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INSTILLING A KNOWLEDGE-SHARING
CULTURE
By
Heather A. Smith
Hsmith@business.queensu.ca
James D. McKeen
Jmckeen@business.queensu.ca
Queens University School of Business
Kingston, Ontario
Canada
K7L 3N6
2
Abstract
All organizations have cultures i.e., the sets of norms and values which collectively guide
the behavior of their employees. Culture is neither good nor bad but may foster values
and behaviors that support or impede certain organizational objectives. In modern
organizations, the increasing interdependencies between jobs and the information
explosion resulting from interconnectivity and rapid change, mean that many people have
pieces of solutions and no one knows it all (Stauffer, 1999). Therefore, cultures which
inhibit knowledge-sharing are widely-held to be significant barriers to creating and
leveraging knowledge assets. Instilling a knowledge-sharing culture is thus a necessary
prerequisite for companies that believe that it is a significant way to differentiate
themselves. To explore the characteristics of a knowledge-sharing culture and how one
can be nurtured and developed, the authors, in conjunction with Queen’s University’s
Centre for Knowledge-Based Enterprises, convened a day-long focus group of practicing
senior knowledge managers from a variety of industries in the United States and Canada.
This paper combines their ideas with research from the academic and practitioner
literature to create an overview of the issues and practices that are most important to
developing a knowledge-sharing culture.
.
3
All organizations have cultures i.e., the sets of norms and values which collectively guide
the behavior of their employees. Culture varies considerably between organizations and is
a significant differentiating factor between firms. Within an organization, culture is a
powerful force as well, obviating the need for many rules since it encourages employees
to behave in certain ways. Culture is neither good nor bad but may foster values and
behaviors which support or impede certain organizational objectives.
A “knowledge-sharing culture” is believed to be inherently good because of the growing
importance of intellectual capital to organizations and the need for effective knowledge
management practices (Gupta & Govindarajan, 2000). In modern organizations,
increasing interdependencies between jobs and the information explosion resulting from
interconnectivity and rapid change, mean that many people have pieces of solutions and
no one knows it all (Stauffer, 1999). Therefore, cultures which inhibit knowledge-
sharing are widely-held to be significant barriers to creating and leveraging knowledge
assets. Instilling a knowledge-sharing culture is thus a necessary prerequisite for
companies which believe that it is a significant way to differentiate themselves.
In order to explore the characteristics of a knowledge-sharing culture and how one can be
nurtured and developed, Queen’s University’s Centre for Knowledge-Based Enterprises
convened a day-long focus group of practicing senior knowledge managers from a variety
of industries in the United States and Canada. They were asked to explore several
questions, including:
What is your definition/understanding of a “knowledge-sharing” culture? How would
you recognize one?
Would you say that you have a knowledge-sharing culture within your organization?
What strategies has your organization adopted to instill a knowledge-sharing culture?
How successful have these strategies been?
Have you tried some things that have not worked?
What are the benefits of a knowledge-sharing culture?
How long does it take to instill knowledge-sharing as part of the organizational way
of life?
In addition, participants were asked to address any other factors and to bring any
corporate documents which they considered relevant to this topic. This paper combines
their ideas and experiences with research from the academic and practitioner literature to
create an overview of the issues and practices which are most important to developing a
knowledge-sharing culture. First, it looks at what we know about corporate culture and
how it operates in organizations. Then, the characteristics of a knowledge-sharing culture
are discussed. Next, cultural change and the factors which specifically nurture a culture
of knowledge-sharing are explored. Fourth, knowledge-sharing behaviors and the key
factors which motivate or inhibit them are examined. Finally, we identify some practices
which have worked to promote knowledge-sharing in other organizations.
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Organizational Culture
‘Culture’ is a term that encompasses the values, attitudes and behaviors of an
organization. Organizations are communities of individuals and each enterprise has a
distinct culture which describes how people relate to one another (Goffee & Jones, 1996).
