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Promoting Interpersonal Competence and Educational Success Through
Extracurricular Activity Participation
Joseph L. Mahoney
Yale University Beverley D. Cairns and Thomas W. Farmer
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
This longitudinal study investigated consistent participation in extracurricular activities as a contributor
to long-term educational success. Participants were 695 boys and girls who were interviewed annually
to the end of high school and again at age 20. Family economic status, interpersonal competence, and
educational aspirations during adolescence were used to assess educational status at young adulthood.
Consistent extracurricular activity participation across adolescence on the educational attainment process
was examined. Consistent extracurricular activity participation was associated with high educational
status at young adulthood, including college attendance. Educational status was, in turn, linked to
reciprocal positive changes between extracurricular activity participation and interpersonal competence,
and to educational aspirations across adolescence. Findings were most apparent for students with
below-average interpersonal competence.
In this investigation we examined the role of adolescent extra-
curricular activity participation in the process of long-term educa-
tional attainment. Our thesis was that consistent participation in
extracurricular activities would promote interpersonal competence
and personal initiative, which lay the groundwork for achieving
educational success beyond high school. Understanding this pro-
cess is complex and requires that several aspects of the individual
and his or her interaction with the environment over time be
assessed.
In prior reports of the Carolina Longitudinal Study (Cairns &
Cairns, 1994), extracurricular activity participation was associated
with low rates of early school dropout (Mahoney & Cairns, 1997)
and low rates of criminal arrest in young adulthood (Mahoney,
2000b). The findings have been observed primarily for students
who showed a multiple-problem profile at the beginning of the
study. In this investigation we extended the earlier work in three
ways. First, in the prior studies, extracurricular activity participa-
tion was evaluated according to the presence or absence of a
negative outcome (i.e., school failure, criminality). This may ac-
count for the finding that high-risk youths appear to benefit most
from such participation (i.e., a statistical floor effect may have
been present for more competent youths). Positive indicators of
educational status (i.e., college attendance) were included in this
study and should permit a more balanced assessment of who may
benefit from extracurricular participation. Second, a dichotomous
coding of extracurricular activity participation was used in the
earlier studies. Measuring the consistency of extracurricular activ-
ity involvement over time is important to understand the possible
benefits of participation. Finally, the associated process by which
extracurricular activity participation relates to long-term adjust-
ment is not well understood. In this investigation we evaluated the
associated impact of extracurricular activity participation on sev-
eral aspects of the educational attainment process, including the
development of interpersonal competence.
Influences on Educational Status at Young Adulthood
A basic influence on the educational attainment process is
individual interpersonal competence. Although interpersonal com-
petence is defined differently across development (Aber & Jones,
1998; Waters & Sroufe, 1983), maintaining good relations with
peers and avoiding aggressive conflicts are core indicators of this
construct at adolescence (Cairns & Cairns, 1994; Luthar & Burack,
2000; Masten & Coatsworth, 1998). Positive peer relations and
low aggressive behavior are indicators of successful graduation
from high school (Cairns, Cairns, & Neckerman, 1989) and edu-
cational attainment in early adulthood (Magnusson, 1988). Stu-
dents who develop high interpersonal competence appear to pos-
sess both the aptitude and the resources needed to excel in
education and career settings as young adults (Csikszentmihalyi &
Schneider, 2000). By contrast, a lack of interpersonal competence
increases the likelihood for disengagement with the formal educa-
tion system, followed by less ambitious educational aspirations or
career choices. Although interpersonal skills are malleable during
adolescence, little information is available concerning how
changes in competence across adolescence may influence long-
term educational attainment.
The ability to formulate specific educational plans for the future
is also an important component of the educational attainment
process. In Clausen’s (1991, 1993) longitudinal investigation, ad-
olescents who, at the end of high school, reported high aspirations
and challenging goals for their future were more likely to seek
Joseph L. Mahoney, Department of Psychology, Yale University; Bev-
erley D. Cairns and Thomas W. Farmer, Center for Developmental Sci-
ence, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.
This research was supported by National Institute of Mental Health
Grants MH45532 and MH52429 to Robert B. Cairns.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Joseph L.
Mahoney, Department of Psychology, Yale University, P.O. Box 208205,
New Haven, Connecticut 06520. E-mail: joseph.mahoney@yale.edu
Journal of Educational Psychology Copyright 2003 by the American Psychological Association, Inc.
2003, Vol. 95, No. 2, 409– 418 0022-0663/03/$12.00 DOI: 10.1037/0022-0663.95.2.409
409
postsecondary education and attain promising careers as young
adults than adolescents who did not formulate such goals (see also
Trice & McClellan, 1993). Setting high goals for one’s future is
likely to be influenced by interpersonal competence in the school
insofar as persons with a history of success in the educational
system may be prone toward careers that require such competence.
Thus, educational aspirations in late adolescence may represent a
mediating link between adolescent interpersonal competence and
postsecondary educational status.
The educational attainment process may also be influenced by
family economy. Low family economic status can directly impose
limits on available resources, opportunities, and supports needed
for attaining higher education and related careers (Csikszentmiha-
lyi & Schneider, 2000; Hofferth, Boisjoly, & Duncan, 1998). Low
economic status may indirectly influence educational attainment
by constraining the development of interpersonal competence.
