Safety evaluations of the aqueous extract of the leaves of Moringa oleifera

Abstract

The aqueous extract from the leaves of Moringa oleifera was evaluated for its oral toxicity by the oral route, and for the sub-acute toxicity on haematological, biochemical and histological parameters in rats. In the acute toxicity test, M. oleifera extract caused no death in animals even at 2000 mg/kg dose. Oral treatments in rats with this extract at 400, 800 and 1600 mg/kg caused varied significant changes in the total RBC, packed cell volume (PCV), haemoglobin percentage (HB), mean corpuscular volume (MCV), mean corpuscular haemoglobin concentration (MCHC), total and differential WBC. The extract did not cause any significant change in the level of platelets. In the biochemical parameters, the extract at different doses also caused varied significant changes in the levels of total proteins, liver enzymes, and bilirubin. Clinico-pathologically, changes were also noted in the body weights, slight dullness at the onset of extract administration and no significant changes were noticed in all the organs examined in the course of this study. The study concluded that the plant is relatively safe both for nutritional and medicinal uses.

Full text

Journal of Medicinal Plants Research Vol. 3(8), pp. 586-591, August, 2009
Available online at http://www.academicjournals.org/JMPR
ISSN 1996-0875© 2009 Academic Journals
Full Length Research Paper
Safety evaluations of the aqueous extract of the leaves
of Moringa oleifera in rats
A. A. Adedapo1*, O. M. Mogbojuri1 and B. O. Emikpe2
1Department of Veterinary Physiology, Biochemistry and Pharmacology, University of Ibadan, Nigeria.
2Department of Veterinary Pathology, University of Ibadan, Nigeria.
Accepted 19 June, 2009
The aqueous extract from the leaves of Moringa oleifera was evaluated for its oral toxicity by the oral
route, and for the sub-acute toxicity on haematological, biochemical and histological parameters in
rats. In the acute toxicity test, M. oleifera extract caused no death in animals even at 2000 mg/kg dose.
Oral treatments in rats with this extract at 400, 800 and 1600 mg/kg caused varied significant changes in
the total RBC, packed cell volume (PCV), haemoglobin percentage (HB), mean corpuscular volume
(MCV), mean corpuscular haemoglobin concentration (MCHC), total and differential WBC. The extract
did not cause any significant change in the level of platelets. In the biochemical parameters, the extract
at different doses also caused varied significant changes in the levels of total proteins, liver enzymes,
and bilirubin. Clinico-pathologically, changes were also noted in the body weights, slight dullness at
the onset of extract administration and no significant changes were noticed in all the organs examined
in the course of this study. The study concluded that the plant is relatively safe both for nutritional and
medicinal uses.
Key words: Moringa oleifera, haematology, histopathology, serum chemistry, rats, mice.
INTRODUCTION
Moringa oleifera Lam. is the most widely cultivated
species of the monogeneric family Moringaceae (order
Brassicales), which includes 13 species of trees and
shrubs distributed in sub-Himalayan ranges of India, Sri
Lanka, North-eastern and South-western Africa,
Madagascar and Arabia (Fahey, 2005). M. oleifera is one
of the most useful tropical trees. The relative ease with
which it propagates through both sexual and asexual
means and its low demand for soil nutrients and water
after being planted makes its production and manage-
ment easy. Introduction of this plant into a farm which has
a biodiverse environment can be beneficial for both the
owner of the farm and the surrounding eco-system (Foidl
et al., 2001).
The Moringa tree is a multi-function plant. It has been
cultivated in tropical regions all over the world for the
following characteristics: 1) high protein, vitamins, mine-
ral and carbohydrate content of entire plants; high value
of nutrition for both humans and livestock; 2) high oil
*Corresponding author. E-mail: adedapo3a@yahoo.co.uk. Tel.:
+234 802 3928 512.
content (42%) of the seed which is edible, and with medi-
cinal uses; 3) the coagulant of seeds could be used for
wastewater treatment (Foidl et al., 2001). This plant has
been well documented for its medicinal importance for a
long time. The stem bark, root bark, fruit, flowers, leaves,
seeds and gum are widely used in Indian folk medicine.
The pods and seeds are tastier while they are young and
before they turn brown. In Malaysia, the young tender
pods are cut into small pieces and added to curries
(Abdulkarim et al., 2005).
