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Life Cycle Assessment: reusable and disposable nappies in Australia
Abstract
Australian data were used here in a life cycle assessment of three types of nappies (disposable, home-washed re-usable, and commercially-washed reusable). Four environmental indicators were used: water resource depletion, non-renewable energy depletion, solid waste and land area for resource production. For the first time, the effect of forestry on runoff was included in water resource depletion. A range of scenarios were considered for each nappy, to account for variability in usage rates and washing practices. The results enable parents to assess the impact of each nappy system based on their own conditions. Comparing variation within and between nappy systems also allowed a fairer assessment of the nappy systems. Home-washed reusable nappies washed in cold water in a front-loading washing machine and line-dried were found to use less energy and land resources, comparable water resources, and produce similar or lower quantities of solid waste, compared to the other nappy systems. Methods to reduce the impact of each nappy system were identified. The major difference between the nappy systems is that the user has much more control over the environmental impact of home-washed reusables. The main role by which consumers can reduce the impact of commercially-washed and disposable nappies is to use them less frequently. The study highlights the importance of including variability explicitly in the inventory analysis. The results also suggest that accounting for reduced forestry runoff in water resource depletion may impact the outcome of studies involving softwood-sourced products; further work is required to better quantify the effect of forestry on water resources.
... Articles identified were analyzed using constructs mentioned above, to create a body of literature. Vizcarra et al., 1994;Hakala et al., 1997;UK Environmental Agency, 2005;2008;O'Brien et al., 2009;Cordella et al., 2015;Perez et al., 2020). A study by Ng et al., (2013) gives a detailed account of LCA studies on disposable and reusable diaper systems. ...
... Studies reviewed by Ng et al., (2013) came to different conclusions, when evaluating which diaper system was the major contributor to the overall impacts. Studies by Lehrburger et al. (1991) andO'Brien et al. (2009) favours disposable diapers in terms of lower environmental impacts. Other studies such as Little, 1990 andSauer et al., 1994, recommended reusable cloth diapers. ...
... The amount of SAP in baby disposable diapers increased from 1 g to 13 g between 1987 and 2005, considerably reducing the demand for pulp as an absorbent (EDANA Sustainability Reports, 2007). Environmental problems cited in the production of the pulp include greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and deforestation (O'Brien et al., 2009). Pulp production also releases toxic pollutants at various process stages, such as solid sludge generated from the treatment of wastewater plants and toxic air emissions (Ince et al., 2011). ...
Waste management is a crucial priority issue for all countries in this environmentally conscious era. Proper waste management of disposable diapers is one of the issues at the forefront. The unprecedented growth of the world urban population has left many cities grappling with disposable diapers clogging landfills. It is a problematic issue that if not mitigated could overburden existing waste management systems. This mini-review article aims to critically review relevant life cycle assessment studies (LCA) on single-use disposable diapers and the environmental impact incurred at each stage of its life cycle. Different technical and non-technical disposable diaper waste management approaches have been explored in literature, but studies directed towards pyrolysis conversion of disposable diapers post-consumer waste are notably very scarce. The review further examines the potential of pyrolysis as an end-of-life waste management option for disposable diapers. Finally, this study highlights gaps in the literature and recommends the scope for future research.
... R7 Fluff-/cellulose pulp, energy requirements for production Energy points from the production of pulp must fulfil the following requirements: P energy total = (P el +P fuel )/2 < 1.25 and P el < 1. 75 The energy points P el and P fuel for pulp are calculated as energy consumed divided by the reference value for energy for the process used, see R38 of the Basic Module. ...
... In order to address regional aspects of laundering diapers in dry regions, reusable and single-use diapers were compared in Australia by the University of Brisbane (2009). 75 In the study, similar to the study from the UK Environment Agency, singleuse diapers were compared to home-washed and commercially washed reusable diapers over a use stage of 2.5 years for one child. As impact indicators, the authors quantified water resource depletion, energy consumption, solid waste and land area for resource production. ...
The Institute for Prospective Technological Studies (IPTS) delivers scientific and interdisciplinary analyses with the overall goal of supporting the EU policy-making process. In particular, the services of the Sustainable Consumption and Production Unit within the IPTS include providing socio-economic analyses with regards to key aspects of sustainable consumption and performing techno-economic and environmental impact assessment of technologies, products and processes.
The aim of this project is to develop EU Ecolabel criteria for absorbent hygiene products (AHP). The implementation of the EU Ecolabel scheme assists in the reduction of negative impacts of consumption and production on the environment, on human health and on natural resources.