In other words, as one focus group member described it, “culture is how we do things
around here”.
Culture is important in organizations because it can powerfully influence human behavior
and because it is extremely hard to change (Kotter, 1996). It exerts its influence in
numerous invisible ways -- from the kinds of people who get hired, to the types of
questions and comments that are tolerated, the formal and informal expectations made of
staff, the focus of reward systems, how people interact, and when they ask for help
(Gupta & Govindarajan, 2000). As Figure 1 shows, culture is an overarching mechanism
in an organization which constrains all other aspects of organizational life and limits what
is considered desirable, possible and practical to do. Needless to say, an organization’s
culture will therefore affect its knowledge management initiatives and will predispose
employees towards particular forms of behavior in knowledge-sharing.
Culture
Process
Infrastructure
Tools
Figure 1. Culture Influences Activities in All Aspects of the Organization
It is unfortunate that very little attention has been paid to date to understanding
organizational culture and its role in organizational change. Many organizational leaders
have had little or no education in the dynamics of culture and their mechanistic view of
how organizations function has left them with a significant “blind spot” where culture is
concerned (Kotter, 1996). As a result, academics and practitioners alike are just
beginning to learn about its depth and pervasiveness and to experiment with ways to
influence it.
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As Figure 2 shows, organizational culture does not exist in a vacuum. It is shaped by the
social culture in which the organization resides. Thus, a multinational organization’s
culture may vary somewhat from country to country. Similarly, while it shapes them,
organizational culture does not completely define the cultures of different business units
or functional units. As a result, an R& D function may have an observably different
culture from sales and marketing. Furthermore, culture is dynamic. It changes over the
life of an organization as it moves from start-up to maturity and it changes over time
(although not always in ways leaders understand or can manipulate), much as our societal
culture does. Therefore, what is meant by “culture” can be difficult to pin down and this
makes it challenging for leaders to work with.
Social Culture
Organizational culture
Business unit culture
IndividualIndividual
Figure 2. Culture operates in many different spheres, each constraining those within it.
Focus group members and academics alike are agreed that before a cultural change such
as knowledge-sharing, can be effected, an organization’s current culture must be
understood. All organizational cultures tend to vary along two dimensions: sociability
and solidarity. These dimensions capture much of what we know about organizational
culture (Goffee & Jones, 1996). Sociability refers to the emotional and non-instrumental
relations which exist within an organization, i.e., the friendliness among members of a
community. Sociability makes work enjoyable, fosters teamwork, promotes information
sharing, and creates an openness to new ideas. Solidarity refers to the degree to which
members of an organization share goals and tasks. It makes it easy for them to pursue
shared objectives quickly and effectively, regardless of personal ties and generates
strategic focus, swift response and a strong sense of trust. By combining these two
dimensions, an organization’s culture can be characterized as one of four types (see
Figure 3). Each type has its strengths and weaknesses and one is not better than the other,
e.g., university business schools tend to have effective fragmented cultures. Wherever an
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organization is along these two scales represents a starting point for understanding its
culture and how and why managers might wish to change it. As we will see below,
certain types of organization cultures tend to be more effective at promoting knowledge-
sharing than others (further characteristics of these cultural types are given in Appendix
A).
A Knowledge-sharing Culture
Today, knowledge-sharing is widely-held to be inherently necessary to the health of most
enterprises. Research shows that a “willingness to share” is positively related to
profitability and productivity and negatively related to labor cost (Jarvenpaa & Staples,
2000). Focus group members believed that knowledge-sharing is positively linked to
growth and innovation, bottom line savings, increased customer satisfaction, increased
shareholder value and learning.