Indeed, individuals with patterns of social behavior problems are
overrepresented by low family economic status (e.g., Cairns et al.,
1989; Miech et al., 1999). A low family economy may contribute
to the development of such problem behaviors, in part, by increas-
ing family stress and negative parenting practices (Conger, Con-
ger, Elder, & Lorenz, 1992; Skinner, Elder, & Conger, 1992).
Moreover, family economic status may influence adolescent aspi-
rations about the future. Adolescents who lack regular exposure to
family members with high-status careers may form less ambitious
aspirations about their own future (Trice, 1991).
Distinctive Features of School-Based Extracurricular
Activities in the Educational Attainment Process
A diversity of school-based extracurricular activities is typically
available to American adolescents during secondary school (i.e.,
athletics, fine arts, political–student government, vocational, ser-
vice clubs, and academic–curriculum-related activities). There are
common features of these activities that permit a general assess-
ment of extracurricular activity participation, rather than an
activity-by-activity analysis (cf. Larson, 2000; Mahoney, 2000b;
Mahoney & Stattin, 2000). First, participation in extracurricular
activities is not a requirement of high school graduation. Partici-
pation typically occurs because the individual is intrinsically in-
terested in the activity and enjoys it. Second, such activities are
structured; one or more adults lead the activity, and the participants
meet regularly in a context specific to the activity (e.g., gymna-
sium, auditorium, music room, classroom). Third, participation in
extracurricular activities usually requires effort (i.e., it is challeng-
ing). Each of these aspects—voluntary participation, structure, and
challenge—appears to be a critical quality by which extracurricu-
lar activities can promote interpersonal competence (Csikszentmi-
halyi, 1990; Csikszentmihalyi, Rathunde, & Whalen, 1993). As
long as these aspects generally define the activity, the potential for
skill building and competence promotion exists. The specific
activity pursued is less important than the characteristics that
define it.
Extracurricular activity participation provides opportunities for
advancing adolescent interpersonal competence, inspiring chal-
lenging life goals, and promoting educational success. One such
opportunity is the chance to form positive relationships with peers
and adults outside of the classroom. For adolescents with low
interpersonal competence, maintaining relationships with peers
who are engaged in conventional activities and are committed to
school values may be particularly important. The peer affiliations
surrounding extracurricular activity participation have been linked
to increased social acceptance and popularity (Eder & Parker,
1997; Eder, Evans, & Parker, 1997; Sandstrom & Coie, 1999),
decreased social alienation (Kinney, 1993; Youniss, McLellan, Su,
& Yates, 1999), social identity development (Eccles & Barber,
1999), and long-term reductions in antisocial patterns (Mahoney,
2000b; see also Mahoney, Stattin, & Magnusson, 2001). Likewise,
the social support received from adults who direct after-school
activities is associated with low antisocial behavior (Mahoney &
Stattin, 2000; Youniss, Yates, & Su, 1997), low depressed mood
(Mahoney, Schweder, & Stattin, 2001), and high expectations for
academic achievement (Roth & Brooks-Gunn, 2000).
Participation in extracurricular activities can promote the devel-
opment of what Larson (2000) has termed “initiative.”Initiative
encapsulates skills such as setting personal goals, evaluating what
is needed to attain goals, and then actively acquiring the abilities
and resources to fulfill goals. The fact that extracurricular activities
are structured, challenging, and voluntary makes them an ideal
context for developing initiative. Persons participate in such ac-
tivities because they enjoy doing so and consider the skills encour-
aged by the activity to be valuable. Intrinsic interest in challenging
tasks is a model situation for learning and acquiring new skills
(e.g., Cordova & Lepper, 1996; Ryan & Deci, 2000). By and large,
the skill acquisition process in extracurricular activities requires
the participants to formulate challenging individual and group
goals concerning the activity, develop and rehearse strategies to
meet such goals, and then execute such strategies on a regular basis.
The process can best be described as an iterative one—as skills
increase, new and more challenging goals are set for the future
(Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). Over time, this process may generalize
beyond the activity setting. Accordingly, activity participants may
be more apt to set ambitious goals for their future in general,
including those pertaining to postsecondary school education.
At the most general level, extracurricular activity participation
reflects school engagement. On the one hand, this means that the
individual routinely experiences a sense of meaning and purpose
connected to the educational process that is qualitatively different
from, but supportive of, school engagement in the classroom. The
result may be greater adherence to the educational process in
general, as reflected in rates of high school graduation and college
attendance (e.g., Mahoney & Cairns, 1997; Marsh, 1992; Otto,
1975). On the other hand, this form of school engagement is
visible to school personnel (i.e., teachers, principals), who may
hold higher expectations for extracurricular activity participants
compared with nonparticipants (Van Matre, Valentine, & Cooper,
2000).
Taken together, these opportunities give rise to the primary
hypothesis of this article—namely, that participation in extracur-
ricular activities should lead to increased educational attainment,
in part, through a positive influence on the development of ado-
lescent interpersonal competence and educational aspirations for
the future. There are two additional hypotheses that follow from
the above discussion. First, it assumes that the year-to-year con-
sistency of participation in extracurricular activities is important.