Please note that the product scope initially referred to “sanitary products”. However, during the course of this project, it was recommended by industry stakeholders to change the name to “absorbent hygiene products (AHP)”.
As part of the project, an initial scoping document delivered the rationale for the products to be included in this project. This report was shared with a group of stakeholders involved in the project (23 February 2012). To date, the suggested scope of products has been confirmed and considered relevant for the development of EU Ecolabel criteria.
Based on the results of the scoping document, this preliminary report provides a brief description of selected products, main features and uses (Section 2). Section 3 of this report reviews existing legislation, standards and environmental schemes relevant to the products within the scope of this project. This review is important because it outlines rules, requirements and criteria currently in existence for the relevant products and as such provides useful insights for development of EU Ecolabel criteria.
Section 4 analyses the market for the products within the scope of this project. Information on sales, consumption, import/export figures as well as market growth rates or market shares help to understand the economic relevance of the selected AHPs and to address the work towards the development of effective EU Ecolabel criteria.
Section 5 provides the technical analysis which discusses the technological aspects of AHPs regarding the material compositions and production processes of baby diapers, feminine care pads, tampons and breast pads. An overview of previously conducted and published life cycle assessments (LCA) studies is given and new LCA models are developed and interpreted for each of the single products within the scope.
... This is why several LCA studies have already taken individual behavioural variations into account, e.g. by modelling different usage scenarios, by using sensitivity analysis or by using regionally disaggregated data [1,4,6]. In a study comparing the environmental effects of three types of nappies (disposable, home-washed reusable and commercially-washed reusable) the authors used scenarios to model the variability in user behaviour for usage rates and washing practices [54]. In this way, it was possible to identify certain environmental determinants in behaviour. ...
... Furthermore, it was possible to derive areas of action in which a reduction of the environmental impact can be achieved. However, the modelling of different usage scenarios was based on assumptions and on best practice [54]. Shahmohammadi et al. [4] used regionally disaggregated data to analyse the variability in GHG emissions from washing laundry in 23 European countries. ...
The way in which products and services are used can have a significant impact on their environmental performance. Practice shows, however, that life cycle assessment (LCA) studies often either assume average usage parameters, or only address a limited number of life cycle phases (‘cradle to gate’), without considering the use phase. This chapter therefore aims to emphasize the relevance of user decision and behaviour in LCA and to discuss related modelling aspects with regard to the definition of system boundaries, the definition of the use phase and the collection of inventory data. Furthermore, processes of decision-making in the context of LCA are critically reflected and suggestions for improvements are discussed.
... Previous studies have used a number of functional units. For example, a number of studies have utilised the average number of children's diapers used over 2.5 years (Aumónier, Collins & Garrett, 2008;Brien et al., 2009;Hoffmann, de Simone Morais & Teodoro, 2020). In some cases the functional unit seems arbitrarily chosen, such as the 1000 units used by Mendoza et al. (2019). ...
The research aimed to explore diaper usage and disposal practices in unserved rural areas and was conducted in the Kruger to Canyons (K2C) Biosphere Region. The area is a biodiversity hotspot that contains many different ecosystems supporting a significant number/multitude of rare and endemic, but threatened, species. Additionally, the biosphere includes two of South Africa’s key tourism sites (the Kruger National Park and the Blyde River Canyon), as well as a leading
international floral hotspot, the Wolkberg Region.
An explanatory sequential mixed-methods approach was followed using quantitative and qualitative data collection methods. Firstly, 1576 quantitative diaper baseline questionnaires were completed. Secondly, a participatory mapping or drawing of the dumping areas was completed by the communities as part of the focus-group discussions in each of the villages. GIS mapping of dumped diapers over a period of six months was completed by the environmental monitors working for K2C in the villages. After the analysis of the data, feedback or member-checking sessions were
held with the communities to verify the results. Lastly, a life cycle assessment was completed based on the results.
In summary: Although disposable diapers are convenient, the usage and disposal practices of diapers in the study area are creating social and environmental problems, affecting humans and animals, and are posing a threat to the biodiversity. The complexity of the problem should be systemically addressed through continuous interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary research,relevant
policies and regulations, as well as projects. Platforms should be created on which information can be shared, and solutions generated, to improve the health and well-being of communities and their environment. The achievement of 12 out of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) is under serious threat if waste management in general and in particular the management of disposable diapers are not under control.
... Several studies have attempted to measure whether cotton cloth diapers, which require significant environmental resources to produce, are more environmentally friendly (Aumônier et al., 2008;LeVan, 1995;Ng et al., 2013;O'Brien et al., 2009). One study by the United Kingdom's Environment Agency found that if cloth diapers are washed in an energy-efficient washing machine and dried outside, they can have less of an impact on the environment than disposable diapers (Aumônier et al., 2008). ...