In terms of phytochemistry, this plant family is rich in
compounds containing the simple sugar, rhamnose, and
it is rich in a fairly unique group of compounds called
glucosinolates and isothiocyanates. For example, compo-
nents of Moringa preparations that have been reported to
have hypotensive, anticancer, and antibacterial activity
include 4-(4'-O-acetyl--L-rhamnopyranosyloxy)benzyl
isothiocy-anate, 4-(-L-rhamnopyranosyloxy)benzyl
isothiocy-anate, niazimicin, pterygospermin, benzyl
isothiocyanate, and 4-(-L-rhamnopyranosyloxy) benzyl
glucosinolate. While these compounds are relatively
unique to the Moringa family, it is also rich in a number of
vitamins and minerals as well as other more commonly
recognized phytochemicals such as the carotenoids,

as other more commonly recognized phytochemicals
such as the carotenoids, including -carotene or provita-
min A (Caceres et al., 1991; Caceres et al., 1992; Akhtar
and Ahmad, 1995; Bharah et al., 2003; Fahey, 2005).
The study therefore seeks to assess the leaves of M.
oleifera for safety or possible toxic effects using haema-
tology, serum chemistry and histopathological changes
as indices of toxicosis. Acute toxicity testing in rats will
also be employed in this study. It is expected that the
findings from this work may add to the overall value of the
medicinal and nutritional potential of the plant.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Plant collection and extract preparation
The pulverized leaves of the plant were obtained from the
International Institute of Tropical Africa (IITA), Ibadan, Nigeria. The
powder products (IITA/08/894) in sachet are sold commercially to
people for medicinal and nutritional purposes. The ground materials
(135 g) were dissolved in warm water (2250 ml) for easy
dissolution. It was thereafter filtered using a Buckner funnel and
Whatman’s No. 1 filter paper. It was the filtrate that was
administered to the animals in the course of this study.
Animals
The animals used in this study were 54 male Wistar rats (85 - 130
g). Only male rats were used in this study because one was also
looking at the possible effects of this extract on the testis. They
were maintained at the Experimental Animal House of the Faculty
of Veterinary Medicine, University of Ibadan. They were kept in rat
cages and fed on commercial rat cubes (Ladokun and Sons
Livestock Feeds, Nigeria Ltd.) and allowed free access to clean
fresh water in bottles ad libitum. At the start of the experiment, all
the animals were weighed and subsequently at weekly intervals. All
experimental protocols were in compliance with University of Ibadan
Ethics Committee on Research in Animals as well as internationally
accepted principles for laboratory animal use and care.
Acute toxicity study
The acute toxicity of M. oleifera aqueous extract was determined
according to the method of Sawadogo et al. (2006). Rats fasted for
16 h were randomly divided into 5 groups of six per group. Graded
doses of the extract (400, 800, 1600 and 2000 mg/kg p.o.) corres-
ponding to groups B, C, D and E were separately administered to
the rats in each of the ‘test’ groups by means of bulbed steel
needle. The control group (group A) was treated with orally
administered distillated water (3 ml/kg p.o.) only. All the animals
were then allowed free access to food and water and observed over
a period of 48 h for signs of acute toxicity. The number of deaths
within this period of time was recorded.
Sub-acute toxicity study
Using a modified method of Cruz et al. (2006), the rats were divided
at random into four groups of six rats each per group. While the
control group representing group A received distillated water, the
experimental groups representing groups B, C, and D received
aqueous extract at the doses of 400, 800 and 1600 mg/kg,
Adedapo et al. 587
respectively. The extract was administered orally by means of
bulbed steel needle for 21 days. All the animals were weighed on
the first day and thereafter weekly till the end of the experiment.
Collection of blood and serum samples
Paired blood samples were collected by cervical decapitation from
diethyl ether anaesthetized rats into heparinised bottles for haema-
tological studies; blood samples collected in clean non-heparinised
bottles were allowed to clot. The serum was separated from the clot
and centrifuged into clean bottles for biochemical analysis.
Determination of haematological and serum biochemical
parameters
Packed cell volume (PCV) and haemoglobin concentration were
determined by conventional method (Duncan et al., 1994). Erythro-
cyte count, total leucocytes and leucocytes differential counts were
also determined as described by Coles (1986). Erythrocyte indices-
mean corpuscular values (MCV), mean corpuscular haemoglobin
concentration (MCHC) and mean corpuscular haemoglobin (MCH)
were determined from values obtained from RBC count,
haemoglobin concentration and PCV values (Duncan et al., 1994).