Activity-related gains in interpersonal connectedness, initiative,
and school engagement are formed over time and may require
sustained, rather than transient, participation. Indeed, one recent
410 MAHONEY, CAIRNS, AND FARMER
review of after-school programs for high-risk youth emphasized
that effective programs are both intensive and long term (Roth,
Brooks-Gunn, Murray, & Foster, 1998). This is consistent with the
finding that successful intervention programs require continued
participation to markedly improve social and cognitive adjustment
in young persons (Durlak, 1997).
The final expectation requires attention to individual differences
in interpersonal competence. The associated benefits of extracur-
ricular activity participation are sometimes greatest for high-risk
youth (e.g., Mahoney, 2000b; Smith & Smoll, 1997). This is true,
in part, because the focal outcome assessed has typically been
negative (e.g., antisocial behavior, low self-esteem). In this cir-
cumstance, it is difficult to show benefits for competent students
because negative outcomes are rare for such individuals (i.e., a
statistical floor effect). Evaluating postsecondary educational at-
tainment, however, permits positive status to be assessed (i.e.,
through college attendance) with respect to earlier activity-related
changes in interpersonal competence and educational aspirations.
Accordingly, the consistency of extracurricular activity participa-
tion is expected to show a positive association with education
status at young adulthood for all students. However, the magnitude
of gains in interpersonal competence may be constrained by the
individual’s initial levels of competence. Accordingly, activity
participation may play a more apparent role in the educational
attainment process for students that are deficient in interpersonal
competence at the beginning of the investigation.
Method
Participants
The participants are members of the ongoing Carolina Longitudinal
Study (Cairns & Cairns, 1994). They include 695 persons (364 girls and
331 boys) living in the southeastern United States who were recruited in
1981–1983. Participants were initially interviewed in the 4th (Cohort 1) or
7th (Cohort 2) grade and were tracked annually to 12th grade. Participants
were interviewed again when they were approximately 20 years old. The
retention rate was between 88% and 98% for all test waves and cohorts.
Approximately 25% of the sample is African American. The proportion of
African American participants in the study is nearly identical to the
proportion of the African American population in the counties originally
selected. The mean socioeconomic status (SES) of the sample was near the
national average.
The sample was originally drawn from eight public schools (four ele-
mentary and four middle schools) across five communities. All children in
the designated classrooms were invited to participate. Over the course of
the investigation, the majority of participants attended one of seven middle
schools and nine high schools located in or near the communities in which
they originally resided. The size of the middle schools ranged from
approximately 400 to 650 students, and the high schools ranged from
approximately 550 to 750 students (cf. Mahoney, 1994).
At the outset of the longitudinal investigation, the participants’families
represented the full range of SES in these communities, ranging from the
chronically unemployed to business owners and professionals. According
to the 1980 census, three of the sample communities were located in
suburban metropolitan areas and two were designated as rural. The econ-
omy in the suburban metropolitan communities was based on manufactur-
ing (e.g., textile mills, furniture, food processing, agriculture), small busi-
nesses, or service. In the two rural communities, agriculture has historically
dominated the economy; however, manufacturing has recently become
more prominent, and one of the rural communities was reclassified as
suburban metropolitan during the course of the investigation (see Cairns &
Cairns, 1994, for additional details concerning sample characteristics).
Measures
Interpersonal competence. As part of each annual assessment, the
participants’teachers completed the Interpersonal Competence Scale (ICS;
Cairns, Leung, Gest, & Cairns, 1995). Different teachers rated the partic-
ipants in consecutive years, so that the annual administrations represent
independent assessments. The full ICS includes 18 items relating to social
behavior and academic competence. Each item on the ICS was rated on a
7-point scale on which either end represents a polar opposite. Positive and
negative endpoints of the scale were randomized by item. Items pertaining
to aggression (gets into trouble, gets into fights, argues) and popularity
(popular with boys, popular with girls, lots of friends) were used in the
current study. The items were averaged for early adolescence (Grades 7
and 8) and middle adolescence (Grades 9 and 10) separately to create a
measure of interpersonal competence at each age period (items pertaining
to aggression were reverse-coded).
1
This information was available for
97% (674/695) and 95% (657/693) of the participants during early adoles-
cence and middle adolescence, respectively (2 participants had died by
middle adolescence). Alpha reliabilities for the interpersonal competence
scale were .84 for early adolescence and .80 for middle adolescence. For
additional details on the psychometric properties of the ICS, the reader is
directed to Cairns et al. (1995).
Family economic status. Participants reported the occupations of their
parent(s). Parent occupation information was averaged during Grades 7
and 8 (early adolescence) and classified using the revised version of
Duncan’s Socioeconomic Index (Stevens & Cho, 1985). Consistent with
the investigation’s initial data collection (1981–1982), occupational clas-
sification was based on the 1980 Census. In cases where both parents were
employed, the higher of the two status scores was used in the analyses.
Mean SES on the revised Duncan scale was 34.6 (SD ⫽17.8) and the
median was 31.0, with a range of 12 (e.g., unemployed) to 91 (e.g., medical
doctor, dentist, lawyer). The median value corresponds to occupations such
as clerical and service workers, industrial equipment operators–repairers,
and agricultural workers.
