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ISMA 2007 Analysis of bow-hair fibres
ANALYSIS OF BOW-HAIR FIBRES
Alexander Mayer, Helga Pöcherstorfer, Gregor Widholm
University of Music Vienna, A-1030 Wien, Anton-von-Webern-Platz 1, mayer@mdw.ac.at
Wiener Volksoper, A-1090 Wien, Währingerstrasse 78,
University of Music Vienna, A-1030 Wien, Anton-von-Webern-Platz 1, widholm@mdw.ac.at
Abstract
The bow hair is considered to be an essential component of the sound
production in bowed string instrument playing. Despite of this there is
hardly any literature dealing with the acoustic and mechanical properties
of bow-hairs.
The purpose of this paper is to show the broad range of various kinds of
bow-hairs and their properties. For the study eight types of bow-fibres
obtainable at most shops in Europe were chosen. Scanning electron
microscopy was used to compare the profiles and surface structure.
Mechanical tests demonstrate the differences in elasticity and strain
rupture. Audio recordings made by exciting a string with an artificial
bowing machine indicate that the surface structure have a negligible effect
on the produced sound.
INTRODUCTION
As there are only few papers on the properties of bow-hair fibres published
[Fryxell, 1974; Jolly, 1974; Menzel, 1979; Rocaboy, 1990] and up to now no published
investigations on the elasticity of bow-hairs could be found, some new data based on the
work of Renate Pöcherstorfer [1994] will be presented in this paper.
THE ORIGIN OF BOW-HAIR
Bow hairs are taken from slaughtered horses living in a colder climate. This
causes a slower rate of growth and less infestation by parasites, which means a smooth
and homogeneous hair structure. After the sorting process (length from 64 cm up to 110
cm) only 10 percent of the raw material remains for the use with bows. Curled hairs are
not suitable.
The hairs used in this project were purchased partly by Austrian instrument
makers and partly at the German wholesale company Dick GmbH. They come from six
countries: Canada, Argentina, China, Mongolia, Russia and Japan. Additionally
blanched and black hairs with unknown origin were analysed.
ISMA 2007 Analysis of bow-hair fibres
THE STRUCTURE OF HAIR
The structure of hairs in general is well described in the literature [Rocaboy,
1990; Sobottka, 2003]: the medulla in the centre and the cortex which is enveloped in
the cuticle consisting of tightly packed fibrillar tapered plates built-up from keratin. As
it can be seen in Figure 2 and 3 there is a large variety in the shape of these plates. This
fact often misleads string players to the conclusion that the scalation has an important
influence on the playing properties. In fact the stick-slip motion of the string is caused
by the rosin. The bonding capacity between the hair surface and the rosin depends on
the chemical properties of the cuticle and not on the shape of the plates.
EXAMINATION METHODS
Four methods where used:
• Standard microscopy: profile analysis and measurement of the
eccentricity coefficient
• Scanning electron microscopy: structure and surface analysis
• Tensile tests: measurement of the mechanical properties
• Bowing test using a computer controlled bowing machine
Profile Analysis
Using a special tool, small samples with a length of ca. 5µm to 10µm, have been
taken at three locations along the hair, close to the root, in the middle and close to the
tip. The units under test were fixed with glue at a microscope slide. The microscope was
featured with an ocular micrometer, where the physical length of the marks on the scale
depends on the degree of magnification. By rotating the sample the major and minor
axis (see Figure 1) is measured using the internal ruler.
Figure 1: Measurement of the major axis and minor axis of the hair profile
The data of Table 1 show the mean value of 3 to 5 samples for each region in
micro meters: maj = major axis, min = minor axis. The eccentricity coefficient is
calculated by HI = (min/maj)*100.
ISMA 2007 Analysis of bow-hair fibres
Chinese blanched Japanese Canadian
maj min HI maj min HI maj min HI maj min HI
root 188,1 181,2
96,3 262,4 212,9 81,1 265,3 195 73,5 239 216,4 90,5
middle 213,8 196 91,7 250,2 216,2 86,4 247,5 186,1 75,2 273,6 215,8 78,9
tip 209 184,8
88,4 247,2 227,7 92,1 233,2 182,6 78,3 222,3 203,4 91,5
Mongolian Russian black
Argentinean
maj min HI maj min HI maj min HI
root 212,3 171,6
80,8 224 190,6 85,1 254,6 214,9 84,4
middle 196,6 159,8
81,3 224,7 202 89,9 227,7 184,8 81,2
tip 190,1 132,7
69,8 217 197,2 90,9 226,4 173,9 76,8
Table 1: Major and minor axis in µm and the eccentricity coefficient.
Due to the anomalous shape of the Argentinean horse-tail hair it was necessary
to introduce a second minor axis. Figure 2 presents a photo of its typical profile.
Because the cross section has a bean like shape, a calculation of the above mentioned
eccentricity coefficient was not reasonable.
Argentinean
maj min1 min2
root 254,1 163,4 133,7
middle 263,6 170,8 161,7
tip 276,4 157,6 130,4
Table 2: Values of the major axis and the two minor axes [µm]
This special shape has been observed at all cross section samples of the
Argentinean hair. At first glance this shape could lead to the assumption, that the bean
like profile is a side effect of cutting. As the Argentinean hair samples were treated in
the same way as all other hair samples and no bean like cross section could be observed
at any sample except the Argentinean hair samples, and based on scanning electron
microscopy pictures with a minor magnification, we tend to take this profile as a special
feature of the Argentinean hair.