Total protein was measured using biuret reaction (Lanzarot et al.,
2005) while albumin was measured by colorimetric estimation using
the sigma Diagnostics albumin reagent (Sigma® Diagnostic, U.K.),
which contained bromocresol green (BCG). Globulin was obtained
from the difference between total protein and albumin. Aspartate
aminotransferase (AST), alkaline phosphatase (ALP) and alanine
aminotransferase (ALT) were determined using a photoelectric
colorimeter (Gallenkamp® and Sons Ltd.; England) as described by
Toro and Ackermann (1975); Duncan et al. (1994); GGT activity
was determined using a 747/737 BM/Hitachi autoanalyzer by the
method of Bergmeyer et al. (1986), Serum urea and creatinine le-
vels were determined using photoelectric colorimeter (Gallenkamp®
and Sons Ltd. England) as described by Toro and Ackermann
(1975); Coles (1986).
Histopathology
The liver, kidney, and testes of all the animals were fixed in 10%
buffered formalin in labeled bottles. Tissues were processed
routinely and embedded in paraffin wax. Sections of 5 µ thickness
were cut, stained with haematoxylin and eosin and examined under
the light microscope (Figures 1-3).
Statistical analysis
Results were expressed as mean ± standard deviation (S.D.).
Where applicable, the data were subjected to one way analysis of
variance (ANOVA) and differences between samples were
determined by Duncan’s Multiple Range test using the Statistical
Analysis System (SAS, 1999) program. P values at 5% were
regarded as significant.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Acute toxicity studies in rats showed that no mortality was
recorded in any of the groups even at 2000 mg/kg dose.
The behavioral change noted in these animals following
extract administration was slight dullness at the onset of

588 J. Med. Plant. Res.
Figure 1. A photomicrograph of the liver of rat showing diffuse
hepatic degeneration. Magnification: ×160 H & E.
Figure 2. A photomicrograph showing no visible lesion in the testis
of rat. Magnification: ×160 H & E.
Figure 3. A photomicrograph of the kidney of rat showing no visible
lesion. Magnification: ×160 H & E.
extract administration. The animals later become active
after some hours of extract administration (Table 1). The
acute toxicity study in rats showed that at 2000 mg/kg
dose, the plant is safe for consumption and for medicinal
uses. At doses above this level however, the animals
may exhibit some toxic changes.
In the sub-acute toxicity study, the 400 mg/kg dose of
the extract caused significant increase in the level of PCV
while the other 2 doses caused significant decrease. The
800 mg/kg dose on the other hand caused significant
decrease in the levels of haemoglobin and red blood cell
counts while the other 2 doses caused insignificant
changes (Table 2). The study therefore showed that the
plant could precipitate some level of anaemia if the
animals are exposed to this plant for a long period of
time. The varied changes of the effects of this plant
extract on the haematological parameters may be
attributable to the presence of isothiocyanate producing
glycosides (Fahey, 2005). Glycosides are ethers that link
a sugar to a toxin called aglycone. Either the glycoside or
the aglycone alone may be toxic. The glycosides include
cyanogenic glycosides. It is generally believed that the
toxic properties associated with cyanogenic glycosides,
such as linamarin are due to the hydrocyanic acid
released from the glycosides by the activity of an enzyme
complex. Acute poisoning by hydrocyanic acid (HCN) or
prussic acid causes a histotoxic anoxia with a syndrome
of dyspnoea, tremor, convulsions and sudden death.
Toxicity of hydrogen cyanide (HCN) occurs after
ingestion and absorption. Once they are in the
bloodstream, there is little difference between toxic and
lethal levels of cyanide. HCN has a high affinity for iron
and reacts with the trivalent iron of mitochondrial
cytochrome oxidase, the terminal respiratory catalyst
linking oxygen with metabolic respiration. Cell anoxia is
immediate (Cheville, 1988). Treatment of this poisoning is
aimed at “fixing” the highly lethal cyanide ion in a
harmless form, and then converting it into thiocyanate,
which is readily excreted by the kidneys. Sodium nitrite
can also be administered intravenously to convert some
hemoglobin into methaemoglobin. Cyanide combines
readily with methaemoglobin to form the non-toxic
cyanomethaemoglobin. Sodium thiosulphate is then
administered to act as a sulphur-donor for the conversion
of the cyanide moiety of cyanomethaemoglobin to
thiocyanate under the action of the enzyme rhodanase
(Adedapo, 2002). Since this plant is rich in
isothiocyanate, it could therefore play the same role as
sodium thiosulphate to act as a sulphur donor for the
conversion of cyanide moiety of cyanomethaemoglobin to
thiocyanate under the action of the enzyme rhodanase.
The plant extract did not produce any significant changes
in the platelets.