Extracurricular activity participation. A total of 15 middle-school
yearbooks and 29 high school yearbooks were used to assess extracurric-
ular activity participation. All school-sponsored extracurricular activities
reported in the yearbooks were included (see Mahoney & Cairns, 1997, for
a comprehensive list of the extracurricular activities considered). Informa-
tion on extracurricular activity participants was supplied by the individual
activity adviser(s) in the form of name rosters and, often, pictures. This
information was given to the school yearbook staff on an annual basis.
Each year, extracurricular information was coded dichotomously, with
1⫽participation in any extracurricular activity and 0 ⫽no participation.
Kappa estimates of reliability averaged .99 across all activities and grades.
Consistency of extracurricular activity participation was determined by
summing year-to-year participation during early adolescence (Grades 7 and
8) and middle adolescence (Grades 9 and 10).
2
For both age periods, this
provided a range of participation on a 3-point scale (1 ⫽no participation,
2⫽one year of participation, and 3 ⫽two years of participation).
Information on the consistency of extracurricular activity participation was
available for 96% (663/693) of the sample.
Educational aspirations. At the age-18 interview, participants were
asked whether they had made plans for the future. Specifically, they were
1
The assessment of interpersonal competence involved teacher ratings.
These assessments were not available for students who dropped out of
school early. This attrition may have biased the assessment of interpersonal
competence in late adolescence and was therefore not included in this
study.
2
Participation in extracurricular activities during late adolescence
(Grades 11 and 12) was not included to avoid confounding extracurricular
participation with early school dropout (cf. Mahoney & Cairns, 1997).
411
EXTRACURRICULAR ACTIVITIES AND COMPETENCE
asked whether they planned to pursue additional education or training or to
embark on a specific line of work in the coming years. Responses were
coded on a 5-point scale as follows: 1 ⫽no plans for the future,2⫽pursue
a job or career without further education or training,3⫽gain additional
technical or military training,4⫽attend a 2-year college or university,
and 5 ⫽attend a 4-year college or university. This information was
available for 88% (611/691) of the sample (note that 4 participants had died
by the age-18 interview).
Educational status. As part of the interview at age 20, participants
were asked to report the highest level of education they had completed or
were currently pursuing. This included current enrollment in a college or
university or completion of a high school equivalency degree (e.g., a
GED). Respondent information was coded on a 4-point scale as follows:
1⫽dropped out during secondary school,2⫽received a high school
equivalency degree,3⫽received a high school diploma,and4⫽enrolled
in a postsecondary institution. Because all participants—including school
dropouts—were followed to young adulthood, this information was avail-
able for the entire living sample.
Reported educational status was confirmed by consulting multiple in-
formation sources, including annual inspection of school enrollment ros-
ters, interviews with school personnel (including both teachers and school
counselors), examination of official high school commencement lists, and
annual interviews with the participants across secondary school and young
adulthood (cf. Cairns & Cairns, 1994; Cairns et al., 1989; Xie, Mahoney,
& Cairns, 1999).
Statistical Analyses
Path analyses for structural modeling were performed using LISREL 8.3
(Jo¨reskog & So¨rbom, 1993). Pearson product–moment correlations and
maximum-likelihood estimates were used to estimate the path models. To
retain maximum information, pairwise deletion was used to construct the
correlation matrix for the path analyses. Sample sizes were based on the
median nof all pairwise correlations in the matrix. Although we regarded
each of the variables involved in the path analysis as continuous, some
aspects might be viewed as ordinal. Accordingly, path analyses were also
performed using polychoric correlations and weighted-least-squares esti-
mations, appropriate for such data (Bollen, 1989). Results were substan-
tially similar regardless of the correlation matrix or estimation method
used.
For some analyses, ICS teacher ratings during early adolescence
(Grades 7 and 8) were used to split the full sample into two subgroups—
namely, those whose interpersonal competence was below the mean and
those whose interpersonal competence was at or above the mean. The
subgroups were created to evaluate the hypothesis that adolescents with
lower interpersonal competence would show greater gains in social func-
tioning as a result of consistent participation in extracurricular activities. A
split at the sample mean was chosen to ensure that an adequate number of
participants would be available to obtain reliable estimates for the path
analyses (i.e., n⬎200; cf. Bollen, 1989).
Results
Sample-Level Analyses
Descriptive information. Girls and boys were compared on
educational status at the age of 20. Sixteen percent (101/692) of the
sample had dropped out of secondary school, 5% (35/692) had
earned an equivalency degree, 38% (263/692) were high school
graduates, and 41% (386/692) were attending a postsecondary
school. Girls were more likely than boys to be enrolled in a
postsecondary school at the age of 20,
2
(3, N⫽692) ⫽13.51,
p⬍.01.
Consistency of participation in extracurricular activities during
early adolescence (Grades 7 and 8) was as follows: no participa-
tion (38% of the sample), 1 year of participation (24%), and 2
years of participation (29%). Girls were more likely to be involved
in extracurricular activities during early adolescence than were
boys,
2
(2, N⫽663) ⫽22.60, p⬍.001. Consistency of partici-
pation during middle adolescence (Grades 9 and 10) was as fol-
lows: no participation (29% of the sample), 1 year of participation
(24%), and 2 years of participation (47%). The gender difference
in participation was not significant at middle adolescence,
2
(2,
N⫽663) ⫽0.10, ns.