SOLIDARITY
SOCIABILITY
High
Low High
NETWORKED
FRAGMENTED
COMMUNAL
MERCENARY
Figure 3. The Four Basic Types of Organization Culture
(after Goffee & Jones, 1996)
Participants described a knowledge-sharing culture as one where people share openly,
there is a willingness to teach and mentor others, where ideas can be freely challenged
and where knowledge gained from other sources is used. Knowledge-sharing can occur
through many different media: conversations, meetings, processes, best practices, data
bases, and questioning. Ideally, participants stated, knowledge-sharing should be a
corporate value which defines how work gets done and how everyone thinks. In short, a
culture of knowledge-sharing goes deeper than superficial individual behaviors and
captures the hearts and minds of the people in an organization.
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There is wide agreement that most organizational cultures currently act as barrier to
knowledge-sharing and need to change to become more supportive of it (Gupta &
Govindarajan, 2000). There are four key reasons why culture is seen as being at the base
of how well knowledge is shared (Delong & Fahey, 2000):
1. Culture shapes people’s assumptions about what knowledge is important.
2. Culture determines the relationship between levels of knowledge, i.e., what
knowledge belongs to the organization and what to an individual.
3. Culture creates a context for social interaction about knowledge, e.g., what is
sensitive, how much interaction or collaboration is desirable, which actions and
behaviors are rewarded and punished.
4. Culture shapes the creation and adoption of new knowledge.
Focus group members characterized the industrial age culture in which most of our
organizations are steeped as being strongly antagonistic to knowledge-sharing. In this
type of culture, knowledge is considered to be power, so information hoarding is the
norm. Management operates on a need-to-know basis and actively promotes a culture of
secrecy. The “not-invented-here” syndrome is rife and rewards are based on individual
contributions. The challenge for today’s leaders is therefore to evolve from such a
culture to one which actively encourages and facilitates knowledge-sharing and
discourages industrial age thinking and behaviors.
Cultural Change in Organizations
We know very little about how to effectively change an organization’s culture and even
less about how to promote a knowledge-sharing culture (Connelly, 2000; Kotter, 1996).
We do know that cultural transformations take time and effort. Change is a process that
must be measured in years, not weeks or months. Many organizations make the fatal
mistake of not paying enough ongoing attention to culture once change efforts appear to
be succeeding. Change guru John Kotter (1996) writes, “Changes in a work group, a
division or an entire company can come undone, even after years of effort, because the
new approaches haven’t been anchored firmly in group norms and values.”
Cultural transformation also involves significant amounts of communication. To
motivate people to change, there must be a compelling vision which is clearly linked to
the organization’s strategy and ongoing management attention to how well the change is
occurring. If the value of a change to an organization is not clearly articulated, it is likely
to fail. This is especially important when promoting a knowledge-sharing culture since it
may on the surface appear to have fewer tangible benefits. Sir John Browne, CEO of
British Petroleum, believes that vision and strategy are absolute prerequisites of the shift
to knowledge-sharing because they clearly focus efforts on what is important to the
company (Proekesch, 1997).
Visible, high level support for cultural transformation is essential (Kotter, 1997). Focus
group members repeatedly stressed that passionate leadership and management which
8
leads by example are the best ways to effect change. As one stated, “the principle role
for the leader is to make knowledge-sharing so attractive that people want to be part of
it.” This is the message at General Electric where knowledge-sharing is one of three
organizational initiatives for which CEO Jack Welch, takes personal responsibility
(Stewart, 2000).
It is important to recognize that a knowledge-sharing culture will look and feel differently
from one organization to the next. Kotter (1996) suggests that this is because cultural
changes should be considered as grafts of new values and behaviors on to the old
corporate culture. Ideally, a firm will retain the strengths of the old culture and bear the
fruits of the new one. Thus, there is no single set of knowledge-sharing characteristics
for which every organization should strive. However, there are three sets of underlying
organizational attributes which appear clearly associated with knowledge-sharing
cultures:
1. Companies with a high solidarity and high sociability culture. High sociability
strengthens the relationships needed to express and accept creative thinking and
creates an environment where people are more likely to go beyond the formal
requirements of their jobs. It also encourages helping and sharing behavior. High
levels of solidarity help people to sustain their focus. It builds a sense of trust based
on merit and enables swift, cooperative responses to competitive threats. In industries
where the business environment is dynamic and complex and which have multiple
external connections, high sociability, high solidarity organizations have a better
chance of being able to synthesize and use information from a variety of sources
(Goffee & Jones, 1996).