Diapering requires carework, or the physical and emotional labor needed to care for others. Caregivers who are responsible for diapering their children must make decisions about how to best care for their children’s needs. Poverty presents a barrier to providing ideal carework for caregivers unable to afford an adequate diaper supply. To consider whether cloth diapers could help caregivers overcome diaper need, or a lack of sufficient diapers to keep a child clean and healthy, the Diaper Bank of Southern Arizona (DBSA) partnered with the Bureau of Applied Research in Anthropology (BARA) at the University of Arizona to evaluate whether cloth diapers could help caregivers mitigate the financial stress of purchasing diapers. In this article, we review the findings of the DBSA-BARA Cloth Diaper Kit Project by exploring the benefits and challenges caregivers encountered when they used cloth diapers. Economic need ultimately drove the majority of these caregivers to use cloth diapers, even while encountering challenges, such as an increased time commitment, a lack of social support, and some discomfort for their children. Caregivers also found that cloth diapers provided important benefits, such as reducing the stress of not having a sufficient diaper supply.
... Taking the example of three case studies, Daae and Boks (2015) analyse which and how variances in user behaviour are currently addressed in LCA. Depending on the type of product, the authors identify variations in the interaction with the product with regard to (i) handling of the product (Solli et al., 2009); (ii) frequency of use (O'Brien et al., 2009); and, (iii) duration (Samaras and Meisterling, 2008). Furthermore, choice of (by-)products and/or product settings (Shahmohammadi et al., 2019(Shahmohammadi et al., , 2017 can be identified as a forth type of product interaction. ...
Reducing overall household energy consumption through the application of information and communication technologies (ICT) can play an important role in the transformation towards sustainable consumption patterns, e.g. through the optimisation of energy-consuming processes. The challenge in the environmental assessment of ICT applications is to also consider their use-specific environmental effects, as these can be decisive for overall results. Using the example of smart heating, we therefore analyse the environmental performance of a sample of 375 smart home systems (SHS) in Germany and show how the life cycle assessment (LCA) can be extended to include various use-specific effects such as choice of products and individuals' behaviour when using the product. In an interdisciplinary study design, we combine life cycle modelling and behavioural science to systematically include use-specific parameters into the modelling, and to interweave these results with user characteristics such as sociodemographics and user motivation. Our results are heterogenous: For the impact category Climate Change (GWP) we find that having smart heating can lead to large savings in particular cases. On average, however, smart heating does not lead to significant benefits for GWP, but neither does it represent an additional burden. For Metal Depletion Potential (MDP), we find that smart heating is always an additional burden, as heating optimisation has almost no reduction potential for MDP. Our results have a wide range due to large differences in use patterns in the sample. Depending on the impact category, both number of devices of the SHS as well as heating temperature are decisive. Regression analysis of our assessment results with user characteristics shows that differences in MDP and GWP of SHS size can be explained by income, and, in addition, differences in GWP of net heating energy savings can be explained by user motivation. Our results thus underline that the standard scenarios for user behaviour assumed in LCA modelling should be well justified. Future interdisciplinary research should further explore the links between use-specific approaches in LCA and users' environmental behaviour and motivation.
... A core role in the assessment of the environmental impacts of products is played by the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) methodology, which is defined in the ISO 14040-44 standards (International Organization for Standardization, 2006a,b). Diapers have been the subject of LCA studies since the last decade of the twentieth century, when the comparison between disposable and reusable diapers became a relevant topic for investigation after the introduction of disposable products on the market (Fava et al., 1990; Hakala et al., 1997; Lentz et al., 1989; O'Brien et al., 2009; UK Environmental Agency, 2005, 2008 Vizcarra et al., 1994). It is clear that trade-offs exist between disposable and reusable diapers. ...
An assessment of the environmental aspects related to the life cycle of disposable baby diapers in Europe is presented in this paper with the aim of analysing recent improvements and identifying key environmental areas on which to focus in order to further decrease impacts. Average products available on the European market in recent years have been modelled and evaluated from "cradle to grave". Results point out the importance of materials in the definition of the environmental profile of the product. These are followed by the end of life for some impact categories, while the contribution of manufacturing, packaging and transport to the overall LCA (Life Cycle Assessment) results seems of minor relevance. Significant environmental improvements at European level have been achieved in recent years through the design of lighter products and the introduction of superabsorbent polymers. Careful selection and use of materials at the design stage could allow life cycle impacts of products to be further decreased, while ensuring that human health and environmental risks are controlled and that functionality and performance requirements are fulfilled. Indeed, potential malfunctioning of products would result in increasing consumption. Resource efficiency is also important at the manufacturing level to optimise the demand for materials and limit waste production. Special forms of treatment at the end of life stage of the product could instead require significant structural changes of the waste management system. The outcomes of this paper could be applied to support the design and environmental labelling of disposable baby diapers for promoting the production and consumption of product options characterised by lower environmental impacts. © 2015 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license.