Regression analysis. A hierarchical regression analysis was
performed to assess the proposed model of educational status. This
analysis assessed whether the consistency of extracurricular activ-
ity participation during early and/or middle adolescence was sig-
nificantly associated with educational status at age 20 above and
beyond other features of the educational attainment process. The
regression included all of the main study variables (i.e., family
economic status, early and middle adolescent interpersonal com-
petence, educational aspirations, and consistency of extracurricular
activity participation in early and middle adolescence). Given the
above results, gender was also included (coded as male ⫽1,
female ⫽2).
The regression model involved four steps. In Step 1, educational
status at age 20 was regressed on gender, family economic status,
and interpersonal competence during early adolescence. In Step 2,
interpersonal competence during middle adolescence was added to
the model. In Step 3, educational aspirations at late adolescence
were included. Finally, consistency of participation in extracurric-
ular activities during early and middle adolescence was added to
the model in Step 4. A correlation matrix of variables involved in
this analysis is shown in Table 1. The final regression model is
shown in Tables 2 and 3.
Overall, this model explained 53% of the variance in educa-
tional status at age 20. The addition of each step contributed
significantly to the model. In the final step, the consistency of
extracurricular activity participation accounted for an additional
6% of the variance beyond the contributions of gender, family
economic status, early and middle adolescence interpersonal com-
petence, and late adolescence educational aspirations. In terms of
individual variables, the final model showed that gender and
family economic status were not significant indicators of educa-
tional status given other variables in the model. Extracurricular
activity participation in both early and middle adolescence was
significant.
Path analyses. The regression analyses provided initial evi-
dence that the consistency of extracurricular participation was an
important indicator of educational status at age 20. However, these
results did not suggest whether extracurricular participation con-
tributed to educational status, in part, by influencing interpersonal
competence and educational aspirations during adolescence. To
evaluate this possibility, we performed a path analysis. The model
specifies paths such that educational status at age 20 reflects a
long-term process involving four time points: early adolescence
(family economic status, interpersonal competence, extracurricular
activity participation), middle adolescence (interpersonal compe-
tence, extracurricular activity participation), late adolescence (ed-
ucational aspirations), and young adulthood (educational status at
age 20). Earlier time points are allowed to influence later ones, and
412 MAHONEY, CAIRNS, AND FARMER
each of the three adolescent assessments is permitted to influence
educational status at age 20. Note also that this model specifies a
reciprocal process between interpersonal competence and extra-
curricular activity participation from early to middle adolescence.
Two questions were of primary interest: (a) Is there an associ-
ation between the consistency of extracurricular participation and
education status at age 20 once other aspects are modeled? and (b)
Is the association linked to significant changes in interpersonal
competence during middle adolescence and to educational aspira-
tions at late adolescence? Standardized path coefficients and
model fit indices are shown in Figure 1. The path coefficients
represent total effects (i.e., direct and indirect effects are com-
bined). All path coefficients are statistically significant (p⬍.05).
The model fit the data well. Interpersonal competence during
early and middle adolescence, and educational aspirations at late
adolescence, each had significant, positive associations with edu-
cational status at age 20. Interpersonal competence during early
and middle adolescence was also significantly linked to educa-
tional aspirations at late adolescence in a positive direction. Family
economic status was significantly associated with interpersonal
competence, aspirations, and educational status at age 20.
The consistency of extracurricular activity participation in both
early and middle adolescence showed positive, significant links to
interpersonal competence in middle adolescence, educational as-
pirations in late adolescence, and educational status at age 20.
Additionally, reciprocal associations between interpersonal com-
petence and extracurricular activity participation from early to
middle adolescence were significant.
To verify the importance of consistent participation in extracur-
ricular activities, we evaluated three comparison models against
the model shown in Figure 1. First, the paths from participation in
extracurricular activities during early and middle adolescence to
education status at young adulthood were fixed to zero (i.e., no
association). The exclusion of these paths markedly decreased the
model fit,
2
(2, N⫽657) ⫽63.07, p⬍.001. Second, the paths
from extracurricular activity participation to educational aspira-
tions were fixed to zero. This also decreased the model fit,
2
(2,
N⫽657) ⫽60.54, p⬍.001. Finally, the intermediate links
between extracurricular activity participation and interpersonal
competence were fixed to zero. The exclusion of the intermediate
paths significantly diminished the model fit,
2
(3, N⫽
657) ⫽15.24, p⬍.01.
Gender differences. To evaluate possible gender differences,
we performed the three model comparisons described above for
boys and girls. The direct links between extracurricular activities
and educational attainment,
2
(2, N⫽329) ⫽5.26, and the
intermediate links between interpersonal competence and extra-
curricular activities,
2
(3, N⫽329) ⫽0.89, did not differ signif-
icantly for boys and girls. However, the magnitude of links be-
tween extracurricular activity participation and educational
aspirations did differ by gender,
2
(2, N⫽329) ⫽9.88, p⬍.05.