2. Companies which emphasize fair processes as well as fair outcomes.
Organizations have traditionally sought to have fair outcomes for their staff regarding
such things as compensation or position in the corporate hierarchy. The expectation
is that when people get what they deserve, they will feel satisfied with the outcome
and fulfill their obligations to the firm. Management tools have therefore emphasized
such fair outcomes as, resource allocations, economic incentives and rewards,
performance evaluation. However, recent research is consistently finding that there is
an important link between the perceived fairness of an organization’s processes and
the attitudes and behavior which result. Fair processes involve individuals in the
decisions that affect them, ensure that everyone affected understands why final
decisions are made as they are, and clearly state future expectations. In organizations
where fair processes are perceived, staff voluntarily go above and beyond the call of
duty. One study found that “Managers who believed the company’s processes were
fair displayed a high level of trust and commitment, which in turn engendered active
cooperation. Conversely, when managers felt fair process was absent, they hoarded
ideas and dragged their feet.” (Kim & Mauborgne, 1997) Thus, fair processes are an
important means of instilling a commitment to knowledge-sharing in an organization.
3. Companies which recognize their employees’ work. Organizational citizenship
behavior is the term used to describe a host of work-related helping behaviors above
9
and beyond a prescribed job. It has been shown to relate positively to group
cohesiveness, teamwork, performance, problem solving and problem prevention.
Recent research has demonstrated that staff whose work is recognized by their
superiors and/or their peers will tend to demonstrate stronger organizational
citizenship behaviors than others (Podsakof, 1997). Significantly, recognition does
not have to be monetary recognition but can also include non-monetary rewards such
as extended vacations, tickets to a sports event, an award, or a thank you note. Paré
et. al. (2001) have found that such recognition practices increase perceptions of
procedural justice which in turn make staff more likely to engage in organizational
citizenship behavior.
Motivators and Inhibitors of Knowledge-sharing Behavior
While organizations should strive to embed knowledge-sharing in their culture in the
ways discussed above this is, as we have noted, a long-term process. In the short and
medium term, much of a knowledge manager’s efforts therefore need to be focused on
ways to promote knowledge-sharing behavior. While behavior is the most superficial
aspect of culture, experts believe that effective transformation efforts should aim to
produce a series of visible short-term impacts in a number of different parts of an
organization. This makes the benefits of change real for people and shows them how
specific new behaviors and attitudes help performance (Kotter, 1996). Many focus group
members are using this approach to promote knowledge-sharing. “The key is to build
islands of sharing”, stated one member, “and then to build bridges between the islands.”
Because cultural change is such a long-term, multi-step process, it is not unusual to find
that knowledge-sharing efforts are incubated first in small niches in an organization
before gaining widespread senior management attention and support. The experts agree
with this approach, emphasizing that cultural transformation is a non-linear process and
that culture will only change after people’s actions are altered, after benefits have been
observed for some period of time and after people have seen the connection with the
change (Kotter, 1996). Therefore, motivating knowledge-sharing behaviors is an
important first step to instilling a full-blown knowledge-sharing culture.
There are four categories of factors: social, managerial, organizational and technical,
which stimulate or inhibit knowledge-sharing behavior. Ideally, they build on and
interact with each other to create optimal conditions for knowledge-sharing (see Figure
3):
1. The Social Context of Knowledge-sharing Behavior. Most knowledge is
shared socially. Research shows that managers get two-thirds of their information
from face-to-face meetings or via the telephone and only one-third from
documents (Davenport, 1994). People are five times more likely to turn to friends
and colleagues for answers to their problems rather than to other sources of
information (Cross & Baird, 2000). Yet while we know that personal contact is a
fundamental part of knowledge-sharing, “too often knowledge transfer has been
confined to such concepts as improved access, electronic communication, and
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document repositories.” (Davenport, 1994). Practitioners know this well but
although “no one says ‘document repositories’, that’s where we spend 100% of
our resources.”