... The average material composition of unused AHP waste is shown in Table 1, and is based on published data (Elliott, 2004;Aumônier & Collins 2005;Brewer, 2006;EA, 2008;EDANA, 2008;O'Brien et al, 2009;Colòn et al, 2011;EC, 2012;SCA, 2012;Ng et al, 2013). It can be seen that for both AHP types (i.e. ...
Waste is intricate to manage. With greater attention now being paid to the use of waste as a resource, there is an increasing need to develop sustainable and secure management options for the most complex material resource streams. In order to achieve this, it is necessary to look to those materials, which owing to their complex structure have not traditionally been recycled, and so remain in the residual waste stream. This paper presents a methodology that has been developed to enable local authorities, or their equivalents, to assess the environmental and economic feasibility of collecting complex material streams separately, in order to improve their management of municipal solid waste. The methodology utilises available data from a number of sources, to determine the feasibility of options available. It is applied to a case study in Surrey, UK, in relation to the management of absorbent hygiene products. Currently this waste is collected as part of the residual stream, and dealt with either through landfill or energy from waste. The result of applying the new methodology suggests that the optimum solution is the separate collection of absorbent hygiene products and subsequent sterilisation and recycling.
... However, significant quantities of energy would be required to heat wash water to 40 o C or another temperature level required, which may offset the drying benefits of reduced water content entering the dryer. As learned from other textile LCA studies, washing soiled garments in cold water followed by line airdrying can be regarded as the laundering option having the lowest environmental impacts (Levi Strauss & Co. 2009;O'Brien et al. 2009). It is unlikely that such a laundering option would be possible with a superabsorbent diaper. ...
Cellulose and some cellulose derivatives can play vital roles in the enhancement of the performance of absorbent products. Cellulose itself, in the form of cellulosic fibers or nano-fibers, can provide structure, bulk, water-holding capacity, and channeling of fluids over a wide dimensional range. Likewise, cellulose derivatives such as carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) have been widely studied as components in superabsorbent polymer (SAP) formulations. The present review focuses on strategies and mechanisms in which inclusion of cellulose - in its various forms - can enhance either the capacity or the rate of aqueous fluid absorption in various potential applications.
... The biomass is produced in the same site where the energy plant works. Several industrial LCA studies have shown that the environmental load from the production of capital goods is insignificant when compared to their operation stage2526. The data collection has been performed on site, analyzed and completed with the direct involvement of the managers responsible of the different plant's departments. ...
Renewable energy technologies contribute to the mitigation of climate change impacts through reduction in the emission of greenhouse gases (GHG) such as carbon dioxide. In this paper, a power plant located in Italy and fed with waste deriving from the olive oil industries is considered. The de-oiled pomace is characterised by lower caloric value equal to 4000 kcal/kg, by low content of nitrogen and sulphur and by the absence of heavy metals. A plant for the production of energy from biomass (de-oiled pomace and waste wood) is analyzed through a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) approach. The carbon dioxide equivalent (kgCO 2 eq) emitted into the atmosphere is equal to 0.0597 kgCO 2 eq /kWh. The GHG emissions have been compared with those of a plant for energy production that uses refuse derived fuel (RDF) and with those of one that uses coal. The environmental benefits are quantified and the possibilities to develop the use of the pomace-to-energy at national level are estimated.
... In this LCA study, the chosen functional unit is 1 kWh because the biomass is produced in the same site where the energy plant works. Several industrial LCA studies have shown that the environmental load from the production of capital goods is insignificant when compared to their operation stage [14, 15]. The data collection has been performed on site, analyzed and completed with the direct involvement of the managers responsible of the different plant's departments. ...
To reduce the GHG emissions in the UE and to increase the produced energy it is important to spread out decentralized technologies for renewable energy production. In this paper a power plant fed with biomass is studied, in particular the biomass considered is the waste of the olive oil industries. This study focuses on the possibility of using the de-oiled pomace and waste wood as fuel. A life cycle assessment (LCA) of a biomass power plant located in the South of Italy was performed. The global warming potential has been calculated and compared with that of a plant for energy production that uses refuse derived fuel (RDF) and that of one that uses coal. The LCA shows the important environmental advantages of biomass utilization in terms of greenhouse gas emissions reduction. An improved impact assessment methodology may better underline the advantages due to the biomass utilization. Copyright © 2012 International Energy and Environment Foundation -All rights reserved.