Specifically, participation in extracurricular activities during early
Table 2
Hierarchical Regression Analysis of Educational Status
at Age 20
Model step R
2
⌬R
2
⌬Fp
1. Early adolescence .21 .21 43.71
a
.000
Gender
Family economic status
Interpersonal competence
2. Middle adolescence: Interpersonal competence .28 .07 49.51
b
.000
3. Late adolescence: Educational aspirations .47 .19 183.13
c
.000
4. Extracurricular activity participation .53 .06 31.75
d
.000
Early adolescence
Middle adolescence
a
dfs⫽3 and 508.
b
dfs⫽1 and 507.
c
dfs⫽1 and 506.
d
dfs⫽2 and
504.
Table 3
Final Model Coefficients for Hierarchical Regression Analysis
of Educational Status at Age 20
Variable Standardized

tp
Gender ⫺.04 ⫺1.16 .25
Family economic status .06 1.69 .09
Interpersonal competence (early adolescence) .10 2.60 .01
Interpersonal competence (middle adolescence) .21 5.18 .00
Educational aspirations .40 11.44 .00
Extracurricular activity participation
Early adolescence .08 2.29 .02
Middle adolescence .23 6.85 .00
Note. Degrees of freedom for each model step in the hierarchical regres-
sion analysis are shown in Table 2.
Table 1
Correlation Matrix, Means, and Standard Deviations of Variables Assessed in the Educational
Attainment Process
Variable 1 2 3 4567
1. Extracurricular activity participation (Grades 7–8) —
2. Extracurricular activity participation (Grades 9–10) .33 —
3. Family economic status (Grades 7–8) .19 .22 —
4. Interpersonal competence at early adolescence (Grades 7–8) .29 .17 .23 —
5. Interpersonal competence at middle adolescence (Grades 9–10) .23 .21 .19 .55 —
6. Educational aspirations at late adolescence (Grade 12) .28 .35 .25 .29 .32 —
7. Educational status (age 20) .36 .44 .28 .37 .44 .61 —
M0.91 1.18 34.58 4.92 5.11 3.38 3.05
SD 0.83 0.85 17.83 0.99 0.87 1.63 1.04
Note. All correlations are statistically significant (p⬍.01).
413
EXTRACURRICULAR ACTIVITIES AND COMPETENCE
adolescence was more strongly associated to educational aspira-
tions for boys.
Aspects of interpersonal competence. Although no differences
between the aspects constituting the interpersonal competence
construct (i.e., aggression and popularity) were expected, this
possibility was evaluated. Models involving only the aggression
items or only the popularity items were compared with the model
shown in Figure 1 that involved the full interpersonal competence
measure. The links between extracurricular activities and educa-
tional attainment,
2
(4, N⫽657) ⫽2.17, and educational aspira-
tions,
2
(4, N⫽657) ⫽0.96, did not differ significantly. How-
ever, the intermediate links between extracurricular activity
participation and competence were significantly different,
2
(6,
N⫽657) ⫽21.17, p⬍.01. The association with educational
aspirations and educational status was similar whether aggression
or popularity was assessed. However, the intermediate links in-
volving extracurricular activity participation were significantly
associated only with popularity. This finding is clarified below.
Subgroup-Level Analyses
Description of the subgroups. The association between the
consistency of extracurricular activity participation and interper-
sonal competence was expected to be more evident for students
whose interpersonal competence was low at early adolescence. To
evaluate this, we divided the sample into students whose interper-
sonal competence was below average (low competence)orator
above average (high competence) at early adolescence. A compar-
ison of the groups showed that relative to the high-competence
subgroup, the low-competence subgroup had inferior interpersonal
competence at middle adolescence, t(638) ⫽⫺14.97, p⬍.001;
less extracurricular activity participation in early adolescence,
t(663) ⫽⫺5.05, p⬍.001, and middle adolescence, t(663) ⫽
⫺2.63, p⬍.001; lower educational aspirations at late adolescence,
t(590) ⫽⫺9.98, p⬍.001; and lower educational status at young
adulthood, t(669) ⫽⫺11.81, p⬍.001.
Path analyses. The model shown in Figure 1 was developed
separately for the two subgroups. Resulting models and fit indices
for the subgroups are shown in Figure 2. For the high-competence
subgroup, the overall model fit was adequate, whereas the model
fit was exceptional for the low-competence subgroup. The invari-
ance in model fit between the subgroups was assessed for paths
involving extracurricular activity participation. Paths between ex-
tracurricular activity participation and educational status,
2
(2,
N⫽326) ⫽7.00, p⬍.05, and the intermediate paths between
interpersonal competence and extracurricular activities,
2
(3, N⫽
326) ⫽6.17, p⬍.05, were significantly different across sub-
groups. In both cases, this reflected stronger path coefficients for
the low-competence subgroup. The paths between extracurricular
activity participation and educational aspirations were not signif-
icantly different across the subgroups,
2
(2, N⫽326) ⫽0.49.