The social context in which individuals work appears to form the bedrock for all
other types knowledge-sharing behaviors. People will not share with those they
don’t trust either by reputation or expertise. They need to size up who is giving
the information and assess their credibility (Connelly, 2000; Davenport, 1998).
This is one key reason why technical knowledge-sharing solutions often work.
Social
Organizational
Managerial
Technological
OPTIMAL
SHARING
ZONE
Figure 4. Optimal Sharing Behaviors Occur where Social, Organizational &
Managerial Factors Intersect
poorly on their own. Organizations therefore need to develop specific strategies
to increase spontaneous exchanges between individuals. Some of the factors
which have been shown to increase knowledge-sharing between people include:
introducing new staff members to key people in the organization; developing a
team-based structure on which a sense of community can be built; rotating key
staff through the organization to build networks; locating work areas so they
intersect with others; and cultivating an atmosphere of informality where people
feel comfortable asking others for help (Goffee & Jones, 1996; O’Dell, 1999;
Stewart, 2000).
There appear to be two sets of conflicting assumptions about why people do or do
not share their knowledge. The first is that researchers feel that knowledge-
sharing is not ‘natural’ and therefore needs to be motivated (Tan, 2000;
Davenport, 1994) while focus group members felt that sharing will occur
naturally if organizations remove the barriers that they put in place to prevent it
happening. In fact, both are likely true. Jarvenpaa and Staples (2000) have found
that organizational and managerial factors have a great deal of influence on how
11
much knowledge-sharing individuals in organizations do. For example, people
who believe information belongs to the organization are less likely to share than
those who feel the information is their own. Information sharing is also more
likely to occur if there is more interdependence of job tasks.
A second assumption is that people don’t want to share because they are
overloaded with information already. Again, this is both true and untrue. When
people have job assignments which leave them isolated, allow for little slack time
or which do not support such ‘unproductive’ activities as talking or reading, it is
highly unlikely that they will be able to find time to share (Davenport, 1998). On
the other hand, Davenport (1994) believes there is no such thing as information
overload. “If information is really useful, our appetite for it is insatiable.” This
underscores a point which was continually made during the focus group meeting.
Knowledge must be useful if sharing is to occur, that is, if information is to be
both sought and utilized. Individuals set internal criteria for what they believe is
important. Any knowledge-sharing effort must therefore be designed around
these (Hickins, 1999).
2. The Organizational Context of Knowledge-sharing Behavior. Organizational
processes and practices form a second major category of factors which influence
knowledge-sharing behaviors. These factors include: recognition and incentives;
the role of information in the organization; governance and accountability
structures; where knowledge resources are spent; and how the organization’s
processes integrate knowledge. Research has repeatedly shown that
organizational demographics, particularly large size and formal status
differentials, have a negative influence on knowledge-sharing (Connelly, 2000;
Stauffer, 1999). Focus group members identified many policies and practices
which mitigated against knowledge-sharing. For example, some firms reward
individual achievement not group achievement or use metrics that do not track
knowledge-sharing activity. In other organizations, concerns over keeping key
information from falling into competitors’ hands have led to such restrictive
security procedures that they also inhibit internal knowledge-sharing. Particularly
endemic is a persistent industrial-culture belief that knowledge is power and
money. Until this belief is rooted out and destroyed in all processes and practices
of the organization, knowledge-sharing will not occur, regardless of how well the
organization promotes it (Davenport, 1994).
Practices and processes embed what the organization values. Two of the most
important organizational practices which promote knowledge-sharing behavior
are: rewards and recognition and monitoring. As noted above, reward and
recognition practices can either promote or inhibit sharing behaviors depending
on how they are designed. One focus group organization encourages sharing by
allocating 25% of an individual’s performance evaluation to how well they share
and use knowledge. This not only rewards desired behavior, it provides a means
for monitoring it as well. Other organizations use more informal recognition
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practices, e.g., thank yous or awards, and find that these work as well as more
formal means.