Cross section (magnification: 250) SEM Photo (the bar right at the bottom equals
the length of 100 µm)
Figure 2: The special shape of the Argentinean hair
ISMA 2007 Analysis of bow-hair fibres
Chinese
Japanese
Mongolian
Russian
Figure 3: Cross sections of various bow hairs (magnification: 250).
Structure and surface analysis
For the structure and surface analysis the hair samples were sliced into two
halves. At the point of cutting, segments of about 3 - 4 cm were taken. The samples
were coated with a thin layer of gold using a sputter coater. A sputter coater is used to
coat non-metallic samples to make them conductive and ready to be viewed by the
Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM).
Argentinean Chinese
ISMA 2007 Analysis of bow-hair fibres
blanched Japanese
Canadian Mongolian
Russian black
Figure 4: SEM close ups of all 8 hair types
(the bar right at the bottom equals the length of 10 µm)
Tensile Tests
Preparing the hairs for the tensile test, a careful treatment was needed. Every
pinch-off or scratch would have led to a break at the damaged region and invalid
measurement results. Before starting the mechanical test, the samples were stored 21
hours under constant temperature and humidity in a climate chamber.
The tensile test setup consisted of a tensile testing machine (Figure 5), a
controller and a plotter. The accuracy of measurement was specified with 0,01 N. One
end of the hair sample was fixed and the other end was pulled with a velocity of 1 cm
per minute. The plotter drew a graph with the x-axis equivalent to the elongation and
ISMA 2007 Analysis of bow-hair fibres
Figure 5: The tensile testing machine
(Institute of Applied Physics, TU Vienna)
Figure 6: Force – elongation diagram
the y-axis corresponding to the pulling force. Before the force reached the elastic tensile
force point (see Figure 6) the deformation will be reversible. After exceeding this point,
the mechanical structure of the hair is modified in an irreversible way, plastic
deformation occurs. The test was finished when the hair was broken. This is indicated
by the peak on the right side in the graph. The elastic tensile force, the tensile force at
break and the corresponding value of elongation offers valuable clues to determine the
mechanical properties of the hair fibre. The differences between the hair types can be
observed at the box-plot in Figure 7. The average elongation coefficient (dl*100/l0)
shows a variation of about 30% to 40% of the sample length l0. The bold horizontal line
inside the boxes represents the median.
Figure 7: left: elastic tensile force, right: tensile force at break
ISMA 2007 Analysis of bow-hair fibres
Bowing test
To get comparable sound examples without any influence of the instrument or
the player a common violin bow in combination with a computer controlled bowing
machine, built by Wolfgang Vogel for the string manufactory Thomastik-Infeld was
used. The bow has been especially modified to allow a quick change of the hair bundles.
The bowing velocity was chosen with 12 cm/sec, the bowing length was 48 cm and the
overall weight of the bow including the hair was kept constant with 40 gram. The string
vibration (the machine is equipped with only one string, a = 440 Hz) was picked up by a
piezo-electric transducer (Figure 8).
Figure 8: The Thomastik Infeld bowing machine
The RMS of the recorded sound samples with rosin showed no difference
depending on the bowing direction - with one exception: the black hair differed by 1 dB.
Additionally the RMS difference between the various hair types is only 1.5 dB (see
Figure 9). The RMS values of the hair without rosin are primary determined by
electronic noise and the stochastic noise caused by vibrations of the bowing machine.
Figure 9:RMS with and without rosin
ISMA 2007 Analysis of bow-hair fibres
SUMMARY
Microscopic analysis and measurements of the cross section show large
differences in both, the size and the shape of the investigated hairs. Scanning Electron
Microscopy clearly points out the distinctions in the scalation. The tensile tests highlight
a large variation in stiffness and expansibility which seems to be the most important
parameter for the player.
Although the investigations pointed out partly large differences in the structural
properties, playing tests with an artificial bowing machine emphasize the importance of
rosin - the influence of the scalation and the size of the keratin plates had a rather
marginal effect on the produced sound.
A short glance at bow hairs played for one year and a sample of the same bundle
left in mint condition indicates that primary the decreasing elastic properties as an effect
of the ageing process are relevant for the playing quality. The surface of the used hair
samples show only few slightly damaged scales.
We thank Dr. Heide Marie Halbritter, Institute of Botany and Botanical Garden,
University Vienna, for the expert help and advice concerning microscopy.
REFERENCES
Fryxell, R. (1974). “The Structure of Bow Hair”, American String Teacher, spring issue,
(Zurfluh, J. Sr., Editor)
Jolly, V.J (1974). “More About the Structure of Bow Hair”, Catgut Acoust. Soc.
Newsletter, 22, 20
Menzel, R.E.; Marcus, R. (1979). “The Microtexture of Horse Hair“, Catgut Acoust.
Soc. Newsletter, 32, 14-20
Pöcherstorfer, H. (1994). Untersuchungen an Bogenhaaren, Schriftliche Hausarbeit,
Institut für Wiener Klangstil, Universität für Musik und darstellende Kunst, Wien
Rocaboy, F. (1990). “The structure of bow-hair fibres”, J. Catgut Acoust. Soc. Vol. 1,
No. 6 (Series 11), 34-36
Sobottka, G.; Weber, A. (2003). “Geometrische und Physikalische Eigenschaften von
Humanhaar ”, Technical report, No. CG-2003-1, ISSN 1610-8892, Institut für
Informatik II, Universität Bonn