Aspects of interpersonal competence. The invariance of mod-
els for the low- and high-competence subgroups shown in Figure 2
was compared with models involving only the aggression items or
only the popularity items. For the high-competence subgroup,
there was one significant difference. Paths between the consistency
of extracurricular activity participation and interpersonal compe-
tence differed according to whether popularity or aggression items
were involved,
2
(12, N⫽326) ⫽24.83, p⬍.05. Whereas the
paths between extracurricular activity participation and popularity
were positive and significant, those involving aggression were not.
This indicated that for the high-competence subgroup, popularity
was the only aspect of interpersonal competence assessed that
showed a reciprocal relation over time with consistent participation
in extracurricular activities. By contrast, for the low-competence
subgroup, there were no significant differences in model fit re-
gardless of whether only aggression items, only popularity items,
or the full measure of interpersonal competence was involved.
Post hoc assessment of college attendance. In this analysis,
activity participation was assessed with respect to a dichotomous
Figure 1. Path analysis of the educational attainment process. Model fit:
2
(2, N⫽657) ⫽3.00, p⫽.23;
root-mean-square error of approximation ⫽.03; adjusted goodness-of-fit index ⫽.98. SES ⫽socioeconomic
status.
414 MAHONEY, CAIRNS, AND FARMER
indicator of college attendance (0 ⫽not attending college; 1 ⫽
attending college). The EXACON program (Bergman & El-
Khouri, 1987) for single-cell contingency table analysis was used
to assess whether the observed number of participants attending
college differed significantly from expected values according to
the consistency of their extracurricular activity participation from
early to middle adolescence and their initial interpersonal compe-
tence. Instances occurring significantly more often than expected
are referred to as types, whereas those less likely than expected are
termed antitypes (Bergman, 1996; von Eye, Spiel, & Wood, 1996).
Table 4 shows that for the low-competence subgroup, college
attendance was unlikely if fewer than 2 years of extracurricular
activity participation occurred but was significantly likely for 4
years of participation. For the high-competence subgroup, a lack of
extracurricular activity participation was not associated with col-
lege attendance. However, participation for 3 or 4 years was
significantly linked to high rates of college attendance.
Discussion
In this 8-year longitudinal study, we investigated the role of
consistent participation in school extracurricular activities as a
contributor to long-term educational success. Educational status at
young adulthood was assessed in terms of adolescent processes
Figure 2. Path analysis of the educational attainment process for students whose interpersonal competence was
(Panel A) at or above average or (Panel B) below average at early adolescence. Panel A: Model fit:
2
(2, N⫽
362) ⫽5.47, p⫽.07; root-mean-square error of approximation ⫽.06; adjusted goodness-of-fit index ⫽.94.
Panel B: Model fit:
2
(2, N⫽289) ⫽0.78, p⫽.68; root-mean-square error of approximation ⫽.00; adjusted
goodness-of-fit index ⫽.99. Unless labeled n/s (not significant), all path coefficients are statistically significant
(p⬍.05). SES ⫽socioeconomic status.
415
EXTRACURRICULAR ACTIVITIES AND COMPETENCE
involving family economic status, the development of interper-
sonal competence, and educational aspirations. Within this frame-
work, we examined the associated influence of consistent partici-
pation in extracurricular activities across early and middle
adolescence. The main finding was that consistent participation in
extracurricular activities across adolescence was positively linked
to educational status at young adulthood. This held for boys and
girls with high or low interpersonal competence at the beginning of
the investigation.
The proposed developmental model of educational attainment
from early adolescence through young adulthood fit the data well
and is plausible. All aspects considered were significantly associ-
ated with educational status at age 20. Consistent extracurricular
activity participation at both early and middle adolescence was an
important contributor to understanding the educational attainment
process. This held after considering multiple factors linked to
educational attainment at young adulthood and when focusing on
college attendance as the outcome of interest. Accordingly, the
association to young adult educational status cannot be reduced to
an absence of school failure.
There was a significant reciprocal association between consis-
tent extracurricular activity participation and the development of
interpersonal competence. Whereas early adolescence competence
was concurrently associated with consistent activity participation,
activity participation was also associated with increased interper-
sonal competence over time. Consistent activity participation was
also linked to high educational aspirations at late adolescence.
Accordingly, participation in extracurricular activities may afford
opportunities to build interpersonal skills and construct positive
plans for the future. These skills are, in turn, associated with high
educational status at young adulthood.
There were few gender differences. Girls showed more consis-
tent extracurricular activity participation in early adolescence than
did boys, but boys’early participation in extracurricular activities
was more strongly associated with their educational aspirations at
late adolescence compared with girls. However, these differences
were small, and gender was not significantly associated with
educational status at young adulthood once other features of the
educational attainment process were modeled.
There were differences in the educational attainment process for
students with high or low interpersonal competence at the begin-
ning of the study. Indeed, the overall model fit was better for the
low-competence subgroup. This appears to be the result of two
path-specific differences. One differences was that the consistency
of extracurricular participation in early and middle adolescence
was more strongly associated to educational status for the low-
competence subgroup. This may reflect a ceiling effect for the
high-competence group, who had significantly higher educational
status than did the low-competence group. If so, then a more
detailed assessment of postsecondary education would be required
for competent youth (assessing the quality of the college or uni-
versity attended, the degree sought, the course of study pursued,
grade point average, honors and scholarships received, etc.).