... The environmental hotspots of three different diaper systems in Australia were also assessed (disposable, home-washed re-usable, and commercially washed reusable). At the production stage, the following strategies were identified: (1) reducing diaper mass as it implies almost proportional impact reduction, (2) reducing water and energy consumption during pulping, (3) adopting unbleached or recycled pulp, and (4) using alternative materials, such as hemp and bamboo, in order to improve compostability (O'Brien et al. 2009). Actually, composting all wet diapers would reduce the solid waste associated with disposables, but plastics and non-biodegradable components remain an issue. ...
Purpose
In this study, a life cycle assessment of a bioplastic based diaper was performed. The product has several innovative elements, due to the implementation of eco-design principles, such as: (1) introduction of biopolymers (namely polylactic acid (PLA) and Mater-bi®), (2) relevant reduction of petrochemical plastics, and (3) minimization of energy consumptions and use of renewable energy in manufacturing. The aim of the study is to evaluate the environmental benefits gained through eco-innovation, while identifying further areas of improvement.
Methods
The bio-based diaper has been evaluated using a “cradle-to-gate” analysis. The functional unit is one diaper, assuming an average size among the different commercial options. A case study of an enterprise in Italy (WIP S.p.A) was carried out to collect as much reliable primary data as possible. In order to highlight potential areas of improvement and to compare the environmental performance of the product, a sensitivity analysis based on three different impact assessment methods (adopting ReCiPe 2008, IMPACT 2002+ and Cumulative Energy Demand (CED)) and a comparison with a standard commercial diaper were performed. Finally, three possible end-of-life scenarios including composting of WIP diaper were hypothesized and tested.
Results and discussion
Contribution analysis suggested that sourcing and production of raw materials used in WIP diaper manufacturing contributed most significantly to the potential environmental impacts. Adopting ReCiPe method, pulp, and sodium polyacrylate present the highest environmental burdens in WIP diaper system. Applying IMPACT2002+ method, PLA relative contribution to the toxicity increases, due to the generation of the electricity used in corn production and in PLA production phases. For both methods, impacts related to energy consumption of the WIP diapers’ production process look to be negligible. WIP diaper performance has room for improvement, since critical points were detected in the life cycle stages of raw materials used. However, the results of the normalization step, according to ReCiPe method, state that WIP diapers can bring environmental benefits, compared to standard ones. Moreover, if composting end-of-life scenario is included in the assessment, there is a significant improvement in WIP diaper environmental performance compared to a standard diaper.
Conclusions
Integrating eco-innovation and eco-design principles in the production of the bio-based diaper leads to a better environmental profile, compared to the standard one. Nevertheless, there are several areas of concerns to be considered in order to further improve its environmental performance. So far, the possible improvements identified from the case study are: (1) the selection of biopolymers suppliers with better production systems from an environmental point of view, (2) the reduction of distances along the supply chain, and (3) the implementation of composting procedures for the end of life. In conclusion, the introduction of biopolymers in diaper composition could lead them to be preferable compared to standard diapers, but criticisms arise, which need to be solved, to avoid the risk of burdens shifting.
Seven disposable diaper brands that are commonly used in Clermont, Kwa-Zulu Natal (South Africa) and some frequently found along river bodies (due to illegal dumping) were characterised through proximate analysis, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), ultimate analysis and analytical pyrolysis–gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (Py–GC/MS). A novel approach entailing separation of the diapers into two fractions, interior (constituting mainly biomass fibres) and exterior (mainly constituting non-biomass polyethylene), assisted in assessing thermochemical conversion of the disposable diaper’s potential as well as likely threats to the environment. In a comparison of the volatile matter between the two fractions, the exterior fraction is more combustible (due to a higher volatile fraction). Hence, it is more suitable for energy recovery. The present study investigates the use of pyrolysis to manage disposable diapers to potentially recover pyro-oil, pyro-gas and pyro-char. In this primary investigation, it was observed that each disposable diaper brand reacts differently to constant heating. However, the proximate and elemental analysis also highlights the likely negative environmental threats, such as that the high volatile content can potentially release dangerous permanent gases such as chlorine and cobalt into the atmosphere after the diaper is disposed of illegally and in landfill.