Training is another process which can significantly influence knowledge-sharing
and which is often under-emphasized. Often workers do not use knowledge-
sharing technology and tools simply because they are not sure how they work or
do not understand what behaviors they are expected to practice (Davenport, 1994;
Connelly, 2000). CKOs in the focus group noted that in their experience the
amount of training needed to change behavior is always underestimated. Some
firms have implemented formal mentoring and coaching programs to address this
need.
Facilitation of knowledge-sharing work is also important. Strategies for making
information useful and accessible are all labor intensive and require knowledge
and judgement. Organizations must be prepared to provide adequate resources to
support the knowledge-sharing they desire (Davenport, 1994). One focus group
firm has created the position of “knowledge steward”. The steward is involved in
all major projects, gathering relevant business intelligence and template
documents at the beginning and capturing what was learned on a project at the
end. Another organization legitimizes time spent documenting knowledge and
mentoring others, cycling specialists into knowledge management roles between
assignments.
Care must be taken when designing knowledge-sharing procedures, documents
and methods however, that they do not become too complicated. The more
complex and detailed these are, the less likely they will be to change behavior
(Davenport, 1998). This is one reason why enterprise-wide information
architectures have been a resounding failure.
3. The Managerial Context of Knowledge-sharing Behavior. Motivating
cooperative behavior in staff has been called one of the key managerial issues of
the next few decades. This is because “creating and sharing knowledge are
intangible activities that can neither be supervised nor forced out of people. They
happen only when people cooperate voluntarily” (Stauffer, 1999). Focus group
members agreed that managers play an important role in stimulating or inhibiting
knowledge-sharing. Middle and line managers have a great deal of influence on
how organizational processes are carried out (i.e., how fairly they are perceived)
and on how well sociability and solidarity are promoted within their area of
influence (Schein, 2000).
Management plays an especially critical role in leading knowledge-sharing efforts
by example. Focus group members consistently stressed the importance of leaders
in communicating the importance of knowledge-sharing and of practicing what
they preach. Furthermore, it is managers who must sanction the time for training
and sharing, who determine job assignments which can optimize or stunt learning,
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who must recognize and reward the sharing behaviors the organization wishes to
inculcate, and who decide who to hire and promote.
They also have special responsibilities for delivering value. As we have noted,
delivering visible value is a key aspect of motivation. Managers must focus
knowledge management initiatives on the things that matter most to people,
tailoring them to how people do their jobs and to the social dynamics of their
organizational unit (Hickins, 1999).
Given these key roles in motivating knowledge-sharing behavior, it is unfortunate
that surveys have shown that only 43% of business managers (including
executives) have a clear understanding of the value of knowledge management
(Eckhouse, 1999). “There is no substitute for someone who really believes”,
stated one focus group member. Continuous communication by management
about the importance of knowledge-sharing is essential to the development of this
behavior (Philips, 1999). Communication includes not only speaking and writing
but also what management pays attention to. One company where management
was very successful in doing this was Nucor, a steel manufacturing company in
the United States. Several years ago, managers set out an integrated program to
mobilize knowledge in their plants. This combined improved training and higher
quality standards with an emphasis on respect and trust for the workers. When
sacrifices had to be made, managers sacrificed as much or more than the workers.
All performance data were shared with a plant’s workers and suggestions for
improvement were carefully considered. Interplant performance data were also
shared and the best workers from each were rotated between plants to seed
knowledge-sharing. Meetings and visits between plants were also arranged.
Finally, higher bonuses and other incentives were added to further drive home the
message. As a result of these efforts, although in a fundamentally troubled
industry, Nucor has consistently returned higher than average profits and return to
its shareholders (Gupta & Govindarajan, 2000).