A second difference involves the reciprocal associations be-
tween interpersonal competence and consistent participation in
extracurricular activities that were significant only for the low-
competence subgroup. Assessment of the different aspects of in-
terpersonal competence (aggression and popularity) clarified this
difference. Whereas the reciprocal association between popularity
and extracurricular participation was positive and significant for
both subgroups, aggression was significantly related to extracur-
ricular activity participation only for the low-competence sub-
group. This difference is important. If extracurricular activity
participation diminishes aggressive behavior primarily for high-
risk youth, then the connection between extracurricular participa-
tion and outcomes related to aggression (e.g., crime) should be
observed mainly for aggressive youth (cf. Mahoney, 2000a,
2000b).
Measurement Considerations
In prior investigations from this longitudinal study, a dichoto-
mous measure of extracurricular activity participation was used
(Mahoney, 2000b; Mahoney & Cairns, 1997). Because competent
students are likely to participate in at least one extracurricular
activity during adolescence, dichotomous markers of participation
may not inform long-term educational status for these individuals
(i.e., a ceiling effect of participation exists). However, students
varied in their consistency of extracurricular participation over
time, and this was indicative of their long-term educational suc-
cess. A second difference from our prior work involved a positive
measure of educational status (i.e., college attendance). This de-
Table 4
College Attendance as a Function of Interpersonal Competence and Years of Extracurricular
Activity Participation From Grades 7 to 10
Years of extracurricular
participation Interpersonal
competence
College attendees Observed/expected
ratio Hypergeometric
probabilityObserved Expected
None Lower (n⫽83) 6 34.5 0.17 .000 (A)
Higher (n⫽58) 19 24.1 0.79 .097
One Lower (n⫽68) 12 28.3 0.42 .000 (A)
Higher (n⫽72) 29 29.9 0.99 .456
Two Lower (n⫽55) 22 22.9 0.96 .459
Higher (n⫽90) 43 37.4 1.15 .122
Three Lower (n⫽43) 17 17.9 0.95 .435
Higher (n⫽67) 39 27.9 1.40 .002 (T)
Four Lower (n⫽29) 18 12.1 1.49 .018 (T)
Higher (n⫽84) 65 34.9 1.86 .000 (T)
Note. A⫽significant antitype; T ⫽significant type.
416 MAHONEY, CAIRNS, AND FARMER
creased the potential for a statistical floor effect occurring when
only the absence of low educational status (e.g., school dropout) is
assessed for competent students. In combination, these method-
ological changes showed that college attendance was unusually
common for students who were consistently involved in extracur-
ricular activities. For students with low interpersonal competence
at the beginning of the study, college attendance was unlikely
unless they participated in an extracurricular activity for more
than 1 year.
Different extracurricular activities were aggregated together into
a single measure. The drawbacks to combining different forms of
extracurricular activities have been noted (e.g., Brown, 1988;
Eccles & Barber, 1999), and the potential to identify real differ-
ences according to the activity type pursued are lost when an
aggregate measure is used. As such, understanding the process of
selection into different activities cannot be assessed and the asso-
ciation between participation in different activities and the devel-
opment of interpersonal competence is an unknown in this study.
The assessment of specific activities holds promise, particularly if
the following conditions are satisfied: (a) There are a priori theo-
retical reasons to expect activity-based differences (i.e., a “small
theory”of activity-based differences exists), (b) the characteristics
of persons who select different types of activities are known prior
to participation, (c) the reasons different individuals select differ-
ent activities are considered, (d) sufficient statistical power is
available to detect differences between specific activities, and (e)
the strong likelihood for persons to participate in several different
activities is taken into account when making conclusions about a
given activity (Mahoney, 1995).
Design and Sampling Considerations
These findings are correlational. Students chose whether to
participate in extracurricular activities, and as such, selection ef-
fects not considered in this study may influence the findings. For
example, support from parents appears to influence the decision to
participate and to stay involved in after-school activities (Csik-
szentmihalyi et al., 1993; Fletcher, Elder, & Mekos, 2000). The
peer group also plays a role in acceptance to some high-status
extracurricular activities (e.g., Coleman, 1961; Eder et al., 1995;
Hultzman, 1995). Peer relations within the activity context have
also been associated with long-term adjustment (Mahoney,
2000b). Finally, to the extent that supportive relationships with
extracurricular activity leaders promote psychological contentment
(Mahoney, Schweder, & Stattin, 2001), subjective feelings of
well-being may reinforce sustained participation over time.
The sample ecology may also impact the extent to which these
findings can be generalized. Interpersonal competence was based
on a combined measure of aggressive behavior and popularity with
peers in a sample diverse in SES. High popularity and low aggres-
sion were assumed to be indicative of positive interpersonal com-
petence in this sample. However, both the availability of extracur-
ricular activities and the definition of interpersonal competence
differ according to regional economy (e.g., Luthar, 1999; Mahoney
& Bergman, 2002; Rodkin, Farmer, Pearl, & Van Acker, 2000). As
such, it would be of considerable interest to know whether the
present findings hold for young persons in homogeneously disad-
vantaged and affluent contexts.
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Received April 8, 2002
Accepted May 3, 2002 䡲
418 MAHONEY, CAIRNS, AND FARMER
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