Inúmeros objetos e utensílios de diferentes matérias primas são desenvolvidos, utilizados e descartados pela sociedade atual, porém, alguns itens, como as fraldas descartáveis e absorventes, carecem de métodos ou processos que viabilizem a sua reciclagem. Dessa forma, relatar os principais aspectos ambientais quanto à destinação correta de fraldas descartáveis, considerando-se a avaliação do ciclo de vida e as opções de tratamento, compreendendo o período entre 1990 a 2019 em escala internacional são objetivos deste artigo. O tema é de relevante importância, haja vista que a maioria dos componentes das fraldas descartáveis poderiam ser reciclados, reduzindo-se assim, o volume final de material destinado à disposição final. Assim, esta revisão apresenta levantamento do panorama mundial de tratamento destes resíduos, revelando que, embora os avanços tecnológicos de tratamento existam e permitam reciclar parte dos materiais que compõem as fraldas descartáveis, os desafios permanecem em relação à problemática ambiental, seja do ponto de vista quantitativo, qualitativo e econômico.
For Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) studies of products where the use phase is responsible for a large share of the total environmental impact, variations in the way the products are being used may have a significant impact on the results. The purpose of this paper is to investigate how a better understanding of the use phase, and possibly techniques and experience applied in Design for Sustainable Behaviour (DfSB), may contribute to the way LCA deals with uncertainties related to variations in the use phase. To inform the investigation of how variations in the use phase are dealt with in the LCA literature today, three previously published LCA studies are analysed. Among these studies, there is a clear variation in where the (limited) attention given to this uncertainty is directed to, and how this is done. Improving the understanding of the potential variations and thereby the ability to take them into account in the LCA may require additional measurements. For situations where limited resources make extensive real-life user studies problematic, a small-scale approach is suggested. The DfSB literature both contains insight into how a large number of user research methods best can be applied to investigate the environmental aspects of how people interact with products and a growing database of case studies that may contribute to reducing the uncertainty of the use phase in LCAs.
As environmental justice concerns become more widely embedded in environmental organizations and policymaking, and increasingly the focus of academic study, the gender dimension dissolves into an exclusive focus on race/ethnicity and class/income. While grassroots campaigning activities were often dominated by women, in the more institutionalized activities of organizations dominated by salaried professionals, gender inequality is neglected as a vector of environmental injustice, and addressing this inequality is not considered a strategy for redress. This paper explores some of the reasons why this may be so, which include a lack of visibility of gendered environmental injustice; professional campaigning organizations which are themselves gender blind; institutions at a range of scales which are still structured by gender (as well as class and race) inequalities; and an intellectual academy which continues to marginalize the study of gender—and women's—inequality. The authors draw on experience of environmental activism, participant observation, and other qualitative research into the gendering of environmental activity, to first explore the constructions of scale to see how this might limit a gender-fair approach to environmental justice. Following this, the practice of “gender mainstreaming” in environmental organizations and institutions will be examined, demonstrating how this is limited in scope and fails to impact on the gendering of environmental injustice.
Not withstanding the traditional smokestack image of the manufacturing sectors, its overall TBL performance
is reasonably balanced. Energy use and greenhouse emissions are above average while employment
generation and income are below average. Many of the manufacturing sectors currently face strong
competition from countries with lower wages and larger scale, and effective solutions are difficult to define.
Nevertheless three issues emerge from this analysis. Industry strategies which aim to increase value adding
in Australia bring with them the social returns of increased employment and possibly increased use of
resources such as energy and water. If these products can be developed with environmentally advanced
production chains, then this may give an advantage in affluent countries where markets are concerned with
sustainability issues. Finally, meeting the environmental challenges may require industrial processes and
material fabrication skills that are currently underdeveloped in Australian industry. Overall, there does
not seem much advantage in Australia relying solely on being a cost efficient producer of average quality
materials and products.
Increasing public debate regarding the allocation of water resources within Australia has introduced a new level of significance to the issue of water use efficiency (WUE). Irrigated crops have been criticised for inefficient water use, but there is little information available to quantify performance. Production and water use data were obtained from 25 cotton farms and over 200 individual fields representing the six largest production areas, which produce over 80% of the annual crop. A daily water balance was calculated for each crop to estimate evapotranspiration (ET). Irrigation efficiency (IE) was calculated as the proportion of irrigation water input to the farm for cotton production that was used by the crop as ET over the growing season. Crop water use efficiency (CWUE) was calculated as lint production per unit of ET. The average on-farm total water input was 12 Ml/ha including 7 Ml/ha of irrigation water. The estimated mean seasonal ET was 735 mm. The observed average CWUE was 2.5 kg/mm/ha and the average farm level IE was 57%, but both efficiency measures showed large variability. These values compare well with published data on cotton industries in other countries. The figures can be used as a basis for future water management activities of the cotton industry. The wide variation in both CWUE and IE indicates that there is significant potential for some producers to increase their efficiency under the current reduction in water allocation.
