of initiatives where fostering a harmonious relationship between conservation
and development has been attempted. It is even rarer to find an example of a state-led initiative such as at Great Himalayan
National Park (GHNP). The present paper is an attempt to document efforts made at the Park to address the emerging relations
between people and the Park. The success of an environmental conservation programme being implemented at GHNP hinges on addressing
the imbalances in resource creation or distribution as well as in the allocation of accountability of all the players including
the Park management, NGOs, researchers, Friends of GHNP, and community.
A survey of Amerindian households in the Honduran rain forest was done to test hypotheses about the effects of household variables on deforestation and identify policies to lower neotropical deforestation. The results suggest that: 1.(a) the relation between income or age and deforestation resembles an inverted U;2.(b) fallow lands and illness had a positive link to deforestation;3.(c) household residence duration and size, education, off-farm income, credit, wealth, and rice yields reduced clearance.