The study showed that the extract particularly the 400
and 800 mg/kg doses caused significant increase in the
level of white blood cell counts and its differentials (Table
2). This observation of increase in the levels of these
parameters by this plant extract shows that the principal

Adedapo et al. 589
Table 1. Acute toxicity study in rats after 48 h of administration of aqueous extract of M. oleifera. (n=6).
Group Dose (mg/kg) T/D * Period of signs observation (h) Signs of toxicity observed
A 3 (distillated water) 6/0 48 -
B 400 6/0 48 No toxic changes observed.
C 800 6/0 48 No toxic changes observed.
D 1600 6/1 48 Slight dullness was observed in the animals in the
first 5 h of extract administration, but after this
period they became normal.
E 2000 6/2 48 Slight dullness was observed in the animals in the
first 5 h of extract administration, but after this
period they became normal.
*T/D: number of mice treated/number of deaths.
Table 2. Effects of the graded doses of the aqueous extracts of M. oleifera on haematological parameters of rats (n =6).
Parameters Control (A) 400mg/kg (B) 800mg/kg (C) 1600mg/kg (D)
PCV (%) 41.1 ± 3.2 45.3 ± 1.6a 29.5 ± 3.9 a 35.0 ± 3.7 a
Hb (g/L) 13.4 ± 1.3 14.0 ± 1.7 9.8 ± 1.3 a 13.0 ± 0.5
RBC (X1012/L) 6.9 ± 0.4 7.4 ± 0.1 4.7 ± 0.4 a 6.3 ± 0.4
MCV (fl) 60.0 ± 3.0 61.0 ± 1.5 62.7 ± 6.4 55.3 ± 3.8 a
MCH (pg) 19.5 ± 0.8 18.8 ± 2.2 20.8 ± 2.2 20.6 ± 1.1
MCHC (%) 32.6 ± 2.1 30.8 ± 3.3 33.2 ± 1.8 37.4 ± 3.5 a
WBC (X109/L) 9.0 ± 0.3 10.2 ± 1.3 a 10.1 ± 0.3 a 9.0 ± 0.1
Lymphocytes(x109/L) 6.3 ± 0.3 6.9 ± 0.7 a 6.9 ± 0.6 a 6.2 ± 0.8
Neutrophils (x109/L) 2.4 ± 0.1 2.9 ± 0.5 a 2.9 ± 0.5 a 2.5 ± 0.2 a
Monocytes (x109/L) 0.2 ± 0.1 0.3 ± 0.2 a 0.5 ± 0.2 a 0.2 ± 0.1
Eosinophils (x109/L) 0.1 ± 0.01 0.1 ± 0.01 0.1 ± 0.01 0.1 ± 0.01
Platelets (µL) 115875 ± 9623 104574 ± 46219 95708 ± 44397 109000 ± 6066
Superscripted items indicate significant values (P < 0.05) from control.
Note: Mean ± S.D
function of phagocytes, which is to defend against
invading microorganisms by ingesting and destroying
them, thus contributing to cellular inflammatory proce-
sses, will be enhanced (Paul, 1993; Swenson and Reece,
1993; Adedapo et al., 2005) which may account for its
antibacterial activity. (Caceres, 1991; Fahey, 2005).
The study showed that the 400 and 1600 mg/kg doses
of the extract caused significant decrease in the levels of
total protein and globulin while the 800 mg/kg dose on
the other hand caused a significant increase in the levels
of these parameters. It was the 1600 mg/kg that caused a
significant decrease in the level of albumin. The other 2
doses caused no significant changes (Table 3). The
reduction of serum levels of protein is an indication that
toxicants such as isothiocyanate and glycoside cyanides
may cause stress-mediated mobilization of protein to
cope with the detrimental condition so imposed (Das and
Mukherjee, 2000). The protein so mobilized is one of the
strategies employed to meet the energy required to
sustain increased physical activity, biotransformation and
excretion of the toxicants. The significant increase in the
level of globulin caused by the 800 mg/kg dose of the
extract further support the antimicrobial action of this
plant because globulins are principally responsible for
both the natural and acquired immunity that an individual
has against invading organisms (Lawrence and Amadeo,
1989). The 1600 mg/kg dose of the extract caused
significant decrease in the level of albumin. Albumin apart
from being a useful indicator of the integrity of glomerular
membrane is also important in determining the severity of
disease (Adedapo et al., 2005). Decrease albumin may
be due primarily to reduction in synthesis by the liver and
secondarily to reduced protein intake which further
confirms hepatic damage (Luskova et al., 2002; Jyotsna
et al., 2003).