The aim of this study was to increase the knowledge of environmental impact associated with producing fabrics for hotel textile services. The project was carried out in two parts: studies on hotel textiles and on textile services in three major Scandinavian laundering companies. This paper presents the results of the hotel textile study. The environmental impact was studied by applying the main principles of the life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology. Life-cycle assessments provide useful information on the quantities of energy and resources consumed and emissions associated with production systems. The impact assessment is still under development but some scenarios have been made to describe possible local, regional and global environmental consequences of the system under study. The inventory calculations proved that cotton fibre production consumes about 40% less energy than polyester fibre production. Cotton growing requires, however, huge amounts of water: irrigated amounts vary from 7 to 29 tons per kg of raw cotton fibres. Pesticides and fertilizers used in traditional cotton cultivation have ecotoxic effects in contrast to organic cotton cultivation, where natural alternatives to agrochemicals are used. It could also be concluded that 50/50 CO/PES sheets in hotel use have fewer environmental impacts than 100% CO sheets. This is due to the higher durability as well as lower laundering energy requirements of 50/50 CO/PES sheets. 1999
This investigation was undertaken to examine the compaction characteristics of used disposable diapers in a landfill. A standard mixture of solid wastes containing various amounts (between 0 up to 15% by wet weight) of used disposable diapers were compacted in eight randomly ordered tests and the densities of the compacted waste for the applied pressures were noted. Analyses of variance (two-way fixed effects) and simple linear regression were carried out on the data and F-tests were applied. The results showed that the diapers do not take up volume in a landfill which could be taken up by other materials but merely fill in the voids around the more rigid items when the diapers constitute less than 10% (wet weight) of the total mix.
A life-cycle inventory of cloth and disposable diapers was conducted based on diapering habits in Canada The parameters evaluated were energy consumption, water consumption, raw materials consumption, atmospheric emissions, water-borne wastes, and solid wastes The results showed that cloth diapers consume more water and produce more waterborne wastes than do disposable diapers, whereas disposable diapers consume more raw materials and produce more solid wastes than do cloth diapers Sensitivity analyses proved these differences to be significant However, with respect to energy consumption and atmospheric emissions, the computed differences were assessed to be insignificant inasmuch as these may be offset by reasonable variations in cloth to-disposable diaper usage ratio, market sharing between home laundering and service laundering, number of laundry loads per week, laundry water temperatures, percentage of dryer drying and line drying, and drying time The Canadian inventory results were compared to those of three similar U S diaper life cycle inventories Although they differ numerically on the estimated rates of resource consumption and environmental releases, all the studies agree that cloth diapers consume more water and produce more waterborne wastes, whereas disposable diapers consume more raw materials and produce more solid wastes, their findings concerning energy consumption and atmospheric emissions were not as consistent The study concludes that neither diaper system can be considered absolutely superior environmentally
Life-cycle assessment is increasingly being recognized as an important tool for determining the environmental impacts of products and packaging. A complete life-cycle assessment consists of three components: life-cycle inventory, impact assessment, and improvement assessment. The impact assessment methodology is still relatively undeveloped and controversial; however, the life-cycle inventory methodology is well established. Life-cycle inventory provides useful information on the quantities of energy and resources consumed and environmental releases associated with product and packaging systems. This article illustrates the types of useful information that are obtained from a life-cycle inventory and shows how the information can be analyzed and used to target areas for improving products in terms of reducing energy usage, resource usage, and environmental releases.
Choice Magazine High and dry: our readers and their babies give us the verdict on which nappies rate the best
Choice Magazine High and dry: our readers and their babies give us the verdict on which
nappies rate the best Choice (Chippendale, Australia) April 33(3), 2007
Life cycle assessment of disposable and reusable nappies in the UK
- S Aumônier
- M Collins
Aumônier, S. & Collins, M., Life cycle assessment of disposable and reusable nappies in the
UK, Environment Agency, Almondsbury, Bristol, UK, 2005
An updated lifecycle assessment study for disposable and reusable nappies, Science report
- S Aumônier
- M Collins
- P Garrett
Aumônier, S., Collins, M. and Garrett, P. An updated lifecycle assessment study for disposable
and reusable nappies, Science report SC010018/SR2 Environment Agency, Almondsbury,
Bristol, UK, 2008
Plantations and water use: a review prepared for the Forest and Wood Products Research and Development Corporation
- R J Keenan
- M Parsons
- A Gerrand
- E O 'loughlin
- S Beavis
- D Gunawardana
- M Gavran
- A Bugg
Keenan, R.J., Parsons, M., Gerrand, A., O'Loughlin, E., Beavis, S., Gunawardana, D., Gavran,
M. and Bugg, A. Plantations and water use: a review prepared for the Forest and Wood
Products Research and Development Corporation. Bureau of Rural Sciences, Canberra. 2004.