4. The Technical Context of Knowledge-sharing Behavior. The last, and
probably least important motivator of knowledge-sharing behavior is technology.
As Davenport explains, “The world is littered with the remains of knowledge
management programs that companies built and then nobody came.” (O’Dell,
1999). There is an important and synergistic relationship between IT and
knowledge management. IT makes the connections possible that enable sharing,
but in and of itself does not motivate it. In fact, implementing technology while
disregarding the other factors which motivate knowledge-sharing will only
reinforce existing behavior (Davenport, 1994). At best, technology should be
seen as complementing other knowledge management activities; at worst, it can
be downright offputting (Cross & Baird, 2000; Hickins, 1999).
In spite of these facts, it is knowledge-sharing technology which gets the lion’s
share of attention and resources, possibly because it is IT people who are more
likely to understand the importance of knowledge management – even if they
14
have an overly mechanistic view of how it is done (Eckhouse, 1999). However,
all too often its intended users are unaware of a technology’s existence or don’t
know how to use it effectively (Connelly, 2000). Other problems with technology
include:
Poor design. Frequently, technology is not designed for the work people
actually do but rather for the work technologists think they should do
(Hickins, 1999).
Poor usability. People will only use technology if it provides: an easy way
to locate the information they need; effective interfaces; and quality service
delivery (Griffiths, 2000).
Failure to match the medium with the message. Technology can be an
effective way to speed information around an organization – especially if it is
geographically dispersed. However, it is not a very rich medium. For deeply
contextual, tacit information, the best way to share can be using technology to
connect people to experts and then let them exchange information offline
(Drucker, 2001).
Lack of segmentation. Not all users of knowledge resources have the same
needs. Recognizing this, one of the focus group companies created a “killer
app” by developing “PowerPacks” of information, specifically designed for
particular groups in the company.
In short, technology design for knowledge-sharing requires careful attention to the
social, organizational and managerial factors which drive behaviors. Only then,
can technology be effectively implemented to support and enhance those parts of
knowledge-sharing behavior which are amenable to technical facilitation.
Effective Knowledge-sharing Practices
While it is not always possible to translate best practices from one organization to
another, members of the focus group shared some ideas which had worked well for them:
Sell knowledge-sharing. Often, people see knowledge management as a time-
consuming add-on and don’t see the benefits for themselves of doing the extra work
required. The sales-pitch will be different in different organizations. Some firms
need to appeal to individuals’ self-interest; others sell the organizational benefits;
some don’t even call it knowledge-sharing – they call it “working smarter”.
Use a Knowledge Leadership Cue Card. To remind its managers about the
importance of their own behavior in stimulating knowledge-sharing, one firm created
a cue card listing ways they can promote it in their day-to-day jobs. This card
includes such reminders as: “what have you learned from this project?” and “who
15
else have you shared this with?”. The complete cue card has been included in
Appendix B.
Incorporate Testimonials. Stories of the success of knowledge initiatives have long
been considered important ways to focus attention on knowledge-sharing. Focus
group members strongly encourage users who have seen the value of sharing to speak
about it with others. Many also include testimonials in the rollout of any knowledge
management initiative.
Measure Sharing. As with all changes, measuring knowledge-sharing shows that
management believes it is important. Companies need to identify these types of
metrics in addition to traditional outcome metrics. Some of the aspects of
knowledge-sharing success which focus group companies are measured include: rate
of contribution to knowledge data bases; rate of knowledge reuse; quality of
knowledge available; and external recognition of the firm’s knowledge leadership.
Get the value proposition right. Understanding and articulating the ways that
knowledge-sharing links to value is absolutely critical according to the focus group.
Often, this does not have to be at an enterprise level but in smaller areas where
knowledge can have an immediate impact. In one company, sharing efforts were
focused on providing added value to its customers; another on making its customer
service operators more effective; and another on its office workers. A “focused and
pragmatic” effort is the best place to start stimulating knowledge-sharing.