The 400 and 1600 mg/kg doses of the plant extract
caused significant increase in the levels of ALT and AST
but the 800 mg/kg dose actually caused significant
decrease in the levels of these liver enzymes. The 1600
mg/kg dose caused significant increase in the level of
ALP whereas the other doses caused insignificant chan-
ges (Table 3). Aminotransferases (ALT and AST) are
produced in the liver and are good markers of damage to
liver cells but not necessarily the severity of the damage

590 J. Med. Plant. Res.
Table 3. Effects of the graded doses of M. oleifera on the serum biochemical parameters of rats (n = 6).
Parameters Control (A) 400mg/kg (B) 800mg/kg (C) 1600mg/kg
(D)
Total protein (g/dL) 6.6 ± 0.1 5.7 ± 0.2a 7.0 ± 0.2 a 6.0 ± 0.2 a
Albumin (g/dL) 3.2 ± 0.4 3.3 ± 0.4 3.2 ± 0.4 2.9 ± 0.3 a
Globulin (g/dL) 3.4 ± 0.3 2.4 ± 0.2 a 3.8 ± 0.4 a 3.1 ± 0.4 a
ALT (U/L) 14.8 ± 3.7 20.7 ± 2.7 a 7.1 ± 2.1 a 19.4 ± 4.2 a
AST (U/L) 13.2 ± 1.9 19.8 ± 2.3 a 7.0 ± 1.7 a 18.8 ± 1.3 a
ALP (U/L) 28.1 ± 14.5 19.0 ± 6.5 42.7 ± 13.9 47.4 ±18.7 a
Bilirubin (mmol) 0.1 ± 0 0.1 ± 0 0 0.1 ± 0
Urea (mg/dL) 11.3 ± 1.5 9.5 ± 1.0 a 0.1 ± 0 a 10.2 ± 1.3 a
Superscripted items indicate significant values (P < 0.05) from control.
Note: Mean ± S.D
Table 4. Effects of the graded doses of M. oleifera on the body weights of rats.  ± S.D. (n = 6)
Parameters Control 400 mg/kg 800 mg/kg 1600 mg/kg
Weight before extract administration (g) 101.7 ± 4.1 108.3 ± 4.1 121.7 ± 9.8 103.3 ± 5.2
Weight after 21 days 155 ± 13.8 148 ± 7.5 155 ± 13.8 122 ± 19.4
% Difference in weight 52.4 36.7 27.4 18.1
(Rej, 1989). They are normally present at low levels in
the blood so if the liver cells are damaged, it would be
expected that some of the enzymes leak into the blood
and increase in levels. Increase in serum level of AST as
observed in this study may reflect damage of liver cells.
Serum ALT is known to increase in liver disease and it
has been used as a tool for measuring hepatic necrosis
(Bush, 1991). Increase in serum ALP as shown by the
1600 mg/kg dose of the extract may be considered as a
sensitive indicator of cholestasis in early stages or mild
circumstances preceding other indicators such as
hyperbilirubinemia (Bush, 1991). The significant decrease
in the level of these parameters especially with the 800
mg/kg dose may be an indication that this may be the
safest dose to use when administering this extract for
medicinal purpose. In this study, the extract did not cause
any significant change in the level of bilirubin but caused
significant decrease in the level of urea (Table 3).
Bilirubin is a breakdown product of the haeme component
of the haemoglobin molecule. Total serum bilirubin is
elevated in animals with a haemolytic anaemia, and this
increase is caused largely by an increase in the indirect-
reacting bilirubin. The degree to which bilirubin is
elevated in haemolytic anaemia is a function of the rate of
red cell destruction and the capacity of the liver to excrete
the newly formed bilirubin (Tripathi, 2003). Urea is one of
a number of non-protein nitrogenous substances that ac-
cumulate in the plasma when renal excretion is reduced.
Causes of increased blood urea levels include: high
protein diet, intestinal haemorrhage, dehydration, severe
haemorrhage, shock, etc. Urea level could be decreased
due to the following: liver failure, low protein diet, anabolic
steroids, diabetes insipidus, etc (Bush, 1991).
The study showed that all the animals used in the study
gained weight (Table 4). It is interesting to note however
that the animals in the control group gained more weight
compared to the animals in the experimental groups.
Weight gained for the experimental animals however
decreased with graded doses. This may have implication
when it comes to searching for medicinal plants with
active compounds that can help reduce weight gain.
Consumption of this plant may have tremendous impact
on subjects suffering from hypertriglyceridemia. Organ
pathology showed that no significant lesions were
observed in this study and this may point to the fact that
this plant is relatively safe for use nutritionally and
medicinally.
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