The impact of plantation forestry on runoff in the Mount Lofty ranges, case study: Burnt Out Creek
- A J Greenwood
- D J Cressell
Greenwood, A.J. and Cressell, D.J. The impact of plantation forestry on runoff in the Mount
Lofty ranges, case study: Burnt Out Creek. Technical Note 2007/11. Department of Water,
Land and Biodiversity Conservation, 2007
-13
A Life Cycle Analysis of Disposable, Reusable and Compostable nappies under Brisbane conditions, BE (chemical) undergraduate thesis
- R Olive
Olive, R., A Life Cycle Analysis of Disposable, Reusable and Compostable nappies under
Brisbane conditions, BE (chemical) undergraduate thesis, University of Queensland, Brisbane,
Autralia, 2004
Salinity – much more than a rural issue!, 2007 Urban Salt Conference for the Western Sydney Regional Organisation of Councils, NSW Department of Natural Resources, Natural Heritage Trust and Catchment Management Authority
- R A Patterson
Patterson, R.A., Salinity – much more than a rural issue!, 2007 Urban Salt Conference for the
Western Sydney Regional Organisation of Councils, NSW Department of Natural Resources,
Natural Heritage Trust and Catchment Management Authority, Sydney, 2007
Rainbow Power Company, Personal communication Australian Methodology for the Estimation of Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: Workbook for Waste
- D Lambert
13 Lambert, D., Rainbow Power Company, Personal communication, 31 October 2008.
14 National Greenhouse Gas Inventory Committee (NGGIC), Australian Methodology for the
Estimation of Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: Workbook for Waste, Revision 1,
Department of the Environment, Sport and Territories, Canberra, 1996
Water, wastewater, energy and greenhouse gas emissions in Australia's major urban systems
- S J Kenway
- A J Priestly
- J Mcmahon
Kenway, S.J., Priestly, A.J. and McMahon, J. Water, wastewater, energy and greenhouse gas
emissions in Australia's major urban systems, Reuse 07, 3 rd AWA Water Reuse and Recycling
Conference University of NSW, 2007
SITA Environmental Solutions, Personal communication
- I Clark
Clark, I., SITA Environmental Solutions, Personal communication, 5 April, 2004
Performance Guidelines for 14.6 metre long and 4.6 metre high semitrailers in Queensland
- Queensland Transport
28 Queensland Transport, Performance Guidelines for 14.6 metre long and 4.6 metre high
semitrailers in Queensland, Queensland Transport, 1998
Cotton Research and Development Corporation, Personal communication
- B Pyke
Pyke, B., Cotton Research and Development Corporation, Personal communication, 12
December, 2005
Brisbane Nappy Service, Personal communication
- B Van Balen
32 Van Balen, B., Brisbane Nappy Service, Personal communication, 15 April, 2004b
33 Van Balen, B., Brisbane Nappy Service, Personal communication, 12 March, 2004a
34 Van Balen, B., Brisbane Nappy Service, Personal communication, January 18, 2006
She received her BE (Chem Hons) and BSc from the University of Queensland, and her PhD from the University of Western Australia. Her research interests include environmental modelling, life cycle assessment and hydrobiological modelling
- O Kate
- Brien
Kate O'Brien in a Lecturer in Environmental Engineering at the University of Queensland,
Brisbane. She received her BE (Chem Hons) and BSc from the University of Queensland, and her
PhD from the University of Western Australia. Her research interests include environmental
modelling, life cycle assessment and hydrobiological modelling.
Hsu received her BE (Hons) in 2007 from the University of Queensland with a chemical and biological engineering double major. She is currently a PhD candidate at the University of Queensland, investigating polyethylene greenhouse films for increased crop production
- Yu-Chieh
Yu-Chieh Hsu received her BE (Hons) in 2007 from the University of Queensland with a chemical
and biological engineering double major. She is currently a PhD candidate at the University of
Queensland, investigating polyethylene greenhouse films for increased crop production.
Kendall are completing their BE (Chem) at the University of Nottingham. They participated in this project while on student exchange to the University of Queensland
- Luke Morris
- Richard Bell
Luke Morris, Richard Bell and Nick Kendall are completing their BE (Chem) at the University of
Nottingham. They participated in this project while on student exchange to the University of
Queensland in 2008.