Recognize the stages of knowledge-sharing. As we have noted above, instilling a
knowledge-sharing culture is a multi-step process and firms need to recognize when
they are ready to move on from one stage to the next. The first stage is when
knowledge-sharing is still a new concept. At this level, sharing must be tactical
focussing on ensuring that front line workers have the information and contacts
necessary to do their jobs well. Instilling knowledge-sharing at this level could
include: producing contact lists, providing more accessible standard information
online, and encouraging inter-group communication and feedback. When a firm
recognizes that it needs to do more and is ready to invest further, then more emphasis
should be placed on ensuring that both organizational processes and managers
support knowledge-sharing behavior through such things as, training, incentives,
infrastructure, usability, and focusing on value-adding activities such as integrating
knowledge management tools and techniques into business processes and practices.
Finally, when knowledge becomes a true corporate competency, organizations can
focus on the more strategic, enterprise-wide sharing of knowledge. This involves
embedding knowledge into every aspect of the company’s work and culture. It is
only at this level that the organization will truly be exploiting what it knows and will
be considered to have a mature knowledge-sharing culture. At minimum, focus group
members stated, this progression is a three to five year process which cannot be
rushed and which must be constantly monitored.
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Conclusion
Instilling a knowledge-sharing culture is a challenge for even the most knowledge-savvy
organizations. Because culture is difficult to pin down, it is often underestimated in
efforts to change how firms work. This is a mistake. Developing a culture which values
and practices knowledge-sharing is a multi-year effort involving attention to the social,
organizational, managerial, and technical components of this behavior. Past efforts have
often assumed that implementing technology alone will be enough to promote
knowledge-sharing. While this has been consistently demonstrated as an ineffective
practice, frequently the majority of an organization’s knowledge resources are devoted to
technology and not to the other factors which stimulate knowledge-sharing. Until
organizations make a concerted effort to refocus their efforts on these, they will find it
extremely difficult, if not impossible to grow a true knowledge-sharing culture.
17
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19
Appendix A
Characteristics of the Four Basic Organizational Cultures
(from Goffee & Jones, 1996)
1. Networked (high sociability; low solidarity)
Informal
Much at work and after hours socializing
Many ways to get around the hierarchy
Difficult to get functions or groups to cooperate
Political atmosphere
Hare to agree on and enforce priorities
Difficulty gaining adherence to procedures, rules, systems and measures
2. Fragmented (low sociability; low solidarity)
Low consciousness of organizational membership
Members identify with professional groups
High levels of dissent about strategic goals
Attractive to individuals who prefer to work alone
Often associated with virtual organizations.
3. Mercenary (low sociability; high solidarity)
Most communication is business-focused
Can respond quickly and cohesively to a perceived threat
Priorities are decided quickly and enforced with little debate
Generally intolerant of poor performance
Low levels of loyalty
Individuals are disinclined to cooperate
4. Communal (high sociability; high solidarity)
Typical of small organizations
High value on fairness and justice
Clear understanding of goals and competition
An inherently unstable form.
20
Appendix B
A Knowledge Leadership Cue Card
Leaders can model desired behaviors by sharing information and knowledge with others
inside and outside of the leader’s immediate organization and by:
Asking colleagues, “Who else have you shared this with?”
Asking colleagues, “Who else could make use of this information?”
Asking colleagues, “What have you learned from this project or activity?” and “Who
have you shared these learnings with?”
Prior to approving a new project or initiative, asking the project leader, “What have
you learned about what the organization has done in this area in the past? In other
parts of the business?” “How are you leveraging these learnings?”
Asking colleagues and project teams, “Have you checked our knowledge bases to see
what we know about this topic?” “What have you learned as a result of checking our
knowledge base, and how do you plan on building on this knowledge in your
project?”
Asking colleagues and project teams, “Who are the experts in this topic inside or
outside the company?” “Have you discussed this with those experts? If so, what have
you learned? If not, why not?”
